psb set 7
periodic limb movement disorder
"restless leg syndrome" can cause insomnia
Vomernasal organ
( is a set of receptors located near the olfactory receptors that are sensitive to pheromones
structures that make up the limbic system
(Ah Momma Hit Four Cute Squirrels Over Here) amygdala, mammillary body, hippocampus, fornix, cortex of the cingulate gyrus, septum, olfactory bulbs and hypothalamus
development with eye
(block 1 eye, all signal goes to the other eye; block both eyes- doesn't cause cortical blindness)
muscles 3 kinds; 2 types
(composed of many individual fibers) receives info from only one axon but an axon may innervate many muscle fibers
odorants
(hydrophobic, airborne molecules)- depolarize olfactory receptors in cavity
nerve travels back into processing area
(inferior colliculus (midbrain)> medial geniculate nucleus (thalmus)> auditory cortex (temporal lobe)mostly contralaterally
Cyclone
(meteorology) rapid inward circulation of air masses about a low-pressure center
cochlear implant
(works for warning signals, and voices but not music) 1. microphone>speech processor> transmitter & receiver/stimulator> Electrode array nerve deafness (inner ear)- neuron damage to cochlea, hair cells or auditory nerve
What is the different types of glial cells and their functions. ESPECIALLY which one puts myelin on axons in the CNS and which one myelinates axons of the PNS?
*Do not transmit info over long distances *Do exchange chemicals, nutrients with neurons -Microglia: repair (remove waste, fungi, microorganisms) -Radial glia: guide cell & axon migration during development; after development turn into neurons
taste cells
- 1. detects tastants via membrane receptors 2. when tastant interacts with cell it depolarizes taste cell 3. neurotransmitter release to taste neuron 4. sends taste signal to brain thru cranial nerves
Anaphase
During the __________ of cellular division, sister chromatids are pulled apart into single-stranded chromosomes, which migrate to opposite ends of the cell.
premotor cortex
Integrates information about position and posture of the body; organizes the direction of the movement in space a. Mirror neurons (in premotor crtex) copying
Ecosystem
Interactions and relationships between biotic and abiotic things.
ligand
During the process of a neurotransmitter binding to a receptor, any molecule that binds to another is referred to as a(n) ______ of its receptor.
Water deprivation
ECF and ICF volume decrease
Osmotic thirst
ECF solute concentration increase, ICF volume decreases and cells shrink
Hemorrhage
ECF volume decreases, ICF volume no change
IC isotonic NaCl
ECF volume increases, ICF vol no change
Hypertonic NaCl
ECF volume increases, ICF volume decreases
Ingestion of Water
ECF volume increases, ICF volume increases
Spinal cord:
Each segment of this contains one pair of sensory nerves and one pair of motor nerves.
Ecosystem size
Ecosystems come in all sizes.
Ecosystem purpose
Ecosystems need to bring matter and energy into the system and make them continually available to biotic things.
Electrons
Electrical Charges consist of e_________.
conductors
Electrical charges may move from atom to atom within substances that are called c________.
Potential
Electron _________ is used as a measure of the energy needed to remove electrons from certain metallic atoms.
endogenous opioids
Endorphins and enkephalins are examples of ______.
What/where is the blood brain barrier? What does it keep out, let in?
Endothelial cells w/ tight junctions surrounding capillaries Astrocytes surround endothelial cells -BBB keeps out viruses & bacteria chemicals nutrients -BBB lets thru small uncharged molecules fat-soluble molecules (vit A and D, psychotropic drugs) glucose (special transport)
Heat
Energy that flows from a higher-temperature object to a lower-temperature object
Kinetic Energy
Energy that is in motion
Potential Energy
Energy that is stored
Hemorrhage
- Neurons are flooded with excess blood, calcium, oxygen, and other chemicals.
Ischemia
- Neurons lose their oxygen and glucose supply.
voltage source, conductor set (wire), load, switch
Every electric circuits has 4 parts. what are they v____ s___, c___ s__ , L___, s___.
First Nations and Metis web
Everything is alive and has a spirit. Everything is related. Give back equally to what you take.
What are examples of environmental influences on traits with otherwise high heritability?
Ex. Mice in elevated plus maze Ex. Phenylketonuria (PKU): mental impairment due to genetic inability to metabolize a certain amino acid (phenylalenine) Moral of story: inherited or genetic does not necessarily equal unmodifiable!!
Hydrocephalus
Excess CSF is shunted to abdomen to relieve pressure on the brain.
Fallacy: Irrelevant Appeal to Authority
Expert opinion but not from the relevant field
non-disjunction
Failure of the chromosomes to separate during meiosis
Fallacy: Appeal to tradition
Falsely assumes that if it has been believed for many generations, it must be true
Fallacy: Ad populum
Falsely assumes that if many people believe it then it must be true
Fallacy: Appeal to ignorance
Falsely assumes that something is true only because it hasn't been demonstrated false, and vise versa
Fallacy of Composition/Division
Falsely assumes what is true of the parts(/whole) is true of the whole(/parts)
positive frequency selection
Favors the same trait expressed in individual of the population
Complexes
Features of a particular region.
asomatognosia
Following a stroke, Mrs. Hamilton is unable to recognize her hand as belonging to her body. She has a condition known as _____.
Somatic Nervous System
For control of voluntary movements.
Mass
Fossil records indicate that ____ extinctions often occurred at the end of each evolutionary era resulting in the loss of a number of species groups over a relatively short time frame.
Sedimentary
Fossils, the preserved remains of organisms that existed a long time ago, are most often found in _________ rock layers.
Be able to locate the lobes of the cortex and give functions associated with each. Included in this, be sure that you can locate motor cortex, somatosensory cortex, auditory cortex, visual cortex, prefrontal cortex.
Frontal Lobe Prefrontal cortex: executive functions Planning Working memory Socially appropriate behavior Foresight Insight Impulse control This is called "association cortex" Highly evolved in humans Motor cortex Voluntary movement Somatotopic organization Other motor areas between this & prefrontal cortex Language: Broca's area Parietal Lobe Somatosensory cortex First cortex to process somatosensory info Proprioception too Somatotopic organization Spatial organization Especially in non-dominant hemisphere (side where language is not...or is less) Contralateral neglect Temporal Lobe: Auditory cortex (hearing)* Spoken language comprehension Wernike's aphasia Visual association cortex* Face recognition; "what pathway" Occipital Lobe: Vision Primary & secondary visual cortex Damage causes cortical blindness
Alveoli
Gas exchange occurs in the lungs in tiny air sacs known as ________, where oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules are exchanged between the air that is inhaled and the blood that circulates around the tiny sacs.
Fallacy: Hasty Generalization
Generalization based on a non-representative sample
epistasis
Genes interact to make or change the effect of each other
Substantia Nigra:
Gives rise to the dopamine-containing pathway that facilitates readiness for movement.
Democritus
Greek philosopher who coined the term atom
Green plants
Green plants make their own food to supply the energy and matter that they need for survival.
spinal cord is comprised of
Grey and White matter
color constancy
- V4 of visual cortex compares object to surrounding enviro. adjusts how we see color/brightness (cubes)
The Forebrain: Basal Ganglia
Highly conserved across evolution (amphibians - mammals).
Several interlinked structures comprise the limbic system.
Important for motivated/emotional behaviors (eating, drinking, sexual activity, aggressive behavior).
The Forebrain: Basal Ganglia
Important for sequences of behavior and certain aspects of memory and emotional expression.
Sutton
In 1900, Walter ______ "rediscovered" the work of Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) and concluded that the late geneticist had been correct; he also took what Mendel had called "factors" (units located in chromosomes) and renamed them "genes."
Asexual
In _______ reproduction one cell divides and produces an identical copy of itself through the process of fission, budding, regeneration, conjugation, sporulation, or fragmentation.
Reduction
In a chemical reaction, the term _________ describes the gain of electrons by an atoms, ion, or molecule.
Atomic Number
In a neutral atom, the ______ ______ is the number of protons and electrons in that atom.
Group
In describing the arrangement of elements in the periodic table, a _____ is a vertical column.
Metals
In general, ______ are elements that are positive components.
Evolutionary
Historical influence of natural selection
Matter cycle
How matter cycles through the ecosystem. Soil, sunlight and water from the non-living environment give plants what they need so that they can grow and live their lives. Herbivores eat the plants, and sometimes other consumers eat the herbivores. Plants and animals grow, produce wastes, reproduce, and die. Scavengers and decomposers eat the waste and remains, breaking down once-living matter into simpler and smaller particles, eventually even breaking down solid skeletons. Skeletons have chemicals (minerals) such as calcium, carbon and phosphorus that other biotic things such as plants need to survive. The minerals are abiotic so they are part of the abiotic environment.
Temperature
How warm or cold an object is relative to some standard
Water cycle
How water cycles through the ecosystem through evaporation, transpiration, evapotranspiration, condensation, precipitation, and surface runoff, infiltration, and perculation..
basal ganglia
- initiates actions not guided by stimulus; learning motor skills 3 partss 1. Caudate Nucelus 2. Putamen 3. Globus Pallidus (GP)- inhibits thalamus
Language
Huge brain regions; words stored all over the place
Human activities and ecosystems
Human activities can change ecosystems.
Pitfall: Testimonial used as evidence
Human perception is prone to error
Lateral Hypothalamus
Hunger Center
hybrid infertility
Hybrid offspring are sterile or have reduced fertility.
hybrid inviability
Hybrid offspring fail to survive maturity.
(a) Stroke affected the right side of the brain.
- major tissue swelling on right side - death was immediate
opponent process theory
- mechanism where some colors are on scales; red- excites, green inhibits. continuum 4rm red>green & yellow>blue; bipolar cells excited by one set of wavelengths and inhibited by other set
taste receptors
- modified skin cells; release neurotransmitters to excite neighboring neurons; replaced every 10-14 days
(b) Stroke affecting the left side of the brain.
- person survived for several years - autopsy revealed considerable cell death and enlarged ventricles on the left side of the brain
complex cells in v1&v2
- responds if line is moving in certain direction (position/orientation)
rising phase; repolarization; hyperpolarization
In order, the three phases of an action potential are______.
amusia
- tone deaf; thicker than average auditory cortex and fewer conections to frontal cortex
•Research has begun to attempt to save neurons from death by:
-Blocking glutamate synapses. -Blocking calcium entry.
When the cell is at rest, which ions are most highly concentrated inside of the cell, and which ones are most highly concentrated outside of the cell?
-Chloride -sodium
What does the hypothamus do?
-Communicates with pituitary gland to alter hormone release -Involved in drive-related behaviors and maintenance of homeostasis feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual behavior, fighting, arousal (activity level), sleep/wake rhythms
Understand the forces working on the ions (electrical gradient and concentration gradient).
-Concentration gradient: ions flow from areas of high concentration to low concentration -Electrical gradient: ions flow to areas of opposite charge negative to positive, positive to negative
What does the medulla do?
-Controls vital reflexes -Damage to medulla can be fatal -trauma, drugs
What does the pituitary gland?
-Endocrine gland (hormone producing) -Attached to hypothalamus by pituitary stalk -Makes and releases hormones into bloodstream
What are the 3 primary divisions of the brain and what major structures are in those division?
-Forebrain thinking, perceiving, big part of emotion & memory, drive-related behaviors cortex (folded stuff), structures deep to cortex: thalamus & hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala, basal ganglia, etc. -Midbrain sensory pathways, visual and auditory processing/reflexes top portion of brainstem -Hindbrain Some motor control, reflexes (breathing, heart rate, etc) Bottom of brainstem (pons, medulla) and cerebellum
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
-Graded depolarization -Results from an influx of sodium ions -Increases probability of an action potential
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
-Graded hyperpolarization -Results from influx of chloride ions or efflux of potassium -Decreases probability of an action potential
Know what happens at a synapse (chemical transmission).
-Ligand-gated channel -At synapses -Open when a ligand (neurotransmitter) binds - Allow ions thru, -Changes voltage of cell -May also start biochemical cascade within cell
What does the pineal gland do?
-Makes and secretes melatonin -Daily and seasonal rhythms *Unpaired structure on midline Seat of the soul and connection between mind and body, according to Descarte
What does a cerebellum do?
-Movement Rate, range, force, direction -Well-learned movements -Sensory timing -Balance & postural control
What are the four different ways to look at behaivors in biological psycology?
-Ontogenetic explanation -Evolutionary explanation -Functional explanation -Physiological explanation
What are the structure of cell membrane?
-Phospholipid bilayer 2 layers of fat molecules that are free to float around one another - Semipermeable Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide move freely Na+, Ca2+, K+, Cl- move thru ion channels (protein channels) Most chemicals cannot cross cell membrane
Graded potentials
-Reflect the magnitude of the stimulus (not all-or-none) -Conducted throughout cell (not just axon) -Occur primarily in interneurons (also call intrinsic or local neurons) -Can be excitatory (push the cell toward depolarization) or inhibitory (push the cell toward hyperpolarization)
what does a thalamus do?
-Relay station/ filter for sensory info on its way to cortex -Involved in many other systems (motor, emotional, memory, etc)
What is the hindbrain?
-Some motor control, reflexes (breathing, heart rate, etc) -Bottom of brainstem (pons, medulla) and -cerebellum
new branching of dendrites and axons
-Some of the mechanisms of recovery are similar to brain development such as the..
Causes of Brain Damage
-Spinal Cord damage -Tumors -Infections -Exposure to toxic substances -Degenerative diseases
temporal lobe, larger
-The _____ of professional musicians in the right hemisphere is 30%_______ than non-musicians. -Thicker gray matter in the part of the brain responsible for hand control and vision of professional keyboard players.
Reasons for animal research?
-We are interested in animals for their own sake Research can be beneficial to animals Knowledge for knowledge sake (aka: we are naturally curious) What we learn about animals sheds light on human evolution How are we similar and dissimilar to other animals?
BUT: fever above 39 C (103 F) fevers above 41 C (109 F)
-does the body more harm than good -are life-threatening
phantom limb sensations
-e.g., a touch on the face can bring about the experience of a phantom arm. -Use of an artificial limb can reduce the likelihood of experiencing phantom limb.
Your osmotic balance is off when
-eat salty foods: causes sodium ions to spread through the blood and extracellular fluid of the cell pulling water out of the cell -secrete water: sweat = your solute concentration is too high. Leaves too much sodium behind in not enough water.
water can be conserved by:
-excreting concentrated urine -decreasing sweat and other autonomic responses
camel
-hump is fat, does not sweat -hyper-concentrated urine and dry feces -when dehydrated they do not urinate but store urea in tissues -drink 80L in 10 minutes
kangaroo rat
-lives in burrow, nocturnal -kidneys hyper-concentrate urine -rectal absorption of water from feces -don't drink ANY water = make metabolic water from their food
hypertension = high blood pressure
-normally the kidneys control the level of salt. If there is too much salt the kidneys pass it into urine
the brain detects osmotic pressure from:
-receptors around the third ventricle -the OVLT and the subfornical organ detect osmotic pressure and salt content -these areas have a "leaky" BBB
Homeothermic characteristics
-requires energy and fuel -sweating and panting decrease temperature -increasing temperature accomplished via: shivering, increasing metabolic rate, decreasing blood flow to the skin
What is a midbrain?
-sensory pathways, visual and auditory -processing/reflexes top portion of brainstem
Sodium
-some say need 500 mg a day to function -US dietary guidelines say limit to less than 2300 mg a day -Americans eat average 3300 mg a day -90% Americans eat more sodium than recommended for diet
detecting the imbalance works via a complex negative feedback system
-the kidneys detect low blood volume and secrete renin -this starts a chain reaction that results in thirst & salt appetite
What is a forebrain?
-thinking, perceiving, big part of emotion & memory, drive-related behaviors -cortex (folded stuff), structures deep to cortex: thalamus & hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala, basal ganglia, etc
sodium specific hunger:
-unlearned appetite -females during menstruation may have a higher sodium appetite (sometimes) -many animals display great drive for sodium
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) say a condition in which:
-water or fluid loss far exceeds fluid intake -the body becomes less able to maintain adequate blood pressure, deliver sufficient oxygen and nutrients to the cells and rid itself of wastes
How are hormones transported around the body? What types of receptors do hormones use?
...
Understand the principle of negative feedback in hormone release.
...
What are some other glands in the body that pituitary hormones influence?
...
What brain region controls hormone release from the pituitary gland?
...
What is different between the anterior and posterior pituitary, including what hormones are released from each lobe?
...
sodium-potassium pumps
...
Understand the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in terms of (1) when each one is activated, (2) placement of ganglia (as well as location of preganglionic neurons), (3) length of fibers, (4) neurotransmitters used, (5) physiological effects.
