Ps 354 Midterm 2 Written Answers
How does the Council of Ministers vote on the transfer of policy competencies to the European Union level?
Council of Ministers are suppose to vote at the behest of the state they are representative of.
Under what two situations is the declaration of war legal under the UN Charter?
Countries are allowed to act aggressively toward another state if it is defending itself or if approved by security council
How have the US's refusal to reappoint Appellate judges on the Dispute Settlement Body complicated the operations of the WTO? Under a realism paradigm, how may WTO member-states respond to these complications?
Due to both Obama and Trump's refusal to appoint an appellate judge there is now an inability for any decision to be made in the court. Under a realist approach states would begin enforcing trade policy that best suites their state needs regardless if it breaches WTO policy.
What are the four roles of the UN in second-generation peace-keeping missions?
1. Peacemaker facilitating a peace-treaty among parties 2. Peace monitor in the demobilization of forces, resettling refugees and supervising combatant-to-civilian transitions 3. Monitoring and implementing human rights, national elections, and economic rehabilitation 4. Peace Enforcement (in case of relapse)
How was an isolated regional conflict (the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalism) able to transpire into the First World War?
A complex system of alliances between major European powers allowed for a regional conflict to lead to world war I. These alliances ensured that aggression committed by one state by another would result in multiple declarations of war
List three situations under which GATT members are legally allowed to impose trade barriers on foreign goods under the terms of the GATT treaty.
GATT members can establish trade barriers due to: Issues or conditions related to national security Unforeseen surges in imports and balance of payments crises National treasures of artistic, historical or archeological value
How did NATO serve as a nuclear deterrent to the Soviet Union?
NATO was a general deterrent to the Soviet Union, not just Nuclear. With states in a variety of geographical regions and promises of mutually assured destruction, NATO inundated the threat of the soviets. NATO countries promised to use nuclear force against the USSR in response to any form of Soviet attack.
What is the difference between peace-enforcement vs peace-keeping? Why has the UN done less of the former type of operations than the latter
Peace Enforcement: Coercive invasions of countries by a UN-authorized force, intent on destroying a threat to international peace/security Peace Keeping: Missions negotiated between the UN and state parties who have consented to the UN's Involvement The UN has had far less Peace Enforcement missions, because the UN does not have its own military. This would mean enforcement requires a state to volunteer its military toward UN goals.
What is the security dilemma and how could it describe a nuclear arms race?
The Security dilemma is a problem that occurs when a country is trying to beef up their national security. While in nature it could be precautionary, other countries will see this and in response protect themselves a bit more. This can end up with both countries continuing to compete against one another to ensure the other state does not get the advantage over them. In an environment where an actor's intentions are never certain it is hard to trust any state putting funding into military and security.
What was the role of the UN in moderating the Suez crisis and subsequent Yom Kippur War, and why were these "successful" operations (hint: think about the stance of the P5)?
The Suez Crisis and the Yom Kippur War demonstrate two instances where first generation UN peacekeeping assisted in managing agreed ceasefires. The UN Emergency Force was utilized at the consent of both Egyptian and Israli governments, and supervised a ceasefire. This was seen as a success because it utilized cooperation between parties to achieve a peaceful resolution.
What were the US's, Britain's and the Soviet Union's attitudes towards the creation of the United Nations? Who was its biggest champion?
The US was the most keen towards establishing a global governance body. Roosevelt saw it as an opportunity for great powers to act as the world "policeman". Churchill and the UK realized their power was waning, and realized to remain a great power it would need US support. Stalin and Russia were skeptical but open to a global governance body as long as Russia played a dominant role and possessed a veto to safeguard its interests. The biggest champion of the UN has always been the United States. They have been the biggest actor in terms of both funding and influence over policy.
How has the end of the Cold War impacted the United Nation's capacity to regulate inter- (and intra-) state disputes? Has the end of the Cold War completely eradicated previous East/West divisions (make sure to give two examples to your answer?
The US/Soviet relations in the early Cold War years limited membership expansion. The veto powers of the opposing superpowers in the Cold War made the Security Council ineffective at decision making. While the UN was able to pursue greater initiative after the Cold War, Veto powers in a multipolar war cause problems. Russia and the United States conflicting interests, and the protectionist approach China takes and the weight of their veto have both made it extremely difficult for progress to be made still.