..Compare and contrast: Both controlled by hypothalamus Both originate in CNS (brainstem and/or spinal cord), but at different levels Both use 2-neuron chain, with synapse b/t the 2 in a ganglion The ganglia themselves are in different locations in SNS compared to ANS Both use acetylcholine (Ach) in preganglionic cell ANS uses norepinepherine (NE) and SNS uses Ach in postganglionic cell (ie, on target organ, so different effects of each on the target organ) not completed
three main ideas of Darwin's theory of emotional expression
1) Expressions of emotion evolve from behaviors that indicate what an animal is likely to do next 2) if signals provided by such behaviors benefit animal that displays them then they will evolve in ways that enhance communicative function and their original function may be lost 3) opposite messages often signaled by the opposite movements and postures (principle of antithesis)
Evaluating Arguments
1) Judge the reasons given (evidence) 2) Judge the reasoning of the arguer (logic) 3) detect relevant omitted information
How does genetic variability occur?
1-Mixing of DNA (recombination) 2-Random mutations Of even a single nucleotide Usually disadvantageous A-T mutation in Ob/Ob mouse 3-Duplications or deletions Could contribute to schizophrenia, for example Trinucleotide repeats important in diseases like Huntington's disease
What are dermatomes? What disease is associated with them?
1. -Segment of skin/muscle/bone associated w/ a spinal nerve -Each nerve innervates (defines) a dermatome 2. Shingles
How is the PNS subdivided? What are the distinct roles of the somatic, enteric, sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
1. 2.In the somatic nervous system, it takes just 1 neuron to get from the spinal cord to a muscle (middle neuron below). 3. Axons activate organs for "fight or flight" 4. Facilitates vegetative, nonemergency functions Para means "beside" or "related to"; opposite action of sympathetic NS
Types of Inductive Logic
1. Argument by Analogy 2. Inductive Generalization 3. Hypothetical Reasoning
Protocols based on Mill's Methods
1. Controlled Experiment: Two unbiased samples; one gets A, one does not get A -> Look for B 2. The Prospective (Cohort) Study: Two unbiased samples; one has had A, one has not had A -> Look for B 3. The Retrospective (Case-Controlled) Study
Chloroplasts
In plants, the process of photosynthesis occurs in organelles known as ________, which take in light energy from the sun.
4 postulates
1. Each element consists of indivisible, minute particles called atoms 2. Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions 3. All atoms of a given element are identical. Atoms of different elements have different masses
random motion and electrostatic pressure
In resting potentials, the homogenizing factors of ______ act to distribute ions equally throughout intracellular and extracellular fluids of the nervous system.
What is an excitatory synapse? What is an inhibitory synapse? For each one, what ion enters the cell? What does that do to the cell? Does it make an action potential more or less likely?
1. Excitatory neurotransmitters allow sodium and/or calcium (positively charged ions) into the postsynaptic cell and lead to an excitatory postsynaptic potential- Yes ( makes cell less negative) 2. Inhibitory neurotransmitters allow chloride (a negatively charged ion) into the postsynaptic cell and lead to an inhibitory postsynaptic potential- No ( makes cell more neg)
Steps of Hypothetical Reasoning
1. Formulate question raised by initiating fact 2. Come up with possible answers (hypotheses) 3. Deduce prediction(s) for each hypothesis 4. Test the predictions 5. Formulate argument to confirm or disconfirm hypothesis
Proof Earth is old
1. Isochron dating of oldest moon/Earth rocks 2. Radiometric dating of moon meteors 3. Law of superposition
Mill's Methods
1. Method of Agreement: If A-> B, then where we find B we should find A 2. Method of Difference: If A->B, then if A is not present there should be no B 3. Method of Concomitant Variation: If A->B, then the amount of B found should be proportional to the amount of A found
Development
1. Patch of tissue in the ectoderm invaginates (folds in) to become the neural plate 2. This fold pinches off 3. Genes trigger chem. signals that tells cells how 2 develop 4. tube becomes brain
3 hard wired shapes
1. Place 2. Face 3. Body
Characteristics of Pseudoscience
1. Unfalsifiable 2. Burden of proof on skeptic 3. Small effects remain small over time 4. Use of ad hoc hypothesis 5. Selective use of data 6. Use of personal anecdotes as evidence 7. Use of conspiracy theories 8. Dogmatic refusal to give up idea in the face of overwhelming evidence that the idea is false 9. Many pitfalls of human perception
Understand different types of ion channels (ligand- and voltage-gated). Where are ligand-gated channels located? What is a "ligand"?
1. and 2. Ligand-gated channel: At synapses Open when a ligand (neurotransmitter) binds Allow ions thru, Changes voltage of cell May also start biochemical cascade within cell Voltage-gated channel:On the axon Open when cell reaches a certain voltage Allow ions in or out Changes voltage of cell 3.
With regard to those last 2 terms, What voltage is resting potential? What voltage is threshold? Where must threshold be reached for an action potential to occur?
1.-70 2.-50 3.The critical level of depolarization that must be achieved to trigger an action potential 4. refractory period-That period of hyperpolarization
Terms to know and understand with regard to neurophysiology: polarized, depolatization, hyperpolarization, repolarization, resting potential, threshold
1.Because of unequal distribution of ions, the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to outside the cell. 2.As cell becomes less negative, it is 3.As cell becomes more negative, it is 4. 5. 6.The critical level of depolarization that must be achieved to trigger an action potential
What is heritability, how do we study it (what are twin and adoption studies...what do their results tell us?), and what are the problems with studying it?
1.Estimate of how much of the variance in a characteristic (within a population) is due to differences in heredity (genes) Is a difference between you and me due more to differences in our genetics or to differences in our past/present environment? Estimates of heritability apply to a certain population at a certain time; they are not absolute. 2. -Biochemical methods: Identification of certain genes linked to behaviors or disorders Ex: Certain genes more common among people with depression -Twin studies (MZ vs DZ) Resemblence: MZ > DZ high heritabiltiy The more DNA 2 individuals share, the more likely they are to share a trait if the trait has high variability Resemblence: MZ = DZ low heritability The amount of DNA that 2 individuals share has no impact on a trait if the trait has low heritability Adoption studies: If adopted kids resemble biological parents more than adoptive parents, we assume high heritability "Virtual twins" Children of the same age, with no relation to each other, adopted into home at same time 3.
Know the common neurotransmitters. What is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter? What is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter?
1.Glutamate (+) GABA (-) Acetylcholine (Ach) Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) Norepinepherine 2.Glutamate (+) 3.GABA (-)
What is the purpose of myelin? What happens at the nodes of Ranvier? What is saltatory conduction?
1.In Myelinated axons, action potential can "jump" down axon. Much faster. Allows long distance rapid communication 2. -The Action Potential is the signal that conveys information over distances in the nervous system. -The action potential is a rapid reversal of the situation at rest --for an instant, the inside of the membrane becomes positively charged relative to the outside. -Action potentials are "all or none". -The frequency and pattern of action potentials is the code used by neurons to transfer information from one location to another. While rate can change, speed cannot!! *All of this occurs at the nodes of ranvier, between the segments of myelin.... 3.energy & speed
Generally speaking, what is a reflex? Describe the stretch reflex. How are reflexes "modifiable"?
1.Involuntary, stereotyped response to a sensory input 2.Stretch reflex: Muscle contraction in response to stretch Monosynaptic Reciprocal inhibition 3.some reflexes are suppressed or enhanced depending on our behavior (ie, sitting should stretch quads, which would cause reflex contraction of quads and we'd stand right up again. BUT gamma motor neurons to quads decrease firing rate when we sit decrease excitability of quad spindles). Walking is another example (Nolte p237) Require: Sensory structure Associated afferent neuron (soma in DRG) Efferent neuron (soma in CNS) 1 or more interneuron* Includes complex neural routines Modifiable 2 other names: monosynaptic (b/c no interneuron so 1 synapse) or myotactic (b/c in muscle) reflex All skeletal muscles contract at least a little in response to being stretched Afferent arc is IA afferent with muscle spindle primary ending Knee jerk reflex: tap patellar tendon stretches quads (slightly) Ia endings in quad muscle spindles are excited excitation of quad alpha motor neurons These are also called deep tendon reflexes b/c they are elicited by tapping a tendon Stretch reflexes responsible for constant automatic corrections during movements or postures...but maybe other reflexes involved even more in this Reciprocal inhibition: reflex activity in a given muscle also causes similar activity in ipsilateral synergists and opposite activity in ipsilateral antagonists. Happens via interneurons
For dopamine and serotonin: what are they involved in?
1.Involved in: Reward - NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS a. natural (food and sex) b. artificial (drugs of abuse) Movement - Parkinson's Disease Disorders: ADHD, Depression, Schizophrenia, etc? 2.Removed from synapse by reuptake or broken down by enzyme (COMT, MAO) *Sleep, calm, eating; ↓ in depression, anxiety, aggression
What is evolution? What types of traits move on to the next generation? What is natural selection? What are adaptive characteristics?
1.Similarities that we see between species suggests a common ancestor. Differences between species allow us to question what pressures may have caused certain animals to develop certain traits. 2. 3.The process by which inherited traits that confer a selective advantage (increase an animal's likelihood to survive and reproduce) become more prevalent in a population. The key mechanism of evolution; how species acquires their adaptive characteristics 4.
What is a sex-linked gene? Understand the heritability of sex-linked genes. What is a sex-limited gene? What are examples of each (sex-linked and sex-limited)?
1.The genes on the sex chromosomes (X and Y) Usually on the X, b/c it has lots more genes on it than the Y 2.Consider a gene on the X chromosome... If a male gets this gene, he will display the trait. A female must get it on BOTH of her X chromosomes to display the trait. If a female has it on 1 X chromosome and not the other, she is a carrier. *Usually have a family history... otherwise due to a spontaneous mutation. 3. Present in both sexes but has an effect only (mostly) in one sex. *Genes are "turned on" under influence of sex hormones 4. Ex: for sex link:Fragile X Syndrome Red-green color blindness Duchenne muscular dystrophy Hemophilia Ex. for sex limited: Genes for chest hair (men), breast size (women)
What structures comprise the CNS and what structures comprise the PNS?
1.brain & spinal cord 2.nerves outside brain and spinal cord
What is epigenetics? Why does this new field of research "blur the line between environment and genetics"?
1.changes in phenotype (appearance) or gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence 2.DNA is wrapped around a histone core. Things (acetyl groups, methyl groups, etc) can get into the structure and loosen or tighten the wound-up DNA. This will make a gene more or less likely to be expressed.... ...AND these changes are heritable... ...SO you can alter the probability that a gene will be expressed without actually altering the DNA itself.
Extracellular fluid
1/3 of water
at what age can one discriminate between all phonemes (sounds of all different languages)
10 months
Energy flow rule
10% of the energy is transferred while 90% of the energy is used by the organism to survive.
kidneys can process
15 liters of water a day so it is hard to drink TOO MUCH water -- but infants and extreme athletes can = water intoxication. Diluting the sodium in the body (hyponatremia). Cells are drowning in freshwater.
Robert Boyle
17th-century scientist who created Boyle's Law
Jacques Charles
18th-century French scientist and daring balloon aviator who discovered the direct relationship between the volume of a gas and its temperature at a constant pressure
Malaria extermination
1950's humans tried to get rid of malaria-carrying mosquitoes in Borneo by spraying them with Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT). DDT got on cockroaches, and geckos eat the cockroaches. The geckos suffer nerve damage and move slowly. Cats switch to eating geckos instead of rats. Cats die from DDT poisoning. With less cats, the rats reproduce quickly and move from the jungle into the villages, bringing fleas that carry a bacterium that causes plague. Humans get plague.
Amedeo Avogadro
19th-century Italian scientist who created Avogadro's Law
Units for Density
1g/mL
before-and-after design
2 groups of subjects receive the same series of drug injections and the same series of repeated tests but the subjects in one group receive the drug before each test of the series and those in the other group receive the drug after each test. In the end they all receive the same dose of drug followed by the test so that the degree to which drug disrupts test performance in the two groups can be prepared.
Intracellular fluid
2/3 of water
What are the meninges and what is the general function of the meninges?
3 layers Dura mater Arachnoid Pia mater Stabilize & protect the CNS Mechanically CSF within meninges (b/t arachnoid and pia) for buoyancy
alarm, resistance, exhaustion
3 phases of GAS
isotonic
300 mM, normal concentration of solute in intracellular and extracellular fluid
Mammals evolved to have a constant temperature around
37 C and 98 F
Similarities and differences to humans, Evolutionary perspective, and ethics and limitations with humans
4 reasons fro Animals in research
body water content
45-75% of body is water; individuals with more fat have less water
water constitutes
70% of the mammalian body
Hypotonic
< 300mM, less than normal concentration
Hypertonic
> 300mM, greater than normal concentration of solute
Curare
A South American native hunting for game tips his dart with ______, which will bind to nicotinic receptors and block transmission at neuromuscular junctions, thus paralyzing and killing the recipient by blocking respiration.
Cell Wall
A ____ ____ is a rigid outer layer surrounding plant cells that serves to provide the cells with structural support and protection.
Cell Membrane
A ____ ________ is composed mainly of a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic, water hating, molecules) and phosphorus molecules (hydrophilic, water loving) that surround and protect the cell and serve as a "gatekeeper" by letting various substances in or out.
Salt
A ____ is an ionic compound composed of positively charged ions known as cations (other than hydrogen) and a negatively charged ions (anions), resulting in a neutral (no net charge) product.
Solid
A _____ is a state of matter that resists bending, warping, or changes in volume and consists of atoms or molecules that are closely arranged together and have fixed positions relative to one another.
Gene
A _____ is an individual hereditary trait that is part of a chromosome.
Solute
A ______ is a substance that is dissolved in a homogenous mixture.
Solvent
A ______ is the substance in a homogenous mixture in which a solute is dissolved.
Colloid
A _______ is a substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another substance.
Hypothesis
A _______ is a suggested, tentative explanation that must be tested and proven.
Hybrid
A _______ is an organism that carries different, unlike genes for the same trait in order to achieve both desirable characteristics not typically found in the parent organisms or populations.
Punnett
A _______ square is a diagram that is used to determine the probable outcome of an offspring having a certain genetic cross or genotype.
Chemical Bond
A ________ ____ forms when atoms or molecules join due to attraction or their tendency to join with like atoms or molecules.
Chemical Reaction
A ________ ________ is a process in which two or more substances undergo chemical change, yield a product of one or more substances that are different from the original ones, and the original substances (reactants) cannot be returned to their original state.
Centriole
A ________ is a barrel shaped microtubule structure within an animal cell that is very important in cell reproduction.
Catalyst
A ________ is a substance that controls the rate of a chemical reaction but is not consumed as a result of the reaction.
Suspension
A ________ is a type of heterogeneous mixture in which particles are combined with other particles such that the mixture doesn't quickly settle out and the particles can be seen with the naked eye or under a microscope.
Genotype
A ________ is the entire genetic makeup of an organism.
Chromosome
A __________ is a very long rod-shaped structure that contains genes that is located in a cell's nucleus.
Decomposition
A _____________ reaction is one in which chemical compounds break up into smaller compounds or basic elements.
segregated
A biopsychologist would describe a sensory system that has functionally distinct areas as functionally _____.
Consumer
A biotic thing that must find and eat or consume other living things for food.
Producer
A biotic thing that produces the energy and matter itself that it needs for survival as well as the food and oxygen that all food consumers need for survival.
Oxidation
A bonded atom's _________ number is the number of electrons that it lost, gained, or shared in a certain chemical reaction.
Nucleus
A cell's ________ is separated from the cell's cytoplasm by a double membrane that protects the cell's DNA from molecules that could harm it.
Formula
A chemical _______ is the short way of describing how a chemical reaction is composed and organized.
autosomal chromosome
A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.
Ideal Gas Law
A combination of Boyle's Charles's, and Avogadro's gas laws that shows the relationship of all these quantities in a single equation: PV=nRT
Climax community
A community that is usually stable made up of a varied number of species.
Decomposer
A consumer that breaks down or decomposes dead animals and plants. Decomposers can be helpful or harmful. They are used in the making of cheese, wine, vinegar, mining, and the clean up of oil spills. They are in composers and turn the compost into fertilizer.
Omnivore
A consumer that eats other animals and plants.
Carnivore
A consumer that eats primarily meat.
Herbivore
A consumer that eats primarily plants and plant-like substances.
Predator
A consumer that gets the matter and energy it needs for survival by preying upon other organisms.
Joints
A dense connective tissue known as cartilage is found at _____, the place where bones come together and make contact.
Food pyramid
A diagram that depicts the energy flow in ecosystems. Producers are on the bottom while consumers are on the higher levels of the pyramid.
Phenotype
A genotype codes for the organism's _________, that is the outward, total observable appearance or expression of a trait or gene action.
the cingulated gyrus
A gyrus is a ridge or a hill between fissures and sulci. Which of the following is NOT among the relatively large gyri of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes of the brain?
Scientific Hypothesis
A hypothesis becomes this when, and only when, it can be tested through experiments.
Biome
A large area with a certain climate that supports select vegetation.
Photolysis
A light reaction known as _________ occurs when light is present in the chlorophyll allowing carbon dioxide and water to be broken down into free atoms; this is the first step in the photosynthesis process.
Scientific Method
A logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem
Mendeleev
A man named D.L. _________ composed the first periodic table in 1896 when he listed various known elements in order with regard to their atomic weight and number of electron shells (energy levels).