What do the World Bank and IMF do today? How have the World Bank's and the IMF's objectives evolved since the Bretton Wood's agreement?
The World Bank and IMF today push toward fiscal expansion. THe most recent rushes have been for social conditionality, encouraged public investment, and greater political flexibility. The World Bank grants loans that are for a specific investment project. Both the IMF and World Bank work to help developing countries build infrastructure in their countries, and provide currency to countries in crises. The Bretton Wood's agreement allowed for the IMF and World bank to help establish a fixed exchange rate system, where currencies were "pegged to the dollar, which itself was pegged to gold. This took away from one of the IMF's main roles of maintaining a fixed exchange rate
How would a contingent realist or a liberalist argue that cooperation in security policy may be in a country's best interest?
A realist would argue that in certain situations it is in the best interest of the state to cooperate with other states. If there is a large coalition of enemy states, it would be advantageous to ally with states with common values. This may mean cooperating with them in other political areas, but security is a states highest priority over others.
Why is agriculture such a controversial topic in world trade rounds? Explain this sector's role in exacerbating global North and South tensions in the WTO.
Agriculture is a problem because of what overproduction can lead to. Overproduction of agriculture leads to dumps of notable amounts of produce all over world markets, which depresses world agricultural prices. Cheap prices lead to poor countries who cannot subsidize their agriculture industry to suffer more than they already are. The EU is the worst in terms of this.
What major international organizations were created after the Second World War? Why did this war unleash a "big bang" of intergovernmental organizations?
Almost all major IO's were created within a 6 year period after the Second World War. The UN, IMF, GATT, ECSC, and World Bank were all created in that period. This big bang of IO's was due to Western powers having three major incentives to promote increased cooperation in international intergovernmental organizations. 1. To ensure that another world war would not occur again 2. Improve prosperity of collapsed and weakened economies 3. Containment of communism.
How has the UN Charter changed the justification of war (hint: a comparison of Article 2 and Article 51 will help you here)?
Article 2 of the Charter initially "criminalizes" war, stating "all members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorially integrity or political independence of any other state." But, the UN Charter also "privileges" self-defense in Article 51 stating "Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a member of the United Nations." These two provisions changed the terms of political legitimization of war, increasing use of Article 51 to justify warfare
What is the Beijing Consensus? Why may countries in the global South perceive the Beijing Consensus as more appealing than the Washington Consensus?
BRICS alternative to the Washington consensus. Focuses on Incremental reform Innovation and experimentation Export-led growth State-based capitalism Authoritarian governance It is more appealing to many of the global south, because it places no conditionality related to riscal governance, but rather it prioritizes independence and self determination.
Why has the global South demonstrated skepticism over the UN Security Council's peacekeeping role (you may want to think about the different generations of UN peace-keeping for your answer)?
Because the veto powers among the P5, UN peacekeeping and peace enforcement actions have largely been limited to the Global South. This has caused skepticism about the value of security council-approved peacekeeping and peace enforcement.
Why was China included in the Security Council's Permanent Five?
China was included in the power 5 of the security council because the US perceived China as a strategic ally against the Japanese, but also realized that China would be sympathetic towards its interests on the Council Position. This was viewed with deep skepticism by both Britain and the USSR.
The original six members of the European Economic Community (what is now the European Union) were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Why did Greece, Spain and Portugal not join originally? Why did the Scandinavian states, Austria, the UK and Ireland not join originally?
Countries such as Greece, Spain and Portugal could not originally be members due to economic and political status. Countries such as Scandinavian states, Austria, the UK and Ireland did not originally join, because they were skeptical of a supranational government. Unsure of how the EEC would limit their capacity, they were not initially sold on the organization.
What is NATO's free-rider problem, and why has the United States grown increasingly resentful of it?
Currently many members of NATO are not contributing to the defense budget and military personnel as much as they should be. In particular, almost all other countries are benefiting off the funding the US provides. The previous two US presidents both expressed their discontent with inaction by Europe in NATO
Germany and Japan were excluded from the United Nations until 1973 and 1956, respectively. How, and through what international organization, did Western Powers attempt to solve the "German Question"?
Great powers realized that Germany needed to be contained, and believed that an international institution was the best means to achieve this. The Allied powers realized that European reconstruction would require an international effort to tie the prosperity of nations together. Driven heavily by the French, The European Coal and Steel Community was created. European integrationists believed that this form of Supranational governance structure in Western Europe could achieve this. With the required inclusion of Germany, this IO advocating for greater relinquishment of sovereignty than the UN could bring Germany, and henceforth contain the country and solve the German problem.