Lamarck
A man named Jean _______ (1744-1829) was a precursor to Darwin's evolutionary theories and an early supporter of the idea that organisms adapt to their changing environment by acquiring various traits and thus, those traits are passed on to the organism's offspring.
Dalton
A man named John ______ developed the atomic theory, which proposed that everything is composed of atoms, single, invisible particles that the theorist described as small round balls.
Pollutant
A material found in air, water, or soil that is harmful to humans or other organisms
Mass
A measure of the amount of matter in a sample, which is a function of how many atoms the sample contains.
autoreceptor
A metabotropic receptor binds to its own neurotransmitter molecule and is located on the presynaptic, not postsynaptic, membrane. It is a(n) ______.
Parasympathetic(ANS)
A network of nerves that facilitates energy conservation and storage -- "Rest and Digest".
What happens to neurotransmitters when they are released, and how are they cleared from a synapse?
A neurotransmitter is released from a neuron terminal into a synapse The neurotransmitter binds to a receptor/channel in the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter opens that channel, The channel lets ions into the cell, The ions slightly change the charge of the cell If enough positive ions enter the cell, the cell's charge is sufficiently changed, and there is an action potential
Chlorophyll
A pigment in plants that absorbs all colours except for green, which it reflects which is why plants are green. It absorbs light energy from the sun.
Apex predator
A predator that has few or no predators of its own at the top of the food chain.
Endothermic
A reaction that takes in energy is known as an ___________ reaction.
Electromagnet
A temporary magnet that is induced to carry a magnetic field by wrapping coil of wire around an iron core is known as an E_____.
Theory
A well tested explanation for a broad set of observations
Fallacy of Equivocation
A word is used with dual definitions
Kinetic
According to the _____ model, when particles collide, no loss of energy occurs. -ionic -kinetic -chemical -covalent -none of the above
sodium-potassium pumps
Active energy consuming mechanisms in the neural membrane that continuously transfer Na+ ions out of the neuron and K+ ions into the neuron are ______.
Physiological
Activity of brain and other organs
What is the sodium/potassium pump? What does it do? What purpose does it serve?
Acts to maintain proper concentrations of Na+ and K+ Needed for maintaining resting potential and for recovery from an action potential. 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in, so more positive on outside
Know the terms agonist and antagonist.
Agonist A drug that mimics or increases the effects of a neurotransmitter Antagonist Drug that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter
First Nations and Metis entities
Air, earth, fire, and water are alive and interact with one another to form biotic and abiotic things.
Pollution
Air, water, soil, and radioactive contamination are forms of ________ that provide threats to the populations residing with ecosystems and the ecosystems themselves.
Relativity
Albert Einstein's theory of __________ corrected Netwon's universal gravitation as related to planetary movement and theorized that gravity is an expression of curved time and space and specifically, that a planet takes the shortest orbit around the Sun.
Have present and fully functioning systems
All but which of the following descriptions accurately describes the Fungi biological kingdom? -Have present and fully functioning systems -May produce sexually or asexually and have various reproductive structures -Contain root-like structures called hyphae, cell walls of chitin, caps, and filaments -Eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that often live in symbiotic or parasitic relationships with other organisms, including mycorrhizal symbiosis in which plants and fungi live in a mutualistic relationship necessary for each organism's survival. -Have a decomposing, digestive-like function that serves to decompose organic matter in the environment
pyramidal cells are large unipolar neurons.
All of the following statements about pyramidal cells are true EXCEPT ______?
Occam's Rasor
All other things equal, the hypothesis with the fewest number of far-fetched assumptions is most likely to be the best description
Telophase 1
In the _________ __ of meiosis, a new nuclear membrane forms to surround each new nuclei containing each haploid set (half the original chromosomes) and cytoplasm divides.
Pinna
Altering the reflection of sound waves into the middle ear from the outer ear - Helps us to locate the source of a sound
Kingdom, Species
Although Aristotle first classified organisms into two groups, plants and animals, subsequent scientists have developed a classification system includes the following levels from largest to smallest: _______, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and ______.
Isaac Newton
Although his theories were applicable for many practical purposes, _____ ______'s theory of universal gravitational, when applied to planetary movements, was incorrect.
Allele
An _____ is the location or position of a certain gene on a chromosome.
Element
An ______ is a type of atom that is labeled according to the number of protons in its nucleus, known as the atomic number.
Element
An _______ is a form of matter composed of only one type of atoms.
Allergy
An _______ is a hypersensitivity to environmental substances that results in a localized or systemic inflammatory response.
Estuary
An _______ is a partially enclosed body of water that contains mixtures of salt and fresh water and provide biological support to a large variety of species.
near the axon hillock
An action potential is generated ______.
Genetic Fallacy
An argument's validity is related to how it originated
Electron
An atomic particle known as the ________ carries a negative charge; the ways in which elements transfer or share these particles provides the basis for the study of matter and its chemical behavior.
Cycle
An over-and-over again movement of matter.
conceptual word problem
Analyze and Solve
Numerical Word problem
Analyze, Calculate, and Evaluate
the periaqueductal gray
Animal research revealed electrical stimulation of _____ has pain blocking effects.
Unit
Any measurement of a physical quantity must always include a number followed by a unit that tells us what was measured.
Mass
Anything that has mass and occupies space
Matter
Anything that has mass and occupies space
Biotechnology
Applies science to the production of biological products of processes, uses techniques that can alter the DNA in living organisms
Electrons
As elements proceed across a row or period (horizontal column) on the period table, their atomic number increases while their ability to hold onto tiny particles known as _________ increases.
Temperature
As the __________ increases, particles collide with greater frequency and thus a reaction will occur at a faster rate.
Boyle's Law
As volume decreases, pressure increases.
Backwards Fallacy
Assumes A causes B when really B causes A
Fallacy: Common Cause
Assumes A causes B when really C causes both A and B
axon hillock
At the junction between the cell body and the axon of a neuron is a cone shaped region called the ______.
Fallacy: Ad hominem
Attack on the user instead of the argument
Fallacy: Straw Man
Attacks an argument which is different from, and usually weaker than, opposition's best argument
retinex theory
BRAIN makes choices. a. Color constancy; cortex interferes with color perception and helps you compare info from various parts of the retina to determine brightness and color b. Combined color theory- all of that
How are neurons similar to other cells in the body? How are they different?
Basic unit of the nervous system Cells that receive and transmit information
What is The Binding Problem?
Binding occurs if you perceive 2 sensations happening at the same time and in the same place. Used to think association cortex...now not so sure b/c few cells actually respond to multiple sensory modalities.
co-dominance
Both alleles are expressed equally
two-stage
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves follow a ________ neural path on the way to target organs.
Parasympathetic(ANS)
Both the long pre-ganglionic neurons and the shorter post-ganglionic neurons release acetylcholine.
which drug though very addictive, causes relatively mild withdrawal effects?
COCAINE
central canal (SC
CSF drains from the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid space. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space and enters the general circulation through arachnoid granulations.
prefrontal cortex
Calculates predictable outcomes of actions and plans movement according to those outcomes
tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)
Can reduce the effects of ischemic strokes but can make hemorrhagic strokes worse
Alternative hypothesis test
Can you think of any other hypotheses that the same evidence would support just as well?
Geographical isolation
Cannot mate due to physical barriers between populations
Carbon cycle
Carbon-based substances such as plants are changed to become fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which are burned and released into the air as carbon gas.
Hydrocephalus
Caused by inflammation and enlargements of the third and lateral ventricles (often due to small cerebral aqueduct).
Proteins
Cells use substances known as ______, which are vital for the provision of cellular energy and the maintenance of cellular activities such as growth and reproduction.
Mitochondria
Cellular respiration, the process in which cells release energy by oxidizing food, occurs in an organelle known as the ___________.
Galvanic
Certain electrochemical cells, which are known as ________ cells, have two different metals which are joined by a salt bridge, a porous border used to connect the electrochemical cell's oxidation and reduction half-cells so that ions can move while keeping them separated and neutral.
embedded in the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane of a neuron
Channel and signal proteins are______.
Origin of Species
Charles Darwin presented his theory of evolution in his 1859 book called The ______ __ _______.
Natural Selection
Charles Darwin's theory of _______ _________ states that favorable adaptive traits inherited from parents to their offspring give the offspring an increased chance of survival, and that those traits become more common in following generations, while less favorable traits become less common due to the fact that they decrease an organism's chance for survival.
Equilibrium
Chemical _________ is achieved when forward chemical reactions are carried out at the same rate of reverse reactions.
Neuromodulators
Chemicals that are released into extracellular space by the dendrites of the presynaptic cell after repeated stimulation and, based on activity at a receptor, have an effect on the membrane potential of many cells in that region.
parallel
Circuit with 2 or more path for current flow which will increase the amperage is known as a P___ circuit. (the current of this circuit will be = to the sum of the currents in each cell)
Series
Circuit with only one path for electron flow to move from positive to negative pole is known as a S___ circuit. (the voltage of this circuit will be = to the sum of the voltage in each cell added together)
Fallacy: Begging the question
Circular argument: Conclusion disguised as its own premise
Conclusion of Argument
Claim or action
The Forebrain: Hypothalamus
Communicates with the pituitary gland to regulate the release of several hormones.
Spinal Cord
Comprised of nerves that regulate the automatic behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc.) that we aren't consciously aware of
Avogadro's Law
It states that the volume of a gas is a function of the number of gas particles it contains, or in other words, as the number of gas particles increases, so does the volume.
Photosynthesis importance
It turns the light energy into chemical energy in plants that biotic things can use for their energy, it provides plants with food that biotic things can use to function properly,, it provides the oxygen need for all biotic things.
Somatic Nervous system:
Consists of sensory neurons that convey information from the sense organs to the brain and motor neurons that convey information from the CNS to the muscles.
The Forebrain:
Consists of the outer cortex (cerebral cortex) and several subcortical regions.
What are ventricles? What is in them?
Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) CSF is made in walls of ventricles by choroid plexus CSF then circulates around the brain CSF finally reabsorbed into blood vessels, so continuous turnover Protective Reservoir for hormones, nutrients
Substantia Nigra:
Contains an important group of dopamine neurons.
tegmentum
Contains nuclei for cranial nerves and part of the reticular formation.
The Forebrain: Hypothalamus
Contains several distinct nuclei; widespread connections.
Pons:
Contains the reticular formation (arousal and attention) and the raphe system (serotonin).
What controlls the medulla?
Control via cranial nerves (sensory and motor control of head and parasympathetic output to organs (vagus nerve))
Cerebellum:
Controls movement, balance, coordination of limbs.
Convection Currents
Convection currents are the flow that is created due to this heat transfer. As a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises. The cooler fluid (at the surface) is denser and sinks causing a current.
Dmitri Mendeleev
Created the Periodic Table
dendritic branching
DB; data base)- gives you more connections/ learning (Tryna figure out what movie it is; go around to get bck to the movie cell)
4
DNA is a polymer composed of __ nucleotides
nucleus
DNA storage in neuron
Phosphate groups, Four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, 5-carbon sugars
DNA, the basic chemical of life, is a huge molecule that is comprised of which of the following (pick all that apply)? *6 lipid groups *3 amino acid chains *Phosphate groups *Four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine *5-carbon sugars
ide
In writing out chemical formulas, the suffix -____ refers to monoatomic anion (single, negatively charged ion).
ic
In written chemical formulas, the suffix -___ is used to describe the ion (atom that has gained or lost an election) with the higher charge.
Molecules
Incredibly small units of matter
Terms to know and understand: DNA, RNA, gene, chromosome, transcription, translation, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive
DNA:self replicating molecule double stranded template for RNA 4 nucleotides: C- Cytosine G- Guanine T- Thymine A- Adenine RNA: Copy of one strand of the DNA template for protein 4 nucleotides: CGUA Homozygous: Person with identical set of genes on the 2 chromosomes is homozygous for that gene Heterozygous: Person with unmatched pair of genes on the 2 matched chromosomes is heterozygous for that gene *A gene that shows strong effect in heterozygous or homozygous condition is dominant *A gene that shows strong effect only in homozygous condition is recessive (so you need 2 copies of it to see the effect) Translation: transcription:
numerous parallel pathways
Damage to the primary somatosensory cortex often results in only mild impairment because of _____.
Substantia Nigra:
Death of these dopamine neurons is associated with Parkinson's disease.
Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA)
Defines "dietary supplements" as a separate regulatory category and liberalized what information could be distributed by their sellers. Ingredients that are useless but harmless are protected, and manufacturers of supplements are not required to submit a safety report before marketing.
The Forebrain: Basal Ganglia
Deteriorates in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases.
Sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the current generation without hindering the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Competition between species
Different species competing for a limited amount of resources.
Antoine Lavoisier
Discovered law of mass conservation; also defined element
caused by both ischemia and hemmorhage strokes
Disruption of the sodium-potassium pump leading to the accumulation of potassium ions inside neurons
Missing or Omitted Information
Do you know of further relevant information?
scanning electron microscope
Dr. Ramos wants to view a neuron in three dimensions. She should most likely use a(n) __________.
bottleneck
Drastic reduction in population size brought about by natural catastrophe or overhunting
Prophase 1
During ________ __ of meiosis, chromosomes condense and thicken within the nucleus, homologous chromosomes pair, the nucleoli disappears and the nuclear membrane disintegrates, and centrioles begin to migrate to opposite poles of the cell.
Interphase 1
During _________ __ of meiosis, individual chromosomes start to duplicate.
pleiotropy
Individuals alleles effect more than one phenotype
Aristotle
Influential Greek philosopher who described behavior of matter as hot, cold, moist, and dry
Inductive Generalization
Info on some members of a set draw conclusions to the whole -> Sample must be representative
Tectum
"Roof" of the midbrain"
stage 2 of sleep
K-complexes- wave forms that protect a person from being awakened by sudden stimuli
cerebrospinal fluid
Kari has had some of this drained away and as a result experiences raging headaches and stabbing pain each time she jerks her head.
mesencephalon
Komal's anatomy class is studying major structures of the brain. He is analyzing the tectum, tegmentum, and superior and inferior colliculi. Komal's class is studying the ______.
vision goes to
LGN and superior colliculus
Where are neurotransmitters made?
Large made in soma; small in terminal
Basic Research
Leads us to a greater understanding of how the natural world operates
Cerebellum:
Lies dorsal to the medulla
Biotic
Living
Organic
Living organisms need various elements to survive, including carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, and use these elements to create ______ molecules, which are necessary for maintaining and constituting life.
lateral and medial superior olives
Localization of sounds in space is mediated by the ________.
Pons:
Located in the Hindbrain Lies anterior and ventral to the medulla.
When detecting relevant omitted information...
Look for alternative hypotheses
permanent, temporary
Magnets can be either p___ or t___.
negative frequency selection
Maintains different traits in a population
Wernickes area
Makes sense of words
large and myelinated
Mammalian motor neurons conduct action potentials at a speed of 100 meters per second. These axons are _______.
Nebula
Many scientists believe that the solar system developed from a _____, an accumulation of dust, gas, and plasma.
microtubules
Material is rapidly transported throughout neurons. The internal structures responsible for this transport are called______.
physical activity
Measurable expansion of neurons has also been shown in humans as a function
Thermometer
Measures temperature by means of teh expansion and contraction of liquid, usually mercury or colored alcohol
Dominance
Mendel's genetic Law of _________ states that each organism inherits a trait from each the mother and father and that one trait may be dominant over the other, thus preventing the recessive trait from showing in the offspring.
Independent Assortment
Mendel's genetic Law of ___________ __________ states that the appearance of a single trait won't affect the emergence of another trait; each characteristic for a trait is independently inherited and no pattern or relationship exists between the separation and rejoining of different traits.
Segregation
Mendel's genetic law of ___________ and recombinantion states that when gametes (sperm and egg) unite, genes for each characteristic segregate into single units and then each characteristic joins with a like character in order to create a gene.
The Meninges
Meninges are membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord.
Causal Reasoning
Mill's Methods
Fallacy: False cause
Misinterprets correlation for causation by not considering all all factors; assumes A causes B when C really causes B
Post Hoc/Coincidence Fallacy
Mistaking coincidence or random correlation as causation
meningitis
Most common cause is viral infection of the meninges, but bacterial and fungal infections
neurons and glial cells
Most of the cells of the nervous system are ______.
Compare motor neurons & sensory neurons: How are they different from each other & how are they the same? Be able to draw each one. Which one is multipolar and which one is unipolar?
Motor- The cell body (soma) lives in the spinal cord. The axon is part of a nerve in your body. The terminals synapse with muscle fibers. ( multipolar Sensory-The soma lives just outside of the spinal cord (in a dorsal root ganglion). Most of its length is an axon. It has specialized endings in the skin, and its terminals are in the spinal cord.( unipolar)
Gene flow
Movement of alleles from one population to another
antagonistic contraction
Movement requires the alternating contraction of opposing sets of muscles called antagonistic muscles
polygenic inheritance
Multiple genes are involved in the expression of the trait
taste goes to
NST
taste in brain
NTS projects to gustatory portion of thalamus>>insula- primary gustatory cortex; tongue ipsilateeral
What ions are important in the action potential?