What is the UK's stance towards deepened European integration? How has its stance impacted the direction of European integration?
Historically the UK has been extremely skeptical toward European integration. Due to their stance toward integration the UK greatly impacted the direction of EUropean Integration. Once they joined the EU, the UK limited integrations pertaining to a free-trade area only, were important veto-players during the Treaty of MAastricht, and helped introduce opt outs. The lack of affinity for integration by the UK has allowed for states to gain slightly more autonomy than originally allotted.
How does the EU gain decision-making control/competency over policy areas from its member-states?
In order for the EU to gain competencies over policy areas, member-states must allow it through a unanimous vote. This occurs in the Council of Ministers. Opt-outs allow member-states to retain sovereignty but let others proceed. Once sovereignty is relinquished, the EU is allowed to make decisions in that policy domain on behalf of its member-states (but member-states still exert influence).
How did the Lisbon Treaty change the role of the European Parliament in EU decision making?
In response to criticisms about the democratic deficit in the EU, EUropean elites broadened the European Parliament's powers in two ways. Through the Lisbon Treaty the European parliament was granted full powers over the EU budget, and made the parliament's powers equal to that of the council of ministers in almost all policy areas by abolishing power of delay and creating the Ordinary Legislative Procedure.
How does second-generation peacekeeping differ from first-generation peace-keeping?
Involves a broader range of duties than first-generation peacekeeping. The forces are still based on the consent of the parties but has wider range of duties. Additional duties include: 1. UN involvement in police and Civilian tasks 2. And their role involved both Inter-state and Intra-state disputes, not just interstate
Why did Jean Monnet (one of the fathers of European integration) prefer technocratic governance over democratic governance in the EU?
Jean Monnet was an ardent integrationist, understanding the benefits of creating a Pan-European government system Monnet was also pragmatic and had no party affiliation. He realized that the success of EUropean integration, involving the relinquishment of sovereignty, relied upon three things
List three factors behind the UN's lack of success in preventing the 1994 Rwandan genocide.
Many components of third generation peacekeeping contradict the UN charter Lack of consent, Intervention in intrastate wars, and using force when there is no peace to keep.
According to Karlsrud, what are problematic features of UN missions that aim to neutralize and disarm groups that threaten civilians? How is Westphalian sovereignty impacted by UN aims to "stabilize" countries in their peace-keeping mission?
Missions could favor certain groups in conflicts over others (violation of Neutrality rule) Neutralizing and disarming hostile groups may turn UN soldiers into targets. Western powers may use a UN force to target terrorist groups in war-torn countries UN peace-keeping being transformed into peace enforcement without the consent of all parties? Westphalian sovereignty challenges the right of the UN to intervene in these countries. By intervening without consent, the UN is ignoring the Sovereignty of the state. Any aim of peacekeeping in these war torn regions with corrupt governments is going to require the UN to breach the states sovereignty
The original objective of the UN was to maintain world peace and security and develop friendly relations among nations. How have the global South (the G-77, or Non-aligned movement) influenced the UN's core objectives since its founding?
Power relations between the P5 (particularly the US and Russia) and between the P5 and G-77/Non-Aligned-Movement have influenced the UN's effectiveness, but also its expansion into issues beyond securing peace between states. The power of these groups has led the UN to successfully create new development goals that better align with Global South's interests. Those being Efforts at fighting poverty and disease, as well as promoting the efforts at fighting poverty and disease, as well as promoting the rights of women and children
ow did Cold War politics influence the effectiveness of the UN Security Council (think particularly about countries' statuses in the Security Council). Provide an example of how Cold War politics impacted the Security Council's capacity to act.
Presenting veto powers to opposing superpowers in the Cold War made the Security Council ineffective at decision making before (and after) the fall of communism. Between 1945 and 199 there were 193 substantive vetoes by the Council compared to 42 between 1990 and 2018
Why has China been reluctant to apply the UN's Responsibility to Protect agenda to the Syrian Civil War (hint: you may want to consider its stances to past R2P missions)?
R2P pushes the idea that while states are sovereign, they are also expected to protect their citizens from mass atrocity crimes and human rights violations. China has consistently vetoed attempts by the UN to breach state sovereignty in order to protect citizens. China's international policies all push the same protectionist agenda to ensure they can continue to maintain their cultural practices.