Na+, Ca2+, K+, Cl- sodium in potassium out
sexual selection
Natural selection that favors traits that help an organism acquire a mate. Traits can also make individuals more vulnerable to predators.
Gas
Neither definite volume nor definite shape
glial cells
Neurons are not the only cells found in the nervous system. ______ predominate in some brain structures, although recent research suggests that their number overall is about equal to neurons.
Paraventricular Nucleus and Supraopticnucleus
Neurons in these release vasopressin in circulation of posterior pituitary
amino acids
Neuropeptides are large-molecule neurotransmitters that are composed of ______.
acetylcholine
Nicotinic and muscarinic receptors are two subtypes of ______ receptors.
Unfalsifiable
No evidence can be held against it
Abiotic
Non-living
Fallacy: False analogy
Objects of analogy lack relevant similarities
Microscopic
Objects that can bew seen only under magnification
Solid
Occupies a constant amount of space and does not readily deform upon the application of pressure
Liquid
Occupies a constant amount of space but its form changes readily
glomeruli
Olfactory receptor axons terminate in clusters known as olfactory _____.
Period
On a periodic table, a ______ is a horizontal row of elements.
What is a voltage-gated channel? Where are they?
On the axon Open when cell reaches a certain voltage Allow ions in or out Changes voltage of cell
Know what EPSP and IPSP are. How do these differ from an action potential?
One has more action potential than the other
Mitochondria
Organelles known as ____________, which are highly prevalent in muscle cells, produces ATP, a high level energy source that is sent from muscle cells to other cells and tissues.
Plants are chemotrophs
Organisms in the biological plant (plantae) kingdom contain all except which of the following characteristics? -Plants are chemotrophs -Reproduce through asexual means or sexual methods including flowers, cones, spores, and seeds -Plants are always nonmotile and have present, functioning, well-developed systems -Are multicellular organisms that have eukaryotic cells with cell walls made of cellulose -Growth is based on hormone activity and is influenced by various environmental factors including the availability of water, lights, and nutrients
supplementary motor cortex
Organizes rapid sequence of movements in a specific order; (habits)
Two mechanisms of Thirst
Osmotic Thirst and Hypovolemic thirst
Cranial Nerves:
Part of the peripheral nervous system.
Ore
Permanent magnets contain natural magnetic o__.
Island succession
Plants and animals that reach newly created land.
are called inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Postsynaptic hyperpolarizations ______.
Kinetic Molecular Theory
Postulates: 1. A gas consists of tiny particles, either atoms or molecules or both. 2. Gas particles are in constant random motion, colliding among themselves and with the walls of their container. 3. The impacts of gas particles on the walls of the container produce a jittery force that appears as a stady push against the inner surface. This pushing force provides the pressure of the enclosed gas. 4. Deviations from gas laws arise primarily because of the interactions occurring among gas particles and because gas particles are not infinitely small. 5. The average kinetic energy (energy use to motion) of the gas particles is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas.
Know the parts of the spinal cord (dorsal horn, ventral horn, dorsal root, ventral root, central canal, dorsal root ganglion). Be able to label them on a figure.
Printed
Weight
Proceeding down a vertical column or group on the period table, the atomic _____ increases.
Amino Acids
Protein degradation is the process by which proteins are broken down into _____ _____, building blocks that make up the smallest unit of a protein.
what do astrocytes do?
Protoplasmic (gray matter) and Fibrous (white matter); Structural support (well-developed cytoskeleton); Form dense scars upon injury; Process can abut surface of CNS, capillaries*, neurons, dendrites, nodes of ranvier, synapses; Transfer of nutrients (like glucose) to and from neurons & Regulation of extracellular ionic concentrations (lots of K+ channels); *Blood brain barrier
CSF (cerebrospinal fluid )
Provides "cushioning" for the brain
Uracil
RNA (ribonucleic acid) contains three of the same nitrogenous bases as DNA with the different base being ______, which replaces thymine.
Genetic Drift
Random change in allele frequency over time (chance)
Pitfall: Misinterpretation of random events
Random events appear as streaks, counting hits and ignoring the misses, etc.
Premise of Argument
Reasons in support
Thalmus
Receives and processes sensory information (except olfaction).
Cranial Nerves:
Receives sensory information from, and controls voluntary and involuntary movements of, the face, head and neck.
apoptosis
Receiving neuron will either agree by sending out a neurotrophin r remain silent and so it will cause
order of who tells
Receptor cells tells bipolar, bipolar tells ganglion, ganglion tells optic (axons of ganglion form optic nerve- which travels to the brain), when optic nerve leaves back eye, that's blind spot because it contains no receptors
When judging logic...
Recognize and avoid common fallacies evaluating sufficiency of reasons
When judging evidence...
Recognize and avoid common pitfalls evaluating credibility of evidence
What does midbrain do?
Reflexive orienting to visual and auditory stimuli Intrinsic/descending pain control Substantia nigra -Parkinson's disease And more...
The Forebrain: Hypothalamus
Regulates motivated behavior (e.g., eating, drinking, sex).
posterior; anterior
Research suggests that the locating of sounds occurs in the _____ auditory pathway, and the identification of sounds occurs in the _____ auditory pathway.
Applied Research
Research that focuses on developing basic research
Applied Chemistry
Research that is directed toward a practical goal of application
ventral stream
Research using functional brain imaging to examine the ability to discriminate among stimuli based on shape or color demonstrated an increased activity in the _____.
Evolutionary Perspective
Research what processes have been changed or preserved
CSF (cerebrospinal fluid )
Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord
Know the different parts of a synapse (presynaptic cell, postsynaptic cell, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters, receptors, vesicles)
Review
ions
Salts in neural tissue that separate into positively and negatively charged particles are called ______.
Ways to deal with garbage
Sanitary landfill, compost, recycled waste, incineration, recycling depot, hazardous household waste operation.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Satiety Center
Pitfall: Pereidolia
Seeing pattern in vague stimuli
Thalmus
Sends the output to the cerebral cortex.
X
Sex-linked traits are carried on the __ chromosome.
repel, attract
Similar poles r____ while opposite poles a____.
Argument by Analogy
Similar things act in similar ways -> Relevant similarities must outweigh relevant dissimilarities
founder effect
Small number of individuals leave a large population and establish a new isolated population
Understand the steps of the action potential, and how one leads to the next.
Sodium in Potassium out Refractory period (The neuron cannot fire another action potential until it is back up to resting potential) and repolarization *The sodium inside the cell diffuses to the next node of Ranvier. The membrane at that node is now -50 mV... VG sodium channels open sodium rushes in. VG sodium channels close & VG potassium channels open potassium rushes out. The sodium inside the cell diffuses to the next node of Ranvier....
What neurotransmitters share a pathway of synthesis? What are the initial precursors (the first thing in the synthesis pathway) for dopamine, norepinepherine, epinepherine, serotonin and acetylcholine?
Some neurons release more than 1 kind of neurotransmitter Sometimes from the same terminal Sometimes from different terminals: Motor neuron in spinal cord release acetylcholine (Ach) onto muscle fibers, and other branches of the same axon release both Ach and glutamate onto other spinal cord neurons.
temporal isolation
Species cannot mate because they breed at different times
behavioral isolation
Species cannot mate because they have different courtship and mating rituals
ecological isolation
Species cannot mate because they occupy different habitats
Allele
Specific Gene for a specific person; Eye color: Blue is one, brown is another
gametic incompatibility
Sperm from one species cannot fertilize eggs of another
Humans hurt themselves
Spray bugs, bugs are eaten, bodies decompose, food grown.
Inorganic Chemistry
Study of chemicals that in general do not contain carbon
Nutrients
Substances such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals that give your body energy and the material needed to move, grow, and repair and maintain the health of a biotic thing.
Glia Cell
Support Cell
migraine headaches.
Swollen blood vessels in the meninges are the cause of these
Facts VS. Fiction?
T or F: Computer models and cell cultures can replace animal testing. F: even the most sophisticated technology models cannot mimic the complex cellular interactions that occur in a living system T or F: Dogs, cats and monkeys are used more than any other animal in medical research. F: mice and rats, bred for research; BTW, dogs essential for research in cardiovascular disease T or F: Lost/stolen pets are sold to laboratories most bred for research, a few come from "death row" of pounds, fewer still purchased from USDA-licensed dealers T or F: There are no laws or government regulations to protect research animals. F: Institutional ACUC is required by law T or F: There is no need to test consumer products on animals - some companies don't. F: obligated to for public safety, many products/ingredients were previously tested on animals
moovement
THALMUS INHIBITS MOVEMENT; GLOBUS PALLIDUS INHIBITS THALMUS; CAUDATE NUCLEUS AND PUTAMEN TELLS GLOBUS WHAT TO DO/ STOP INHIBITING>>>
Pitfall: Confirmation bias
Tendency to look for confirming info when disconfirming info is more powerful
Hypothetical Reasoning
Testing of hypothesis through logical consequences -> Must protect against all fallacies and pitfalls of perception
What does it mean that an action potential is "all or none"?
That is, in most (but not all) neurons, subthreshold depolarizations have no effect, but once the threshold is crossed, an action potential is generated.
thymine, adenosine, guanine, cytosine
The 4 nucleotides in DNA
Are multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that lack cell walls, Most animals have bodies that are separated into various tissues and contain structures that are unique to each type of organism, Most animals have the capability of being motile at some stage in their life, Animals grow based on hormonal activity and the presence of nutrients
The Animal kingdom in biological classifications includes which of the following characteristics? -Are multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that lack cell walls -All animals reproduce through sexual means -Most animals have bodies that are separated into various tissues and contain structures that are unique to each type of organism. -Most animals have the capability of being motile at some stage in their life -Animals grow based on hormonal activity and the presence of nutrients
Definite Composition
The Law of _______ ___________ states that a compound, which is composed of two or more elements, will always have a fixed elemental composition in a specific ratio by mass.
Conservation
The Law of __________ of Matter and Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another.
Mole
The ____ is a scientific unit that is used to measure the amount of substance, such as the amount produced in a chemical reaction.
Cell
The ____ is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
Cell
The ____ theory proposes that all living things are made up of one or more cells.
Monera
The _____ kingdom is a biological kingdom comprised of bacteria and blue-green algae; organisms in this kingdom reproduce via binary fission, are prokaryotic microorganisms that are primarily autotrophic, may live alone or form groups of cells called colonies, and have flagella capsules.
Hardy
The _____-Weinberg Law states that in a population that exists in equilibrium, genes and genotype frequencies at a single gene locus will remain the same from one generation to the next.
limbic system
The ______ is a circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus.
Thymus
The ______ is a human organ that plays an important role in the development of cells that will eventually become T cells, white blood cells that contain a special receptor for antigens.
Spleen
The ______ is an abdominal organ that functions to destroy old red blood cells, serves as a reservoir for blood-forming stem cells, and produces an immune response to blood antigens.
Dermis
The ______ is the skin layer composed of connective tissue that contains many sensory nerve endings, hair follicles, glands (such as sweat glands), and blood vessels.
Nucleolus
The _______ lies within a cell's nucleus and is responsible for rRNA synthesis.
Reaction
The _______ rate is the amount of product that is formed over a certain time frame during a reaction or how fast a reaction will take place.
Mesozoic
The ________ Era is an evolutionary geologic era that included the origination of organisms such as the first birds and mammals, reptiles, and more complex plants including flowering ones.
Cenozoic
The ________ Era, the most recent of the geological eras, is an ongoing period involving the adaptive radiation of diverse, complex mammals, birds, reptiles, marine life, and flowering plants.
Circulatory
The ________ system is an organ system that functions to transport material throughout the body and includes components of blood (including red and white blood cells, plasma, antibodies, and thrombin), the heart, and blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins).
Endocrine
The ________ system is composed of glands that produce and secrete hormones, chemical messengers, that enter the circulatory system and affect various target cells in body organs.
Excretory
The ________ system is responsible for removing wastes from the body and includes the kidney system: kidneys, bladder, urethra, ureters, and capillaries connected to the kidneys.
Skeletal
The ________ system provides physical support and framework for the human body and contains bones and cartilage.
Digestive
The ________ system serves to take in and digest food in order to provide the body with needed energy and nutrients and to remove waste products from the body.
Paleozoic
The _________ Era of geological evolution included multicellular organisms and primitive fern-like plant forms.
Chloroplast
The _________ is an organelle in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that performs the process of photosynthesis in order to create energy for the cell.
Telophase
The _________ of cellular division involves the uncoiling of chromosomes and the reappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear membrane around each set of sister chromosomes.
Lymphatic
The _________ system is a major part of the immune system and contains a network of organs, ducts, tissues, vessels, and capillaries that function to remove extra fluids from tissues and return them to the circulatory system and to produce immunity, including white blood cells that work to kill harmful substances.
Precambrian
The __________ era of geological evolution, which is the earliest of the geological eras, was characterized by the origination and presence of one-celled organisms.
Integumentary
The __________ system functions to cover the body and is composed of glands, skin, and nails.
autonomic; somatic
The ______nervous system interacts with the body's internal environment; while the______ nervous system regulates the body's external environment.
magnetism
The ability of a substance to produce a magnetic field is known as m___.
Density
The amount of mass contained in a sample divided by the volume of the Sample D=m/v
Volume
The amount of space a material occupies
Analytical Chemistry
The area of study that focuses on the composition of matter
Physical Chemistry
The area that deals with the mechanism, the rate, and the energy transfer that occurs when matter undergoes a change
efferent
The autonomic nervous system has two kinds of ______nerves.
They are beginning to develop specialized systems
The biological kingdom Protista can be described by all except which of the following characteristics? -They are beginning to develop specialized systems -They have various methods of locomotion including flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia or may be non-motile -They are single or multicellular microorganisms that have membrane bound cell organelles -They consume food via phagocytosis and are able to grow according to the availability of food and according to restrictions determined by the cell membrane -They reproduce by sexual or asexual means
Edema
The blood is white, and there is slightly darker than normal areas surrounding this, due to local brain swelling
The Meninges
The brain has no pain receptors, but these do
Energy
The capacity to do work
Golgi Apparatus
The cell's _____ _________ is an organelle involved in the synthesis, manufacture, storage, and distribution of various macromolecules including hormones and enzyme materials.
Peripheral
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord while the _______ nervous system is comprised of all nerves and neurons that lie outside of the CNS and connect body parts.
smell and taste
The chemical senses within the human body are _____.
Species
The closest related group of biotic things that can mate and reproduce more of the same kind of living thing.
Alchemy
The concept that it is possible to transform any substance to another substance simply by altering the relative proportions of the four basic qualities.
anterior cingulate cortex
The cortical area most frequently linked to pain is the _____.
First Nations and Metis change
The coyote or a trickster causes change.
membrane
The difference in the electrical charge between the inside and the outside of a cell is the ______ potential.
Know the Bell-Magendie law and understand how that incorporates the dorsal and ventral horns and roots. Understand that a spinal nerve has a sensory and a motor component,
The entering dorsal roots carry sensory information to the brain & the exiting ventral roots carry motor information to the muscles and glands In other words: Dorsal=sensory; Ventral=motor
Purine
The four nitrogen bases that contribute to DNA's construction include adenine and guanine, which are known as _____, and thymine and cytosine, which are known as pyrimidines.
Weight
The gravitational force exerted on an object by the nearest most massive body, such as Earth.
Composed of four chambers, two atria and two ventricles that are controlled by a central pacemaker, Composed of involuntary muscle tissue, Blood pumped out of the heart circulates through two loops, one reaching the lungs and the other all parts of the body, The pacemaker sends signals to the atria and ventricles in order to coordinate their rhythmic pumping activity
The heart is a muscular organ that can be described by which of the following answer choices? -Composed of four chambers, two atria and two ventricles that are controlled by a central pacemaker -Composed of involuntary muscle tissue -Blood pumped out of the heart circulates through two loops, one reaching the lungs and the other all parts of the body -The pacemaker sends signals to the atria and ventricles in order to coordinate their rhythmic pumping activity -Deoxygenated blood pumped from the heart goes to the lungs via a vein and oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the heart via arteries
Muscular
The human ________ system allows all body voluntary and involuntary movement.
First Nations and Metis human and wolf relationship
The human and the wolf walk separate but parallel paths.
anosmia; ageusia
The inability to smell is known as_____, whereas the inability to taste is known as _____.
saltatory conduction
The jumping of action potentials from node to node
telencephalon
The largest division of the human brain that mediates the brain's most complex functions is the ______.
Technology
The means by which a society provides its members with those things needed and desired
Amperage
The measure of amount of electron flow thru the circuit is known as a___.
The Forebrain:
The most anterior and prominent part of the brain (in humans).
medulla
The myelencephalon of the brain is commonly called the ______.
Neurons
The nervous system contains _______, cells that transmit electrochemical signals across synapses in order to initiate action in muscles, organs, and glands.
Carbon Dioxide
The normal respiratory system is under control of the autonomic nervous system (a division of the PNS), which controls the respiratory rate based on the levels of ______ _______ in the blood.