What is Russia's current relationship with NATO? How may have the 2014 annexation of the Crimean peninsula been impacted by NATO?
Russia currently sees NATO as a threat to the country. Putin believes NATO is an existential threat to the country, and is increasing its forces to stop further NATO expansion. The annexation of Crimean Peninsula was a setback in terms of NATO support for Russia. Ukraine, who was originally not completely sold on NATO, increased its support for NATO succession after the annexation.
France played a crucial role in the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (the predecessor to the European Union). How did Jean Monnet convince the French state to establish and agree to this international organization?
Sold the creation of the ECSC to the French government through the possibility of a future German threat. Resulted in tying Germany's coal and steel sector to France (and Belgium's, the Netherlands' Luxembourg, and Italy's). The Supranational authority would henceforth regulate the common market of those states. (Common market: Prices, wages, investment, and subsidies.
What type of voting system did Joseph Stalin require the Security Council have? How did this effect the UN's role in regulating inter-state disputes after the Second World War?
Stalin ensured that the Power 5 members of the security council would have veto powers. The meant that dissent would lead to UN paralysis. This would have important implications for the UN's capacity to deliver peace throughout the Cold War (and post-Cold War) hegemonic alliances. This forced small states to choose between big power vetoes or the existence of the UN itself.
How did the Cold War influence the Soviet Union's (and its Eastern satellites) involvement with international organizations other than the UN?
The Cold War caused them to not participate in the GATT, the European Economic Community or the IMF. As trade and economic cooperation intensified in the West, the Soviet Union traded mostly with her communist and Eastern European allies (and other neutral states).
What is the Copenhagen criteria, and why did it help the EU promote economic and political reforms in former communist countries?
The Copenhagen criteria are the criteria needed to join the EU. These criteria promote policitial and economic reform, shifting away from communism. This is because the criteria are largely anti-communist in their nature. The applicants must be democratic and have respect for human rights and the rule of law. Also Applicants must have a free-market economy, and abide by all previous EU Law
What is the Doha round and why has it proven so difficult to close? How have WTO members responded to gridlock within the Doha round in expanding international trade law?
The Doha trade round (2001) is the most recent trade round and is yet to be concluded. Developing and Developed countries have created trade blocs who are at odds over agriculture which led to a collapse in trade talks throughout the 2010s. Because of this stagnation, states have circumvented the deadlock by negotiating bilateral and multilateral trade agreements. These agreements add further complications and problems for world trade for a number of reasons: They are largely negotiated in secret Inter-state dispute settlement courts are common features Undermine the need for the WTO Regional Protectionism
How is the EU's executive branch (the Commission) different from the US Presidency?
The EU executive branch does not have the Veto power that the presidency does over legislation in the United States.
Why has the EU been accused of having a democratic deficit?
The EU has been accused of being at a democratic deficit, because the only elected body of the EU has historically been its weakest part. This is what inspired the large scale changes to EU governance in the Lisbon treaty.
What powers are bestowed upon the UN Security Council in the UN Charter to keep the peace and enforce it (hint: you may want to consider specific articles in the UN Charter)?
The Security Councils powers to keep the peace are as follows: Article 39: Security Council can determine whether a threat to the peace exists and decide on a course of action Article 41: Security Council can determine what kind of measure outside of armed force can be used against threats Article 42: Security Council can decide to use force if actions from Article 41 are not sufficient in remedying the threat Article 46: Plans on the application of armed force will be made by the Security Council
No international organization has witnessed the scale of the relinquishment of national sovereignty by its members that the EU has. What policy areas does the EU have exclusive competency over the governments of its member-states? What policy areas does it share competency with the governments of its member-states?
The EU has exclusive competencies over the Customs Union, Competition policy, Monetary Policy, The conservation of marine biological resources under the Common Fisheries Policy, Commercial Policy, Conclusion of certain international (trade) agreements. The EU has shared competency over the internal market, Social policy (relating to the fundamental charter for Human Rights), Economic social and territorial cohesion, Agriculture, Environment, Consumer Protection, Transport, Energy, Freedom Security and Justice, and Common safety
Many scholars argue that France and Germany were the two pivotal countries required to create the European Union. What was France's motivation for the creation of the EU? What was Germany's?