Somatic Nervous system:
The other branch of the peripheral nervous system
auditory
The perception of objects and events through the sounds they make occurs within the _____ system.
Growth Rate
The population ______ ____ refers to the change in a population over time determined by birth and death rates and immigration and emigration and influenced by environmental factors such as natural disasters, droughts, or diseases.
proprioceptive
The position of one's body is monitored by the _____ system, part of the somatosensory system.
loci
The position that a given gene occupies on a chromosome
Succession
The predictable pattern of change in ecosystems.
Argument
The presentation of a reason(s) in support of some claim or action
somatotopically
The primary somatosensory cortex system is organized _____.
Melting
The process by which a solid transforms in to a liquid
Colonization
The process of a creating a new community.
Photosynthesis
The process of how plants make their food. Light energy, carbon dioxide, and water is turned into food (sugars and starvhes) and oxygen.
exocytosis
The process of neurotransmitter release is known as ______.
perception
The process of recognizing, integrating, and interpreting patterns of sensation is known as _____.
Cellular respiration
The process that almost all biotic things use to release the energy stored in their food. Food (sugars and starches) and oxygen is turned into carbon dioxide, water, and energy that can be used by all living things.
Freezing
The process where liquid changes to solid
Boiling
The process where liquid evaporates and becomes a gas
Pure Chemistry
The pursuit of chemical knowledge for its own sake.
ratio; inside; outside
The resting potential of a neuron results when the ____ of negative to positive charges is greater____ the neuron than _____ the neuron.
Amylase
The salivary glands produce saliva that contains an enzyme known as _______ that helps to begin the breakdown carbohydrates.
How is an action potential started and propagated? What ion enters first?
The sodium inside the cell diffuses to the next node of Ranvier. The membrane at that node is now -50 mV... VG sodium channels open sodium rushes in.
the myelin sheath
The speed and efficiency of axonal conduction is increased by ______.
hair cells; auditory nerve
The stimulation of the _____ within the organ of Corti increases the firing of axons of the _____.
Double Helix
The structure of DNA can be described as a ______ _____.
Organic Chemistry
The study of all chemicals containing carbon
Biological Psychology
The study of behavior, looking at the physiological process used to produce this behavior.
Chemistry
The study of matter and the transformations it can undergo
Bio Chemistry
The study of processes that take place in organisms
Chemistry
The study of the composition of matter and the changes that matter undergoes
taste buds; 50
The taste receptors found on the tongue are _____, and are found in clusters of about ____ .
Synthesis
The term ________ describes how a cell forms a more complex molecule from simpler compounds.
Regulation
The term ________ describes how an organism maintains the balance and stability of its chemical composition in the midst of internal and external environments that are continually in a state of change (basically, this process is how the cell maintains homeostasis).
Oxidation
The term _________ describes when a ion, atom, or molecule loses an electron in a chemical reaction.
Irritability
The term _________ means an excessive response of a cell to a stimuli.
Adenoids
The tonsils and ________ are masses of lymph tissue that serve to trap and filter out infectious substances (antigens) such as bacteria and viruses that enter the body through the mouth or nose
superior/inferior
The top and bottom of the head of a primate are often referred to as ______ respectively.
decremental
The transmission of EPSPs and IPSPs is __________, meaning that they decrease in amplitude as they travel through the neuron.
central and peripheral
The two divisions of the vertebrate nervous system are the ______ nervous systems.
Why can we use animal research to understand human processes?
The underlying mechanisms of behavior are similar across species and sometimes easier to study in nonhuman species. Non-human vertebrates have similar anatomy, chemistry and physiology as humans Even invertebrate nerves follow same basic principles as our own Squid giant axon - Certain experiments cannot use humans because of legal or ethical restrictions. Electrophysiology Developmental biology (ocular dominance columns, sensitive periods for development, etc) Repair after brain damage The list goes on...
Responding variable (Dependent Variable)
The variable that is observed during the experiment
Manipulated Variable (Independent Variable)
The variable that you change during an experiment
The Ventricles
The ventricles are four hollow, interconnected cavities within the CNS containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Charles's Law
The volume and absolute temperature of a gas are directly proportional
Macroscopic world
The world of objects that are large enough to see with the unaided eye
gray matter; white matter
There are two different areas within the spinal cord, an inner H-shaped core known as ______ and the surrounding area of ______.
amacrine
They control the ability of the ganglion cells to respond to shapes, movements, or other specific aspects of visual stimuli
What are the implications of this for drug use and medicine?
They must be able to pass the BBB
hypothalamus
This part of the brain plays an important role in the regulation of several motivated behaviors, such as eating, sleeping, and sexual behavior. It works in part by regulating hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. This part of the brain is called the _______.
nueral reorganization
This results in greater neural representation in adjacent regions of the somatosensory cortex
axoaxonic
This synapse mediates presynaptic facilitation and inhibition, which allows for the advantage of selective influence on one particular synapse rather than the entire presynaptic neuron. This is a _______ synapse
The Forebrain: Basal Ganglia
Three major structures: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus.
Goal of Critical Thinking
To guarantee, as far as possible, that one's beliefs and actions are justifiable and can stand the test of rational analysis -> to be OPEN-MINDED and SKEPTICAL
enzymatic degradation
To terminate a message in the synapse, neurotransmitters are broken apart by the action of proteins that stimulate or inhibit biochemical reactions without being affected by them. This process is called ________.
Critical Thinking
To think critically is to think clearly, accurately and fairly while evaluating the reasons for accepting some belief or taking some action -> Actions follow belief
To argue
To try to support/defend a claim or action
dominant
Traits expressed with a capital letter
recessive
Traits expressed with a lower case letter
lissencephalic
Trisha is studying a mammal that does not have convoluted cortices. She is studying a ______ animal.
sound waves go through
Tympanic membrane>malleus/incus/stapes>oval window>vestibular canal>tympanic canal>cochlear canal>basilar membrane
Endocytosis
Using a process known as _________, cells absorb substances from outside the cell by engulfing the material within its membrane.
What channel opens next? What ion moves thru that? What forces drive that ion? Etc etc.
VG potassium channels open potassium rushes out. *axon b/t myelinated segments.
Thru what type of channel does it enter? What forces drive it inside? Why does that channel close?
VG sodium channels close & VG potassium channels open potassium rushes out.
What causes neurotransmitter release from the axon terminal?
VGCC in terminal let Ca2+ in which makes vesicles bind to membrane for release of NT
genetic diversity
Vast numbers of different species as well as the diversity within a species.
Hydrocephalus
Water on the brain
Six basic needs of all living things
Water, oxygen, energy, interactions with living and non-living things, suitable living conditions, and food.
Pitfall: Expectation (Selection) bias
We see what we expect to see
Pitfall: Subjective Validation
We tend to see much more than we should in information said to be about ourselves (Graphology, horoscopes)
Falsifiable
What evidence could I show you that would have you change your mind?
voltage
What is the electromotive force that pushes electrons through the circuit. v___.
Scientific Law
When a hypothesis has been tested over and over again and has not been contradicted.
ionotropic
When a neurotransmitter molecule binds to a(n) ______receptor, associated ion channels open and close immediately thereby inducing an immediate potential.
Compound
When matter composed of two or more kinds of elements join and chemical bonding occurs, the result is a ________.
Anaerobic
When oxygen is not present, cells undergo ________ respiration through the process of fermentation, which produces lactic acid as a byproduct.
static electricity
When the electrical charges are not moving it is called s_____ e_____.
cerebellum
When the large convoluted structure of the metencephalon known as the ______ is damaged, often there is an inability to precisely control movement and or adapt movement to changing conditions.
Mixture
When two or more kinds of elements are blended, but chemical bonding or change does not occur, a _______ is formed.
Observation
When you use your senses to obtain information you make this
monoamines
Which class of neurotransmitters is synthesized from a single amino acid and has cell bodies frequently located in the brain stem?
tympanic membrane
Which ear structure vibrates in response to sound passing from the outer ear and down the auditory canal?
telencephalon
Which of the five divisions of the brain is NOT a part of the brain stem?
seratonin
Which of the following is NOT a catecholamine? epinephrine norepinephrine serotonin dopamine
medial-distal
Which of the following is NOT one of the three axes of the vertebrate nervous system?
Turn pink litmus paper blue
Which of the following is not a property of acids? -Turn pink litmus paper blue React with bases in a neutralization process that produces a salt and water -React with carbonates to form carbon dioxide -React aggressively with most metals -Will conduct electricity when in a water solution
Conduct electricity in a weak or strong solution
Which of the following is not a property of bases? -React with acids in a process called neutralization that produces water and salts -Conduct electricity in a weak or strong solution -Turn pink litmus paper blue -When in a chemical reaction with fats, they form compounds known as soaps -Feel slimy on the skin and can be caustic to the skin in strong solutions
In the last part of the digestive system, the large intestine, used food matter and wastes are further broken down, digested, and excreted.
Which of the following statements does not accurately describe the digestive system? -Food travels down the esophagus and reaches the stomach where digestive enzymes such as hydrochloric acid breakdown nutrients, including proteins, and the food is churned into a liquid substance. -The mouth, tongue, and teeth, take part in the mechanical digestion of food -In the last part of the digestive system, the large intestine, used food matter and wastes are further broken down, digested, and excreted. -The majority of digestion occurs in the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream by way of microscopic finger-like projections called villa on the intestinal wall. -Undigested food is excreted from the large intestine via the anus.
Electrolytic
While some reactions, known as spontaneous reactions, can occur almost spontaneously with very little energy involved, other reactions known as ___________ reactions require force from an external energy source.
Example of physiological explanation?
Why did she run from the tiger? Sympathetic nervous system, HPA axis, stress hormones and neurotransmitters, etc.
they exist for only a few seconds
Why do scientists find soluble-gas neurotransmitters difficult to study?
nerve deafness
With age, some people experience damage to part of the cochlea that results in an inability to perceive high frequencies as well as difficulty distinguishing what people are saying. This condition is known as _____.
cochlear nuclei
Within the auditory system, the superior olives receive the majority of their input from the _____.
conscious and unconscious
Within the sensory system, which two different parallel streams of analysis ultimately influence behavior?
Fallacy: False dilemma
Wrongly assumes two alternatives exist
John Dalton
Wrote 4 postulates
Recessive
X-linked ________ traits are expressed in all males (heterogametics) because the allele is carried on a single X chromosome.
Can a neuron release more than 1 neurotransmitter? Can you think of an example of this?
YES: Nicontene
arteries
__ adjusts pressure through contraction and dilation
capillaries
__ deliver nutrients through pressure, osmosis, and diffusion
ureters
__ move urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
heat
__ transfer can never occur from a cooler object to a warmer object
ATP
___ , a nucleotide that is the most important molecular form of intracellular energy transfer, serves to transport chemical energy within cells during cellular metabolism.
CO2 Fixation
___ _______, the second step in the photosynthesis process, is the dark reaction in which carbon joins with oxygen and hydrogen to form carbohydrates and in which water and oxygen are given off as waste products.
insulin
___ helps regulate the amount of glucose in the body
DNA
___ is a nucleic acid containing all of the genetic instructions, "blueprints," necessary for making all of the proteins a cell needs.
work
___ is equal to force plus distance
compound
___ machine that employs 2 or more simple machines
Bone Marrow
____ ______ is soft tissue located inside of hollow bones that produces stem cells, early cells that give rise to blood cells.
RNA
____ is a companion chemical to DNA that serves as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes and forms proteins from amino acids.
AIDS
____ is a disease that causes damage to the immune system, including a reduction in the number of helper T cells and as a result, leaves the body unable to form antibodies against conditions such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, or diarrhea.
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
_____ __________ __________ is the transportation network within a cell containing attached protein-generating ribosomes.
Endogenous
_____ attention is thought to be a top-down mediated process.
Ionic
_____ bonds, are chemical bonds which are formed based on electrical forces between negatively charged ions (anions) and positively charged ions (cations).
Aerobic
_____ cellular respiration occurs when there is oxygen present and energy is released as organic compounds are broken down; enzymes and acids in and around the mitochondria stimulate oxidation, the process of breaking down and releasing energy.
Ionic
_____ compounds contain bonds that are formed based on electrical forces between negatively charged ions (anions) and positively charged ions (cations).
Lupus
_____ is a chronic autoimmune disease in which people develop immune responses to their own cells' nucleic acids.
Integration
_____ is the adding or combining of individual postsynaptic potentials reaching the area of an axon. The neuron fires or does not fire determined on the overall sum.
Simultanagnosia
_____ is the inability to attend to more than one object at a time.
Gregor Mendel
______ ______ is known as the "father of modern genetics" because of his extensive study of trait inheritance in garden pea plants.
Carbon Dioxide
______ _______ and water are present as raw materials in the chloroplast at the beginning of the photosynthesis process.
Active Transport
______ _________ is a method by which materials (biochemicals, molecular substances, etc.) move across membranes; this process requires a cell to use energy in order to move the materials "uphill" against a gradient.
Biotic Potential
______ _________ refers to the rate at which a population could reproduce if every member within the population lived in the best environmental conditions.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
______ ___________ ________ is the cell's transportation system that does not have attached ribosomes.
Plasma
______ is a state of matter that has been subjected to very high temperatures and is composed of electrically charged particles that can conduct electricity.
Matter
______ is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Zoology
______ is the biological study of animals.
GABA; glutamate
______ is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter, while ______ is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system.
Liquid
______ is the state of matter that takes the shape of its container and the atoms or molecules in this state freely move within the volume.
Anatomy
______ is the study of the structure of living things.
Smooth
______ muscle is generally involuntary muscle that is located in the linings of body organs such as the respiratory tract, the bladder, and the digestive system.
Absorption
______ occurs on the cellular level when a cell takes in dissolved material across its cell membrane via diffusion.
Turgor
______ pressure is the pressure of a cell's contents against its wall or membrane. This pressure serves to determine the amount of water kept inside the cell in order to offset the environment outside the cell.
Physical
______ properties of matter are the aspects that can be measured or perceived without changing the substance's identity or makeup.
Trisomy
_______ __, also known as Down's Syndrome, is a genetic disorder that occurs when an individual inherits all or part of an extra twenty-first chromosome.
Protein synthesis
_______ _________ is the process by which cells take amino acids and form them into peptide chains in order to build proteins.
Plastids
_______ are structures within plant and eukaryotic algae cells that store chlorophyll (product necessary for photosynthesis) so it can be used by chloroplasts.
Tendons
_______ are tough fibrous bands of connective tissue that connect paired muscle groups to bones or to other muscles to aid in movement.
Metallic
_______ bonding occurs when metal atoms bond and share free electrons.
Organic
_______ chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies carbon and its chemical compounds, structure, properties, composition, and reactions.
Valence
_______ electrons are those found in the outer shell that may be shifted or transferred when atoms combine.
Kinetic
_______ energy is that which matter possesses as result of its motion.
Abiotic
_______ factors are those nonliving chemical and physical components in the environment such as light, temperature, and salinity (salt content).
Mitosis
_______ is the process by which a body cell duplicates its chromosomal information and divides its cytoplasm and cell membrane in order to generate two identical daughter cells.
Meiosis
_______ is the process by which one diploid cell divides to form two haploid cells, each containing one-half the number of chromosomes as the original diploid cell.
Meiosis
_______ is the process by which sex cells (sperm in males or egg in females) divide.
Cytology
_______ is the study of cells.
Ecology
_______ is the study of how groups of living organisms interact with their environments.
Biology
_______ is the study of living organisms.
Botany
_______ is the study of plants.
Ecology
_______ is the study of the relationship between living organisms and their environment.
Cardiac
_______ muscle is involuntary and contracts in order maintain the flow of blood throughout the circulatory system.
Sexual
_______ reproduction occurs through the processes of meiosis, a form of cellular division in which each of the two daughter cells receive the same chromosomal material as the parent cell, and fertilization in which two gametes join in order to restore the original number of chromosomes.
Metaphase 2
________ __ in meiosis involves the chromosomes lining up at the equatorial plane of the new spindle; the new plane is rotated 90 degrees from its position in meiosis I.
Anaphase 2
________ __ in meiosis involves the cleaving of the centromeres, which allows the daughter chromatids (now chromosomes) to pull apart and move to opposite poles.
Prophase 2
________ __ in meiosis involves the disappearance of the nucleoli and nuclear envelopes and the shortening and thickening of the chromatids in each of the two haploid daughter cells as well as the division of the centrioles and formation of a new spindle in each cell.
Transfer RNA
________ ___ is a type of RNA that uses ribosomal RNA and proteins to carry out protein synthesis in the cell's cytoplasm.
Cellular Respiration
________ ___________ is a process by which cells release energy through oxidizing food.
Binomial nomenclature
________ ____________ is a formal classification system that describes the organism using its genus and species names.
Covalent
________ bonds are chemical bonds that are formed when atoms share pairs of electrons.
Covalent
________ compounds contain bonds that are formed when atoms share pairs of electrons.
Potential
________ energy is that which is stored.
Chemistry
________ is a study concerned with the composition and properties of elements and their transformations and interactions with one another.
Diffusion
________ is the net movement of molecules across a cell's membrane from an area in which they are highly concentrated to an area in which they are less concentrated.
Prophase
________ is the phase of cellular division (mitosis) involving the shortening and thickening of chromatids, replicated strands of DNA making up a chromosome, dissolving of the nuclear membrane and disappearance of the nucleoli, and formation of spindle fibers (microtubules).
Genetics
________ is the study of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms.
Digestion
________ occurs in cellular metabolism when a cell uses enzymes to break down food into more basic and usable forms.
Movement
________ refers to the ability of an organism to change position.
Metaphase 1
_________ __ of meiosis involves tetrads, two homologous pairs of chromosomes, migrating along the equatorial plane.
Anaphase 1
_________ __ of meiosis involves the separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes and migration to opposite poles, resulting in the reduction to the haploid number in each new cell.
Messenger RNA
_________ ___ is a type of RNA that functions to carry information from the DNA, out of the nucleus, and to ribosome sites where protein synthesis can occur.
Vacuoles
_________ are spaces in a cell that serve to remove unwanted wastes and water from the cell and also can function as a storage space for chemicals and compounds.
Mutations
_________ are sudden changes in the base pair sequence of genetic material causing the appearance of a new trait or inherited variation.
Polyploidy
_________ is a condition that occurs when an organism inherits an extra homologous set of chromosomes.
Cytoplasm
_________ is a gel-like substance that fills most cells and serves to surround and protect organelles.
Corrosion
_________ is a type of chemical reaction in which metals react with water or oxygen and are destroyed through this process.
Metaphase
_________ is the phase of cellular division in which the centromeres of the chromosomes align along the equator (middle) of the cell's spindle and the chromosome pairs attach to the spindle at the centromere, a specialized region of the chromosome.
Interphase
_________ is the phase of the cell cycle (mitosis) in which a cell grows through protein synthesis and oxidation reactions in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus, DNA replication occurs.
Saturation
_________ is the point at which no more solute can be dissolved in a solvent.
Physiology
_________ is the study of the function of the body in living things.
Mitochondria
__________ are the cell's "powerhouse" and play a vital role in generating energy.
Prokaryotic
__________ cells do not have a nuclear membrane or a membrane surrounding their intracellular organelles.
Activation
__________ energy is the energy that has must be present for a chemical reaction to begin.
Combustion
__________ is a type of decomposition reaction in which substances are broken down into products that have less potential energy than the original substances.
Embryology
__________ is the study of embryo development.
Heterogeneous
__________ mixtures are those that do not have the same composition and properties throughout.
Heterozygous
__________ traits have mixed (two different) alleles on homologous chromosomes for a certain trait.
Telophase 2
___________ __ in meiosis involves division of cytoplasm, reformation of the nuclear membrane, and the return of chromosomes to their original uncoiled, lengthened form.
Chromosomes
___________ are cellular structures that contain genes, which interact in order to influence/determine hereditary information within cells.
Lysosomes
___________ are membrane-bound organelles that contain destructive enzymes and carry out digestive functions within the cell.
Heterotrophs
___________ are organisms that consume organic substances for food.
Eukaryotic
___________ cells have nuclear membranes surrounding the cell and intracellular organelles.
Homologous
___________ chromosomes contain the same sequence of genes.
Phagocytosis
___________ is a type of endocytosis in which a cell's membrane envelops particles and takes them in to form phagosomes (food vacuoles).
Assimilation
___________ is the process by which a cell forms more protoplasm, the living substance inside a cell, and as a result, grows and is able to repair itself.
Homeostasis
___________ is the property of cells to regulate their internal environment in order to maintain balance or working equilibrium.
Bacteriology
___________ is the study of bacteria and unicellular plant life.
Homogenous
___________ mixtures are those that have the same composition and properties throughout.
Homozygous
___________ traits are those with two copies (identical) of the same allele on homologous chromosomes for a specific trait.
Peroxisomes
____________ are organelles within a cell that work to manufacture, store, and secrete various oxidation enzymes needed to rid the cell of toxic substances.
Photosynthesis
____________ is the process by which plants synthesize and thus supply all of the carbohydrates used by plants and animals; through this process, plants form necessary organic compounds and also give off oxygen and water as waste products.
Bioluminescence
______________ is the production and emission of internal light within a living organism.
CSF (cerebrospinal fluid )
a clear fluid (similar to plasma) found in the brain and spinal cord.
osmotic thirst occurs because the human body maintains
a combined concentration of solutes at a fixed level of 0.15 M (molar)
Scientific Law
a concise statement that summarizes the results of many observations and experiments
closed circuit
a continuous path for electron flow (with no interruptions) is know as c___ c___.
convection current
a current in a fluid that results from convection. the transfer of heat by the mass movement of heated particles into an area of cooler fluid
Sensory Specific Satiety
a different stimulus that was different from all food you had be ingesting, causing enough excitatory stimulus to promote food intake
bacterial and viral infections can cause
a fever, part of the body's defense against illness.
electrical current
a flow of electrons through a conductor is an e______ c______.
What is a nucleus?
a group of neurons in the CNS
What is a ganglion?
a group of neurons in the PNS
resistance
a hindrance to a current flow due to object that deter current by size, shape or type of conductor is known as r___.
Air Mass
a huge body of air that has similar temperature, humidity, and air pressure at any given height, or a large body of air with uniform characteristics horizontally
Hemorrhage
a less frequent type of stroke resulting from a ruptured artery.
open circuit
a path that has no electron flow because of an interruption or disconnection is known as an o___ c___.
insulator
a poor conductor such as plastic, glass, rubber or wood is known as an i_______.
within 20 days of conception
a portion of ectoderm thickness forming the nueral grovve and nueral crest
Experiment
a procedure that is used to test a hypothesis
Hypothesis
a proposed explanation for an observation
Hurricane
a severe tropical cyclone usually with heavy rains and winds moving a 73-136 knots (12 on the Beaufort scale)
Benign paroxysmal position
a small piece of bone‐like calcium breaks free and floats within the tube of the inner ear. This sends the brain confusing messages about your body's position.
sodium-specific hunger
a strong craving for salty foods -develops automatically to restore solute levels in the blood
Relative refractory period
a stronger than usual stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential.
liquid
a substance in the fluid state of matter having no fixed shape but a fixed volume
rats raised in an enriched enviorment expierence
a thicker cortex and increased dendrite branching
osmotic thirst
a thirst resulting from eating salty foods. Lose too much water, or add too much salt. TOO MUCH SALT IN BLOOD (cell will lose water, will shrink) = add water.
hypovolemic thirst
a thirst resulting from loss of fluids due to bleeding or sweating. Volume is not correct.
isotopes
a variation of an element, has different number of neutrons, but same number of protons and electrons
Gulf Stream
a warm ocean current that flows from the Gulf of Mexico northward through the Atlantic Ocean
fast- twitch
a. anaerobic; no o2 needed b. build up lactic acid as glucose is broken dwn 4 energy c. fatigue, uses fast twitch fibers
medial corticospinal tract
a. controls movement of trunk b. receives input 4rm reticular formation , midbrain tectum (where colliculi are) & vestibular nucleus c. receives input 4rm both sides; not bilateral
slow twitch
a. less vigorous contraction b. aerobic & requires attention c. this along with intermediate fibers are used for non strenuous activity
plasticity
ability for brain to change learning, memory, and experience cause change
Metabotropic
activates a second messenger system that indirectly opens an ion channel; initiates a sequence of metabolic reactions that are slower and longer lasting
readiness potential
activity in motor cortex that implies consciousness of movement b4 it occurs
angiotensin II stimulates neurons in the areas
adjoining the third ventricle
The long-term goal
administer drugs, electrical stimulation, stem cells to increase neuronal activity in surviving brain areas.
golgi
advanced the reticular theory that all neurons were connected into a single large network of tissues
Functional
advantage of behavior
alcohols effect on GABA transmission
agonist opens Cl channel wider than usual results in anti-anxiety & intoxication
peripheral nervous system
all nervous tissue outside of CNS
invention of microscope
allowed researchers to look at cells
corticospinal tracts
allows messages from the brain to medulla and spinal cord
spinal cord in spina bifida
allows the section of the spinal cord to portrude outward unknown genetic basis usully can be corrected at birth but functional problems may still persist
How is it that genes can affect behavior?
altering neurotransmitter systems and other chemicals, thus an indivual responds to enviroment, or how a parent handled the situation while growing up can also affect it
retrograde
amnesia where you cannot remember anything before accident
anterograde
amnesia where you remember everything before accident
entropy
amount of disorder in a system is referred to as
potential energy
amount of energy stored in a system particularly cause of its position
3 tiny bones in ear
amplify a. malleus/hammer b. incus/anvil c. stapes/stirrup d. 3)Acts as lever to transform waves into stronger waves to the oval window (membrane in inner ear)
Leptin
an anorexigenic hormone released by adipose tissue in proportion to fat mass that decreases hunger and decreases feeding
circuit
an electric current flows through an electrical c______.
metals
an elements that are good conductor are m____.
drug sensitization
an increase in the sensitivity to a drug effect that develops as the result of exposure to the drug
phonological analysis
analysis of sound of language
grammatical analysis
analysis of the structure of language
alcohols effect of glutamate transmission
antagonist depressant
anecephaly
anterior portion of the nueral groove (destined to become the brain) fails to close during the first two weeks of embryonic developemt
vasopressin is also known as an
antidiuretic horomone (ADH) because it enables the kidneys to reabsorb water and excrete highly concentrated urine
Selection
any gene associated with >RS (reproductive success) will be more prevalent in subsequent generations
Allele
any of several forms of a gene, usually arising through mutation, that are responsible for hereditary variation.
developmental dyslexia
apparent when learning to read, heritability estimate is 50%, more common in boys than girls
Law of specific nerve energies
applies to all senses; electricity, neuron firing specific function will always go for a certain nerve. 1 for light; other for sound
Huntington
arm jerks; facial twitches; tremors; writhing (police thought mom was drunk);GENETICALLY
muscles activity benefits from being
as warm as possible and ready for vigorous activity
Schwann cells
assits PNS
cocaine and cigarettes
associated with increased risk of attention deficit disorder
toxins
associated with increased risk of attention deficit disorder
antidepressants
associated with increased risk of heart problems
decay
atomic nucleus spontaneously losing energy and emitting ionizing particles and radiation
tendons
attaches muscle to bone
Cytokines
attack intruders but also stimulate the vagus nerve
Inferior and medial geniculate tracts
audition; just the notes
CN 8
auditory
Inferior Colliculi:
auditory sensation
Spinal Cord
automatic and somatic nervous system
Sex-limited
autosomal genes (1-22)
Afferent axon
axon that brings information into a structure
lateral corticospinal tract
axons 4rm primary motor cortex & red nucleus to spinal cord a. Red nucleus-midbrain area with output mainly to arms b. Controls hands feet (lateral & contralateral control
Differentiation
axons grow 1st then dendrites; shape tells function
CN 10
back of tongue
retina
back; has loots of cells
syphillis
bacterium that can cause lesions throughout body
cerebellum
balance, muscle motion
cell
basic unit of life
water in the body must
be regulated within narrow limits
tissue of neural tube
becomes the CNS
cavity of neural tube
becomes the ventricular system
how do opioids increase dopamine
bind to opiod receptors disinhibits dopamine neurons
suprachiasmatic nucleus
biological clock in our brains main control center for sleep and temp in circadian rhythms
adult neurogenesis
birth/maturation of new neurons
hemorrhage
bleedout
Excess positive ions in the neuron
blocks metabolism in the mitochondria and kill the neuron
cocaine
blocks reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinepherine
Buerger's disease
blood vessels, especially those supplying the legs are constricted whenever nicotine enters the bloodstream with the ultimate result of gangrene and amputation
traumatic brain injury
blow/jolt to head that disrupts normal functioning "silent epidemic" or "unseen injury"
echoderm
blue , outer cellular layer
poikilothermic (cold blooded)
body temperature matches that of the environment -amphibians, reptiles and most fish
strokes
both cause edema (swelling) disrupts pump and eventually cause neuron to die
stage 1 of sleep
brain activity begins to decline
cerebellum
brain area associated with motor coordination
broca's area
brain area for producing language
wernicke's area
brain area for understanding language
nucleus accumbens
brain area for wanting/liking, most dopamine release
OVLT
brain area involved in water balance
visual cortex
brain area responsible for conscious awareness of vision
midbrain
brain area that contains dopamine centers for reward and movement
endoplasmic reticulum
brain area that controls protein production
hypothalamus
brain area that regulates hunger, thirst, temp, hormone release, and controls SNS
medulla oblongata
brain area that regulates vital autonomic functions
association cortex
brain area where advanced multimodal processing is done
plasticity
brain changing and growing and learning; and also to deal with things after damage causes of damage STROKES
Dendritic Branching and Environmental Enrichment
brain has some ability to recongnize itself into the response expierience
within 24 days of conception
brain plate of the nueral groove enlarges and begins to diffrinciate intp the hind, mid, and forebrain. fluid filled cavaties become the four ventricles in the brain
EEG
brain test that measures EPSP and IPSP
MRI
brain test that uses radio waves
PET
brain test that uses radioactive molecules
microglia
brain's immune system
Dendrite
branching fibers from a neuron that receive information from other neurons; get narrower near their ends
endoderm
brown, bottom cellular layer
pons
bulges out from top of medulla, contains most of reticular formation
Sodium in chicken noodle soup can vary
by as much as 840 mg per serving. -65% of food bought at retail has high sodium -25% comes from restaurant food
impulsitivity
can be a problem when it leads to drinking, risky driving, sex
meningitis
can be life threatening or resolve on its own in a couple of weeks
blotting
can be used to measure the amount of protein or gene expression that is present in a brain area
alchohol
can cause fetal alchohol syndrome
Productive Language
can create new rep.meaning
corpus callosum
carries messages between two halves of brain
brain regions
caudate, putamen, globules
motion blindness
caused by damage to dorsal stream
ischemic stroke
caused by decreased blood flow clot blocks artery more common cell dies bc overstimulation
hemorrhagic stroke
caused by excess blood artery ruptures lead to immediate death cell dies bc overstimulation
SNS shuts down PNS
causes ejaculation
ADH
causes kidneys to reabsorb water
pituitary gland
causes release of tropic hormones
PNS dominates
causes vasoconstriction (erection)
What are Radial glia?
cells are type of astrocyte...the type seen in development. In adulthood there are 2 types, one in white matter and one in gray matter. * guide cell & axon migration during development; after development turn into neurons
differnentiatoin
cells go to from nondescript to being future neurons
horizontal cells
cells in the eye that make inhibitory contact onto bipolar cells
apoptosis
cells pre programed to die nuerons initially form many synapses with other cells (more than is needed)
Radial Glia
cells that guide the migration of neurons and the growth of axons and dendrites during embryological development
neurons and glia
cells that make up nervous system
mitochondria
cells that produce energy
Microglia
cells that remove waste material and other microorganisms from the nervous system
bipolar cells
cells that send info from the photoreceptor down to the ganglion cells
glia
cells that support nervous system
ganglion cells
cells that take info from many photoreceptors and make calculations based on their receptive fields take large volume of visual info and turn it into action potentials
horizontal cells
cells that take info from multiple photoreceptors by connecting laterally
ganglion
cells that take info from photoreceptors
off center cells
cells that turn off when light hits the center of the receptive field but turn on when light hits the outer rim of the receptive field
on center cells
cells that turn on when light hits the center of the receptive field but turn off when light hits the outer rim of the receptive field
pupil
center of iris, where light enters
freezing point
change from a liquid to a solid when cold. the temperature at which water freezes into ice. Freezing point is 32 degrees F or 0 degrees C.
Mutation
change in gene expression due to a change in DNA
Epigenetics
change in gene expression without a change in DNA sequence
chemical change
change where 1 substance is changed into another; apple
experience
changes brain
brain plasticity
changes in the brain can occur as a result of learning in response to change in the enviorment and during recovery after brain injury
voltage-gated
channels opened by changes in membrane potential
ligand-gated
channels opened by neurotransmitters
transduction for smell
chemical binds on outside metabotropic ion binds to g protein
Axon targeting
chemical gradient finds spot, lots of connections axons reaches spot by following the chem.. gradient in which it is attracted to some and repelled by others
pheromones
chemicals released by an animal to affect the behavior of others in same species DO NOT SMELL; goes to: vomernasal organ
facial nerve
chorda tympanis anterior part carries taste info,
reflex arcs
circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response
pavlov
classical conditioning
ischemia
clot
dorsal root ganglion
clump of sensory cells
inner ear
cochlea
Golgi apparatus
collects and prepares cell wastes
parvocellular stream
color stream, mostly goes along the ventral pathway
White Matter
composed mostly of myelinated axons that carries information from the gray matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord.