The French wanted to create more assurances that WWIII wouldn't happen again, rebuild the infrastructure of Europe as a whole, and find a way to deal with Germany. Germany was interested in revitalization of the countries economic progress.
Why are GATT and the WTO referred to as a 'member-driven" international organization and how does its management differ from other IOs (hint: think about its bureaucratic capacity)?
The GATT and WTO are member-driven because members are not only responsible for making agreements, but also enforcing them. This allows the organization to have a minimal staff of only 625 members
What are the powers of the General Assembly and what are the powers of the Security Council? Describe the checks and balances between these two branches of the United Nations.
The General Assembly serves as the (less powerful) legislative branch of the UN. they have three powers: 1. Make recommendations to the Security council 2. Make non-binding resolutions in reaction to current conflicts and high profile (economic and human-rights related) events 3. Make decisions on the UN budget. The UN security council is the primary decision making body responsible for making the peace. All security council decisions are binding. There are no checks and balances between the GA and Security council. The GA can only recommend what the security council can vote on, but there is no legitimate check to the power of the security council from the GA.
How did IMF conditionality (and IMF advice more broadly) evolve between the 1982 Latin American debt crisis and the 1997 East Asian crisis to the current European debt crisis (provide specific examples from loan assistance in the European debt crisis that highlights this conditionality shift)?
The IMF required stricter means of conditionality in the European debt crisis. Examples of this are requiring iceland to insert capital controls in its 2008 bailout, and recommendations for currency devaluations for the 2008 latvian bailout. There has been growing tensions because of this between the European commission and European Central Bank against austerity conditions of bailouts.
How are decisions regarding military deployment made in NATO? In the event of a NATO deployment, what are member-states expected to contribute?
The North Atlantic Council decides whether or not to deploy military force. In the event of a response to an attack on a member-state, all member-states are obliged to contribute but are free to decide how they do so. As of 2006, NATO members must spend at least 2% of GDP on defense
Why was the League of Nations a failure in patrolling inter-state disputes? How did its creation prove to be useful?
The league of nations failed due to the treaty of Versailles's war guilt clause. The US did not join the group and other members began to withdraw when it posed an obstacle to their military interests. However the league did provide a framework for global governance. It laid the foundation for the UN with a General assembly and an executive council of Great Powers
What are the Treaty of Rome's "four freedoms", and how did they open the door for future deepened integration (hint: think about possible new areas of economic and political integration within each "freedom")?
The four freedoms are free movement of goods, persons, capital, and services. This opens up room for deeper integration because it would require the surrender of sovereignty not only for trade policy, but also, later, for border controls, transport, health and safety, monetary police, etc.
How could a GATT/WTO member-state apply a tariff or non-tariff barrier without violating the Most Favored Nation principle (hint: think about the US's "turtle friendly" shrimp nets ban)?
The most favored nation treatment implies that GATT members also have to levy the same non-tariff barriers onto other member states. States however can work their way around this principle by creating regulations that only apply to certain groups. An example of this is the 1989 US Endangered Species Act, which banned the import of shrimp that were not caught in "turtle friendly" nets. This predominantly affected imports from Caribbean countries.
Why are intellectual property rights such a controversial topic in world trade rounds? Explain intellectual property rights' role in exacerbating global North and South tensions in the WTO (you should highlight specific sectors where the strengthening of intellectual property rights is problematic).
The protection of intellectual property rights in world trade has been particularly explosive in Global North and South relations, especially in light of the AIDS epidemic. US Pharmaceutical companies that complained of piracy and the quick development of a generic drug industry in developing Countries. Without strict laws the work of the creator would be replicated for cheaper, and cripple the US pharma development industry. It becomes a contentious issue because the North wants to protect the rights of its scientists, but people are in desperate need of these drugs that are capable of being delivered at a cheaper rate.
What were Franklin Roosevelt's and Winston Churchill's objectives for post-war peace (hint: think about the terms of the Atlantic Charter)?
Their objectives to post war peace were: 1. Respect of borders 2. Self-determination of states 3. Reduction of trade barriers 4. Freedom of the seas 5. Abandonment of the use of force and disarmament of Axis powers
Peace-keeping efforts in El Salvador and Namibia are two success case of the UN's second generation of peace-keeping. What factors allowed the UN to effectively facilitate peace in these cases?