Anterior Pituitary
composed of glandular tissue, that when stimulated release hormones; The hypothalamus secretes releasing hormone to prompt the release or inhibition of hormones synthesized
Posterior Pituitary
composed of neural tissue, can be considered an extension of the hypothalamus. Oxytocin and Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormones) are released by the hypothalamus and travel to the ______, where they will eventually be released into the bloodstream.
sound
compressions and expansions of air/water
cerebral commissures
connect the right and left hemispheres of the brain
cerebral commissures
connect two halves of the brain
why must neurons stay connected to other neurons in order to live
connection protects aganist apoptosis
cartilage
connective tissue, softer than bone
major depression
consistently low mood for 2+ weeks
Phineas Gage
construction worker who got an iron pipe lodged through face,skull, and brain, that came out the other side but he survived completely with the "only harm being" a completely changed personality and emotionally. The damage was to the medical prefrontal lobe only
visual cortex
contains "simple cells" discovered by Hubel and Weisel
melanospin
contains ganglion cells in the retina that have a direct connection to the SCN through the retinohypothalamic pathway
olfactory bulb
contains glomeruli
spinal cord
contains sensory & motor nerves
axons and dendrites
continue to modify there structures and connnections throughout the life time
alcoholism
continued use of alcohol despite social or medical harm
muscular
contractions that move body
vestibular system
contributes to sense of balance
nucleus
control center, holds DNA,
sympathetic nervous system
controls "fight" or "flight" behaviors
smooth
controls digestive system & other organs
cell membrane
controls materials that enter and exit the cell
striated/skeletal
controls movement in relation to environme
proliferation
creation of neurons and glia of stem cells
bipolar disorder
cycle between depression and mania
because brain areas are interconnected
damage to even a small area of the brain will produce a more global disruption in neuronal activity.
long term use of ecstasy
damages miochrondria
thickness of the cerebral cortex
declines in old age, but this effect is attenuated in those who are physically active
tolerance
decrease in effectiveness of a drug makes other pleasureable things become less reinforcing
saccades
decrease in the activity of the visual cortex/ get rid of blurs (turns on & off)
Antagonist
decrease the natural affect of that NT; opposes natural action
diaschisis
decreased activity of surviving neurons
diaschisis
decreased activity of surviving neurons after others are damaged bc brain is highly connected -> deaffrentation
functional tolerance
decreased responsiveness at the site of action; fewer receptors; decreased efficiency of binding at receptors; receptors are less responsive
brain plasticity
decreases with age what allows children to learn language quickly and effectively.
aphasia
deficit in language composition or production due to the brain damage usually to the left...Damaged in Broca's area causing difficulty with function words such as: a, the, same, in, about; they know that they are wrong
aphasia
deficit in language comprehension or production due to brain damage, usually on the left
apoptosis
deliberate "programmed" cell death
fetal alcohol syndrome
dendrites are short with few branches too much apoptosis
somatic
depression associated with low energy and too much/too little sleep
emotional
depression associated with sadness/helplessness and the inability to feel pleasure
cognitive
depression associated with worthlessness/guilt and poor concentration/decision-making
atypical
depression in which one is especially sensitive to negative experience and has many sexual partners and an increased appetite
context
depth perception
What is Functional explanation?
describes why a behavior evolved as it did Identifies an advantage (male birds sing to mate; camouflage)
fovea
detailed vision; when lookin at sumn, you're pointin ___ at it 1. Less stuff in the way of receptors 2. mostly cones, and cells tightly packed
hyper complex cells
detect endpoints and crossing lines from position/orientation info
sensation
detecting a stimulus
Golgi stain
detects cell shape
Nissl stain
detects nerve fibers and tissue density
proprioreceptors
detects your movement, position, or part of body
receptors
determine what neurotransmitter does
Ontogeny
development and learning; fetus and early life
stem cells
development of new neurons can also develope in other brain regions
Most common form of dyslexia ____
developmental dyslexia
phrenology
diff brain areas are responsible for diff tasks
sound localization
diff. between 2 ears tells where sumn is
diff. wavelengths make
diff. parts of cochlea vibr8 and so diff. parts hits head
tonotopic
difference in frequencies 4rm stiff.floppy end
stem cells
differenctiate in the new neurons in the adulthood hippocampus of mammals and facilate learning few nuerons rise in adulthood
heterozygous
different alleles
allele
different gene form
migration
differntiated cells move from their birthplace to final location
apraxia
difficulty performing movements when asked to do so out of context damage is also on the left (hammer example)
apraxia
difficulty performing movements when asked to do so out of context, also a result of damage to the left hemisphere
Ionotropic
directly opens an ion channel effects begin quickly; most likely act on visual and auditory functions (anything that needs to be updated quickly)
Broca
discovered function of discrete cortical areas by observing behavioral impairments
thorndike
discovered that positive and negative outcomes made animals increase or decrease the frequency of a given behavior basis for operant conditioning
golgi and nissl
discovered ways to stain brain tissue to make it more visible for microscope observation
nerve deafness
disorder in inner ear
synesthesia
disorder where neurons are rewired to wrong cortices; I smell 7, I see sound movement- how we behave
physical change
dissolution of salt in water is a __ change, since salt and water can be separated
wavelenght
distance of from wave crest (peak) of wave to the next crest (peak) of wave on the same side is known as w___.
functional segregation
distinct functional areas within a level
nueral tube:
doesnt completely close( usually in the lumbar sacral region) during the embryonic development
peripheral vision
dominated by rods; SUMMATION Allows for the greater perception of much fainter light in peripheral vision
long term effect of nicotine
dopamine cells become less responsive builds a tolerance
parkinson's
dopamine deficiency
which brain structures play major roles in the initial taking of addictive drugs?
dopamine in the NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS, prefrontal lobes (decision to take the drug), hippocampus (remembering past uses of the drug), amygdala (emotions associated with drug taking)
all drugs of abuse cause...
dopamine release in the nucleus
rem sleep
dreaming occurs voluntary muscles paralyze serotonin and acetylcholine involved
most often water regulation is accomplished via
drinking more water than we need and excreting the rest
inhalation drug administration
drug administration through capillaries in lungs, or absorption through mucous membranes in the mouth, nose, or butthole
ritalin
drug that blocks reuptake of dopamine
nicotine
drug that causes euphoria, alertness, relaxation
cannabinoids
drugs that activate cannabinoid receptors
psychostimulants
drugs that enhance alertness and movement
depressants
drugs that increase effects of GABA
antidepressants
drugs that restore serotonin levels
hallucinogens
drugs that work via serotonin receptors
anticonvulsants
drugs used to block seizures
antipsychotics
drugs used to treat schizophrenia
acquired dyslexia
due to brain damage, relatively rare
thyroid deficency
due to low iodine impaired cell profilertion leading to cognitve impairment
brain plasticity is greater
during infancy birth-2 years -Learning a 2nd language after childhood is much harder and uses different cortical areas.
sleep walking/talking
during non rem sleep in children
midget ganglion
each cone cell has its own line to the brain
tympanum
ear drum
type 2
early/rapid onset genetic relatives with alcoholism men outnumber women associated with crime
which behaviors, like drug addiction, show the inability to stop despite adverse effects
eating and sleeping
cocaine hydrochloride
effective local anesthetic and was once widely prescribed until it was supplanted by synthetic analogues such as procaine and lidecaine
Proliferation
either become stem cells or neurons which don't divide themselves; production of new cells/neurons in brain; when cells divide
fear
emotional reaction to a threat
3 germ layers
endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm
jet lag
endogenous rhythm doesnt match external time results in smaller hippocampus/memory impairment
potential energy
energy an object has due to position or state.
possible functions of sleep
energy conservation restoration memory
kinetic energy
energy of motion.
conduction
energy transfer by neighboring molecules form an area of hotter temperatures to cooler temp.
Solid
entirely of one substance with no holes inside
phantom limb sensations
eorganization of the somatosensory cortex can promote feelings of sensation in an amputated part of the body when other parts are stimulated
vestibular system
equilibrium; gives us a sense of which way is up and how the head is moving.
sham rage
exaggerated, poorly directed aggressive responses of decorticate animals (cortex removed without any damage to the hypothalamus) found to have extreme and unfocused aggressive responses
What is Evolutionary explanation?
examines structure or behavior in terms of evolutionary history
schizophrenia
excess dopamine
babinski reflex
extends big toe and fans others when foot stroked
audition- Mcgurk effect
eyes beat ears
saccades
fast eye movements
saccades
fast eye movements controlled by superior colliculus
Hippocrates
father of clinical medicine, first person to observe that damage to one side of the brain causes paralysis on the opposite side of the body
3 main tasks
feeding, fighting, reproduction
progesterone, estradiol
female reproductive hormones (2)
zygote
fertilized egg cell
infection
fever impairs neuron proliferation
nephrons
filters tubes in kidneys
innate immune system
first line of defense, attacks generic classes of pathogens
myelination
first occurs in the spinal cord then in the hindbrain, midbrain , and forebrain and it occurs gradually for decades newborns have very little
terminal buttons
first part of synapse
galen
first physician to notice the difference between sensory and motor neurons and accurately inferred what each was used for
nuclear fission
fission used in bombs and nuclear power plants
motor program
fixed sequence either learned or built; yawning- will stop and have to start over
hinge
flexible joint in knee and finger
depolarization
flooding of NA+ into neurotransmitter, occurs bc of EPSP
hyperpolarization
flooding of NA+ out of neurotransmitter, occurs bc of IPSP
neural tube differntiates to...
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain spinal cord
incomplete dominance
form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele
drug extinction
form of learning in which associations between cues and events they predict are weaker by the exposure to the cues in the absence of those events
synaptogenesis
formation of synapses
Synaptogenesis
forms synapses; new connections
Broca's area
formulates articulation
Ghrelin
found in stomach, hormone that is released by cells lining stomach, increases with fasting and decreases after a meal; stimulates hunger-motive
cones
fovea, vision dependent on, color
narcolepsy
frequent periods of sleepiness during the day
What is Ontogenetic explanation?
from "to be" and "origin" describes the development of a structure or behavior (genes, nutrition, experience) Impulse control
subdural hematoma
from blow to head of rapid acceleration/deceleration results from tearing of vertebral vein as penetrated arachnoid mater and enters the dural sinus
CN 7
front of tongue
brocas area
frontal oerculum, near face area of primary motor cortex, language production, left inferior prefrontal cortex damage leads to expressive aphasia, normal comprehension, speech is meaningful but awkard
Broca's area
frontal operculum: language production (speaking)
genes involved in alcholism
gene for a dopamine receptor gene for the enzyme that breaks down dopamine
period (per) timeless (tim) clock (clock)
genes and proteins involved in sleep high levels cause sleepiness negatively feedback to turn genes off
What is the multiplier effect? (slide 30)
genes or prenatal influences increase tendency environment facilitates it What started out as potentially small effect of genes ends up having a huge behavioral result ...leading to an overestimation of heritability!
clock genes
genes that control SCN
genotype
genetic composition
optogenetics
genetically inserting light-sensitive proteins into neurons and turning them on/off with light pulses
tectoral membrane
gets pulled closer to focus on something by
V4 area
gives us color constancy by comparing the color in an area of your vision with the surrounding areas
visual context
gives us distance perception tells us how far objects are
adrenal
gland associated with stress (CRH/ACTH)
pancreas
gland responsible for digestive functions and energy storage
thyroid
gland responsible for metabolic functions
Oligodendrocytes
glia cells that build myelin sheaths; brain and spinal chord
Schwann Cells
glia cells that build myelin sheaths; periphery in the body
myelination
glia produce the fatty sheath that covers axons of neurons
Parkinson's
gradual death of neurons in substantia Nigra; DA damaged DA DAMAGED
grasp reflex
grasps objects placed in hand
What is gray matter? White matter?
gray matter: cell body and dendrites white matter: axons( general touch)
higher temp
greater kinetic energy or faster moving molecules is high or low temp
hippocrates
greek physician who observed that injuries to one side of the head often causes brain damage that affects the opposite side of the body
basal ganglia
group of nuclei involved in movement, cognition, motivation
cell cultures and tissue slices
groups of cells or brain regions that are removed from an animal and examined in a carefully controlled environment
filopodia
growth cones that follow molecular signals to form new synapses and grow new axons
dendrite spines
growth is dynamic
organ of corti
hair cells
taste detection
happens on receptor 50>in bud 10> in papillae
relative refractory period
harder to initiate another action potential
color blindness
have photopigment in 2 cones (red-green most common, long+ med. cones have same photopigment)
saccule
head tilits
utricle
head upright
inferior colliculus
hearing
cerebrum
hearing learning and seeing is in the
cardiac
heart muscles that have properties of skeletal/smooth
nervous system hormones
heart rate is set by the __ system and __
convection
heat being transferred by molecules moving from 1 location in the substance to another creating a heat current, usually in gas or liquid
radiation/ thermal radiation
heat being transferred thru empty space by electromagnetic radiation
modern neuroscience
heavily influenced by the conceptions of conditioning, behaviorism and ethology
Dennervation supersenstitivity
heightened sensitivity to neurotransmitter after the destruction of an incoming axon.
pgo waves
high amplitude electrical potentials
meiosis I
homologous chromosomes separate from 1 another
Cholecytokinin (CCK)
hormone released by duodenal cells that close the pyloric sphincter between the stomach and intestines and stimulates receptors on vagus nerve
melatonin
hormone released by pineal gland
melotonin
hormone released by pineal gland that makes us sleepy released 2-3 hrs before bedtime & peaks at bedtime
angiotensin II
hormone that causes thirst
vasopressin
hormone that constricts blood vessels
Insulin
hormone that raises blood glucose by promoting entry of glucose into muscle and adipose cells; stimulates glycogen production; stimulates glycoysis; lipogenesis; septin secretion, and affects neurons in hypothalamus to reduce feeding
glucagon
hormone that releases sugar into blood
ghrelin
hormone that signals hunger
leptin
hormone that signals satiety
insulin
hormone that stores sugar in cells
renin, aldosterone
hormones involved with appetite for salty food (2)
oxytocin, vasopressin
hormones released after climax (2)
movement
how we behave
Efficacy
how well a drug activates a receptor
Affinity
how well a drug sticks to a receptor and what it does; direct relationship
lateral inhibition
how you highlight edges by having receptors send info to ganglion cells & inhibiting the others
neurons in the third ventricle send axons to the
hypothalamus where angiotensin II is also released as a neurotransmitter
homozygous
identical alleles
ventral stream
identifies objects (color)
stable atom
if atom's outer shell is filled it is a __ atom
hippocampal lessions
if before the training/conditioning: prevents conditioning if after: blocks retention of conditioning (blocks continuing conditioning)
•Over several months, the sprouts fill in most vacated synapses and can be harmful
if sprouting axons convey different information
•Over several months, the sprouts fill in most vacated synapses and can be useful
if sprouting axons convey the same information as those that they replace
sexual dimorphism
ifferences in appearance between males and females of the same species, as in colour, shape, size, and structure, that are caused by the inheritance of one or the other sexual pattern in the genetic material
immune system
impaired by chronic stress
low glucose
impairs brain development
cerebellum
important for tasks that requires timing 1. (more neurons in cerebellum than all other brain areas combined) 2. receives input from spinal cord, sensory systems, cerebral cortex, and sends it to cerebellar cortex (surface of cerebellum)
superior colliculus
important for visual reflexes such as tracking objects
absolute refractory period
impossible to initiate another action potential
adolescents
impulsivity; less connections in prefrontal
transcription
in ___ , DNA converts its nucleotide sequence to RNA, which determines protein synthesis
non-fluent aphasia
inability 2 produce speech
sleep apnea
inability to breathe while sleeping due to geneitic, hormones, aging, obesisty
motion blindness
inability to determine whether something is moving, it's direction or speed (likely caused by damage in middle temporal cortex)
visual agnosia
inability to identify objects, damage to ventral stream
conductive aphasia
inability to integrate speech
fluent aphasia
inability to understand
insomnia
inadequate, non-restorative sleep
Hallmark signs and symptoms
including headache, fever and a stiff neck in anyone over the age of 2.
receptors in the periphery,
including the stomach, detect high levels of sodium
sensitization
increase in effectiveness of a drug cocaine: the more its used the more dopamine gets released
Agonist
increase, enhances, facilitates, mimics natural action of receptor; enhance the normal effect of the NT at its specific receptor
nictone receptors
increases dopamine release
ecstasy
increases dopamine release & at high doses increases serotonin release
second line of defense
inflammation
cannabinoids
inhibits GABA= increased dopamine
parts of the immune system
innate and adaptive
photoreceptor layer
inner layer of visual pathway
Association sensory system
input from more than one sensory system, usually from secondary sensory cortex
cells of the POA/AH also receive
input from temperature sensitive receptors in the skin
secondary sensory system
input mainly from primary and secondary cortex within the sensory system
primary sensory system
input mainly from thalamic relay nuclei
Myelin Sheath
insulating material that covers vertebrate axons
spatial summation
integration of events happening at different places
temporal summation
integration of events happening at different times
night terrors
intense anxiety
What does the basal ganglia do?
interconnected structures
homeothermic (warm blooded)
internal physiological mechanisms to maintain an almost constant body temperature -characteristic of mammals and birds
The organism (cold blooded) lacks the....