There are several factors that allowed second generation peace-keeping to witness notable success: Consent and cooperation of all parties to introducing the UN as a mediator Effective ground campaigns and engagement with local actors and civil society groups Broad Support across the political spectrum
Aside from the growing possibility of confrontation with Russia, what new problems has NATO encountered since the end of the Cold War that it did not encounter previously (hint: you may want to think about the impact of the Iraq and Afghan War on the alliance)?
There has been growing contention within NATO over the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. Many NATO members are not in support of NATO's roles in these US led wars. With many states having different takes on what the threat was, and whether this was actually conflict prevention. With a rise in 2010 terrorist attacks in Europe, there was a slight increase of the US role in these conflicts. Currently, President Biden has voiced his support for a collective role with NATO in these conflicts.
How does third-generation peace keeping differ from first and second generation peace-keeping? Why does it tend to be less successful at delivering peace than its predecessors?
Third generation peacekeeping involved missions that lacked the consent of one or more parties. Lack of consent comes in three types: Attempts to impose order without significant local consent, which required conquering/fighting local factions Attempts to impose arrangements on non-consenting parties Attempts to enforce a peace-treaty from which a party has chosen to defect. Many components of third generation peacekeeping contradict the UN charter Lack of consent, Intervention in intrastate wars, and using force when there is no peace to keep. These efforts have largely led to civilian atrocity, with their peacekeeping failures largely due to the UN's incapacity to use force to protect civilians.
While GATT's earlier trade rounds were successful in reducing tariffs, GATT's predecessor (the WTO) has been unsuccessful in concluding a trade round since 2001. Highlight two reasons why the WTO has been less successful in concluding trade rounds than GATT.
Trade agreements under the WTO have been unsuccessful because they rely on almost unanimous consensus between members. Countries like the US and IO's like the EU can hold considerable influence over decisions. Absence of voting is considered consent. As the number of members has increased so has the difficulty to come to agreement on a trade policy.
How were disputes settled under GATT? How did the WTO change this (make sure to outline the steps a trade dispute must go through within the WTO's Dispute Settlement Body)? Why is the WTO more effective than GATT in resolving trade disputes?
Under GATT, the countries involved in the dispute both had to agree to the panel's composition. GATT's dispute settlement relied on diplomacy rather than rules, and the accused country could not be forced to comply with the ruling. What makes the DSB more effective than its predecessor under GATT is that it allows members to undertake retaliation and provides clear rules, processes and timetables. It created greater incentives to settle disputes before it reaches the DSB
What were the unionist and federalist positions towards European integration? List one country that supported each position. How does the structure of the EU's institutions reflect both camps?
Unionist camp: Looser integration focused around trade agreements (UK). Known as intergovernmentalists or confederalists. Federalist camp: Deeper integration which required pooled (supra)national governance (France and Germany). Also known as supra nationalists, and party headed by Jean Monnet. Monnet was also pragmatic and had no party affiliation. He realized that the success of EUropean integration, involving the relinquishment of sovereignty, relied upon three things Technocracy: Private deliberations between powerful leaders rather than large congresses Crisis: The threat of a future crisis Economic Growth: French Economic Modernization
What is the sovereignty/intervention trade-off of UN peace-keeping? What UN member(s) tend to favor humanitarian intervention over sovereignty? What UN member(s) tend to favor sovereignty over humanitarian intervention?
When maintaining the peace the UN has to tiptoe a fine line between respecting a state's sovereignty and intervening in a crisis. Examples where this issue have been brought up are both the Rwandan genocide and Srebrenica massacre. Both these countries demonstrated the need for humanitarian intervention, but the UN requires affected countries to bring appeals forward in order to respect state sovereignty. European and western powers tend to favor humanitarian intervention, while protectionist countries like China and Russia tend to favor sovereignty.
What are the powers of the UN Secretary General? How have former Secretary Generals influenced the UN Security Council's actions in the past?
While the Secretary General's formal role is largely diplomatic, it has important agenda setting powers that can impact what issues are debated in the security council. Ex: Kofi Annan's global agenda for human rights promotion and popularizing the UN's development goals. Ban Ki-moon's emphasis on tackling global warming
Why did the end of the Cold War pose a challenge to NATO? How has it evolved since then?
With NATO being originally designed to combat the threat of the USSR, when the Cold War ended the role of NATO was not clear. However, NATO has actually been far more active since the end of the Cold War, with its duties shifting towards humanitarian interventions (particularly in hostile states) and counter-terrorism.