internal, physiological mechanisms of temperature regulation
Nodes of Ranvier
interuptions in the myelin sheath of vertebrate axons
microelectrodes
intracellular electrodes with tips that are less than one thousandth of a millimeter in diameter which is too small to be seen by the naked eye
osmolarity
intracellular or extracellular concentration of particles
SCN
intrinsic circadian oscillator
refelxes
involuntary, consistent, automatic responds to stimuli Tap- stretches the extensor muscle and its spindle resulting in contraction
serotonin
ion neurotransmitter involved in mood and social behaviors
What is the difference between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?
iono:Gates are almost immediately opened for an ion to flow into cell Meta:A sequence of metabolic actions that are slower and longer- lasting.
vasopressin
is a hormone released by the posterior pituitary which raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels -helps to compensate for the decreased water volume, body thinks too little water/too much salt = brain thinks blood pressure is low
basal metabolism
is the energy used to maintain a constant body temperature while at rest
spinal cord in spina bifida
it is not fully developed and the overlaping vertabrae fail to fuse
ball and socket
joint in hip and shoulder
fixed joint
joint that is immobile and located in skull
transduction for sour
keep potassium in
posterior parietal cortex
keeps track of position of body relative to the world; coordinates visual stimuli with movement
Left hemisphere of the brain
known for speech dominance in ALMOST ALL dextrals (right handed people) and MOST sinestrals (left handed people); it is the interpreter side of the brain
Right hemisphere of the brain
known for the spatial, emotional, and some memory tasks
ventral stream
language, what pathway (auditory) identifies and recognizes object a. goes to temporal lobe. b. receives mostly color signals. c. how we recognize objects. d. closely associated with the language areas of the brain. e. Damage causes visual agnosia
peptide
large molecule neurotransmitters with metabotropic effects
circadian rhythm
lasts about a day (24.2 hrs in humans) waking/sleeping hormone secretion urine production eating/drinking sensitivity to drugs
type 1 alcoholism
later/gradual onset few genetic relatives with alcoholism equal quantity between men and women
receptors also relay information to the
lateral preoptic area, which controls drinking
intermediate layer
layer in between the inner layer and outer layer of the retina
strabismus
lazy eye,since it is not takin in identical info, brain picks one
dorsal stream damage
leads to location and motion blindness
•Original axons degenerate
leaving vacant synapses into which others axons sprout.
transduction for salty
lets sodium in
EEG
lets us measure brain activity in a very detailed manner, allowing us to study sleep, seizures, and other brain states
HOW: bacteria and viruses trigger the release of
leukocytes which release small proteins called cytokines
surface dyslexia
lexical procedure lost, can't recognize words
what does a polygraph measure
lies.......or emotions technically
releasing bipolar cell
light
transverse
light and ocean waves travel in t___ waves. particle move up/down while the wave moves forward.
PROSTHETICS
limb damage but nervous system is ok
endoderm
lines guts/organs
oval window
literally makin waves in ear; physical process
temporal
lobe associated with memory, visual/auditory processing
frontal
lobe associated with movement, logic, personality
parietal
lobe associated with sensation, math, visual/auditory processing
occipital
lobe associated with visual processing
small molecule
localized neurotransmitters
nodes of ranvier
located in between myelin bundles
primary motor cortex
located in precentral gyrus; orders an outcome Axons from the primary motor cortex connect to the brainstem and the spinal cord
Grey Matter
located in the center of the spinal cord and is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites.
Medulla
located in the hindbrain just above the spinal cord.
dorsal
location
cortisol
long-term stress response
Hypovolemic thirst
lose fluids and electrolytes; ICF stays same, EFC decreases; blood pressure drops
focal hand dystonia
lose part of hand because there is overrepresentation of fingers
phantom limb
lose part of limb, such as hand, but still feel sensations but part of cortex that was assigned to hand went to shoulder so when shoulder is touched, feel it in "phantom hand"
pruning
loss of neurons or synapses process of apoptosis
hypovolemic thirst
loss of water + solutes
surface dyslexia
lost ability to pronounce words based on their specific memories of the words, but can still apply rules of pronunciation in their reading so can pronounce words with common pronunciation rules such as: fish, river, and glass and can produce made up words that follow the same rules but can not produce the words that don't such as steak have and lose
glutamate
main excitatory neurotransmitter
GABA
main inhibitory neurotransmitter
dopamine
main neurotransmitter for reward
vacuoles
maintains hydration in plant
androgens
make growth hormones in testes
cochlea, vestibular system
make up inner ear
-Scar tissue
makes a mechanical barrier to axon growth.
substantia nigra
makes most of DA; involved in reward & addiction and movement sends dopamine‐releasing axons to the caudate nucleus and putamen
depolarize
making the membrane potential less negative
hyperpolarize
making the membrane potential moer negative
point and shoot
male sex behavior
high risk groups for TBI
males 15-24 substance abusers infants elderly prior brain injury
Deafferentated limbs
many animals choose to work around these limbs
Damage to primary visual cortex
may cause cortical blindness and blindsight (report what they are seeing, but don't actually see it)
semantic
meaning of language
heat
measure of energy within a system
frequency
measure that counts the number of wavelengths that pass a point in one second is known as f___.
reverse dialysis and fast scan cyclic voltammetry
measure the release of chemicals from neurons and can determine which neurotransmitters are important for behaviors
temperature
measurement of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance
spectrophotometry
measurement of visible light, near ultraviolet and near infrared wavelengths
3 semiciruclar canal
measures acceleration of the head
2 Otolith ogans
measures what direction is head tilted; utricle and saccule
transduction for touch
mechanically gated channels open and allow sodium in to depolarize cell
Blood Brain Barrier
mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the brain
transporters
mechanisms in the membrane of a cell that actively transport ions of molecules across the membrane
hearing goes to
medial geniculate nucleus and inferior colliculus
acamprostate
medication used for alcoholism a glutamate recpetor antagonist helps with withdraw
antabuse
medication used for alcoholism antagonizes AD by binding to it drinking alch will make you sick
naloxone
medication used for alcoholism binds/blocks opioid receptors, decreases pleasure from alch
pineal gland
melatonin is produced in the __ gland
postsynaptic potential
membrane depolarization/hyperpolarization at postsynaptic cell
possible functions of rem sleep
memory consolidatoin and removal of useless connections brain development get oxygen to corneas
conductive hearing loss
mess up middle ear (can use hearing aid/surgery) can be caused by congestion viscious fluid
sensorineural hearing impairment
mess up of hairs or auditory nerve
transduction for bitter, sweet, and umami
metabotropic
norepinephrine
metabotropic neurotransmitter involved in attention, stress response, and mood
stereoscopic depth position
method of perceiving distance in which the brain compares slightly different inputs from the two eyes; depends on retinal disparity
CN 9
middle of tongue
dysthymia
mild but persistent depression
optical illusions
mind shortcuts
Cannabinoids
minimize cell loss after a brain stroke -Benefits are most likely due to the anti-inflammatory effects of cannabinoids. -However, research shows that they are most effective in laboratory animals when taken before the stroke.
cerebrospinal fluid
mix of salts, nutrients, wastes that fills all empty spaces of brain
transcranial magnetic stimulation
modern human technique that can activate or inactivate brain regions less invasively
tastants
molecules that the gustatory system detects
The POA/AH partially monitors the body's temperature by
monitoring its own temperature --heating the POA/AH leads to panting; cooling leads to shivering
Polygenic traits
more than one gene contributing to a single phenotype
examples of opiates
morphine, fentanyl, heroin, methadone
receptor cells
most active in DARK (inhibit bipolar cells w/ glutumate) 1. Light CLOSES NA channels & release less glutamate in proportion to the light
small intestine
most digestion occurs in the
stomach distension
most powerful satiety signal
lateralized function
most ppl process it on the left
flavor
mouth fell, all together both smell and taste- which their axons converge in endopiriform cortex
rem behavior disorder
move around vigoroursly during rem sleep no paralysis
kidneys
move waste from blood to urine, return valuable to blood, maintain water, electrolytes levels
magnocellular stream
movement stream, goes mostly along the dorsal path
dystonia
musces contract & spasm involuntarily; antagonistic muscles contract at the same time; NO SYMPTOM; JUST MOVMENT
mesoderm
muscle
release of acetylcholine causes
muscle contraction
smooth muscles
muscles in the organs, and lungs
cardiac muscles
muscles that are involuntary, in the heart
smooth muscle
muscles that are not striated
skeletal muscles
muscles that are voluntary, in biceps
opioids
natural pain killers (morphine, heroin)
apoptosis
natural process of cell death lack of connections ex. prefrontal cortex maturing in late teens/early 20s
processes that reduce discrepencies from the set point are known as
negative feedback
ectoderm
nervous system
Ramon y Cajal
neuron doctrine
Efferent
neuron that carries information away from a structure
Sensory Neuron
neuron that is highly sensitive to a specific type of stimulation
Motor Neuron
neuron that receives excitation from other neurons and conducts impulses to a muscle
Intrinsic Neurons
neuron whose axons and dendrites are all confined within a given structure
frequency theory
neuron will fire at frequency of sound (which would be 100 hz max- but we can go from 20 to 20000 hz)
axon sprouting
neurons secrete neurotrophins & new axons fill vacant synapses healthy axon grows branch to fill in synapses
old age
neurons start to die off
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter that activates muscle cells
POA/AH
neurotransmitter that maintains body heat
epinephrine
neurotransmitter that regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, and metabolic shifts
monoamine
neurotransmitters that are depleted during sleep deprivation
Neurogenesis
new neurons after early development (hippocampus, and nose)
MRI
newer scanning technique lets us view the brain in even more precise ways
inert
noble gases that have a full outer shell are called
astigmatism
not in brain; asymmetric curvature of eye; blurring of vision perception of world based on your cortical decision
cornea
not opaque; not visible although it's on outside of eye
angles in vision are
notes frequencies
fission
nuclear process where atomic nuclei split apart to form smaller nuclei
fusion
nuclear process whereby atomic nuclei join to form a heavier nucleus, this can release and absorb energy depending upon the original elements.
parent nuclide
nucleus undergoing decay
ethology
objective study of animal behaviors
where system
objects that trigger false movement trigger areas of this system
what system
objects that trigger false recognition trigger areas of this system
vision
occiptal
bipolar cells
occupy a strategic position in the retina, since all the signals originating in the receptors and arriving at the ganglion cells must pass through them
synaptogenesis
occurs throughout the life as nuerons are constantly forming new connections and discarding old ones -slow signifigantly later in the lifetime nuerogenesis in adulthood
Surface Currents
ocean currents on the top of the water that are driven by wind
epidural hematoma
often from traumatic skull injury, results from the tearing of a meningeal artery that is in the outer (periosteal) layer of the dura mater.
motion
often thought as part of v5
chemosenses
olfaction and gustation
smell goes to
olfactory bulb
olfactory recceptors
on cilia; replaced monthly
Polytropy
one gene affecting many phenotypes
ingestion drug administration
oral drug administration
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM
order of sleeping stages
two different kinds of thirst
osmotic hypovolemic -each kind of thirst motivates different kinds of behaviors
pinna, ear canal
outer ear
ganglion layer
outer layer of visual pathway
28days
ovulation= occurs every __ days in adult women
mitochondria
oxidize food for cell
hormones released with ecstasy
oxtycoin (social attachment) vasopressin (water retention)
problems that can persist with spinal bifidia
paralysis, bladder, and bowel problems
alpha particle beta particle gamma ray
parent nuclide releases energy most commonly thru the emission of 3 things
active brain regions during dreaming
parietal, temporal, occipital cortexes amygdala- emotional content of dreams hypothalamus- motivations in dreams
forebrain
part of brain that develops for the longest amount of time
retina
part of eye that processes light
middle ear
part of the ear transmits/amplifies vibrations
within 22 days of conception
part of the nueral groove fuses to form the nueral tube (spinal cord) and a fluid-filled cavity ( central canal)
receptive fields
part of the visual field of the retina that the ganglion cell gets info from
Dyslexia
pathological difficulty in reading
shift work
people who work out of synch with regualr sleep wake cycle
rod
periphery, more abundance, see in dim light
Hobbes
philosopher who described behavior in terms of appetites and aversions that later formed basis for theories on conditioning
Hobbes
philosopher who thought our behavior was shaped by our appetites and aversions formed basis for operant and associative conditioning
plato
philosopher who thought the mind arose from the brain
aristotle
philosopher who thought the mind arose from the heart
Descartes
philosopher who thought the soul controlled the pineal gland, which directed the brain
chloroplasts
photosynthesis occurs in
touch goes to
physical - somatosensory cortex emotional - cingulate cortex
Galen
physician who described many anatomical structures, including the anatomy and function of sensory and motor nerves
herophilos and galen
physicians who examined the brains of animals and guessed that fluid from the ventricles controlled behavior
control-question technique
physiological response to a target question compared with response to control question
mesoderm
pink , middle cellular layer
outer ear
pinna
frequency
pitch
pivot
pivot joint and rotation in elbow
wernickes area
planum temporal, temporal lobe, posterior lateral fissure, language comprehension, garage cause receptive aphasia, poor comprehension, speech sounds normal but has no meaning
Wenicke's area
planum temporale: language comprehension (understanding)
synapse
point where an axon and a dendrite meet
Pre-Synaptic Terminal
point where axon releases chemicals
What comprises the brainstem?
pons medulla midbrain
What consists the brainstem?
pons midbrain medulla
Hindbrain:
pons, medulla, cerebellum
ions
positively and negatively charged particles
glossopharyngeal nerve
posterior part of tounge/throat carries tasteinfo
synaptic pruning
postsynaptic cells strengthen connection with some cells that eliminate conection with other cells
transduction for auditory
potassium goes in
plasticity in eye
ppl who use eye 4 quick judgment
L-Dopa
precursor to DA; crosses BBB; doesn't prevent cont. loss of neurons; primary treatment
animals with osmotic thirst have a
preference for pure water
body temperature regulation is predominantly dependent upon areas in the
preoptic area and anterior hypothalamus (POA / AH)
stem cells
present in adult hood create new olfactory receptors needed to continuasly replace dying ones (90 days)
wenike-greschwind model
presented hard question to read aloud
long-term depression
presynaptic cell fails, synapse weaker
long-term potentiation
presynaptic cell makes postsynaptic cell fire, synapse stronger
collateral sprouts
presynaptic neuron is gone and another p.n. grows to take place of another axon
Reuptake
presynaptic neuron takes up most of the released NTs and reuses them
Could you recognize what a sensory neuron looks like compared to what a motor neuron looks like?
printed
Know the parts of a synapse (presynaptic cell (terminal), postsynaptic cell (dendrite or dendritic spine), synaptic cleft).
printed powerpoint
ionization
process by which atoms obtain a + or - charge because the number of electrons does not equal that of protons
diffusion
process by which oxygen travels from the air into your lungs and then into your blood is called
differentiation
process in which axons and dendrites form
synaptogenesis
process in which axons follow chemical path to another neuron and form synapses
myelination
process in which myelin forms around axons
pruning
process in which neurons that do not form enough successful synapses wither and die
migration
process in which new neurons move to proper location by following chemical/structural signals
motor neurons
process info away from brain/spinal cord
Ontogenetic
process relating to development
immunostaining
process that tells where diff proteins are
reuptake
process through which neurotransmitters get back into the axon
decay
process whereby a radioactive element releases energy slowly over a long time to lower its energy and become more stable is best described as
secondary cortex
processes info to find out what it is
Homeostasis
processes that maintain various physiological states within a fixed range
proliferation
production of new cells division of cells in the ventricles
retinohypothalamis pathway
projection that does from retina to SCN providing info about light causes you to wake up when exposed to bright light
NTS; nucleus of the tractus solitarius
projects info 2 various parts of brain; taste nerves projects 2 this in medulla
stages of neural development
proliferation differeniation migration myelination synaptogenesis
Nerve Growth Factor & neurotropin
promotes survival and growth of axon
Darwin
proposed basic mechanisms of biological evolution and applied these to animal behavior
muscle spindles
proprioreceptors parallel to the muscle that responds to a stretch (contract/stretch reflex)
meninges
protect brain and spinal cord
myelin sheath
protects axon
ribosome
protein is synthesized in the
outer hair cells
pulls tectoral membrane
physical change
pulverized rock is a __ change, it changes form but not substance
light goes through
pupil to cornea to retina (contralateral)- stopped here
endogenous rhythms
purpose is to prepare for changes in the environment before they occur sunrise/sunset temperature changes (day/night and seasonal)
Migration
radial glia to migr8 2 place
skinner
radical behaviorism, partly based on thorndike
-Glial cells
reacting to damaged axons in the CNS release chemicals that inhibit axon growth.
stress
reaction to harm or threat
dyslexia
reading difficulties not due to some other deficit
dendrites
receives signals from other neurons
lordosis
receptive sexual posture in females
order of lateral inhibition?
receptor>horizontal>Bipolar>Ganglion cells
Baroreceptors
receptors in heart and aorta that send input to the brain through gossopharyngeal and vagus nerves
smelling
receptors on cilia in nose; work with metabotrophic; sits in membrane and triggers g-protein??
metabotropic
receptors that do not directly alter ion flow across the membrane
Autoreceptors
receptors that respond to the released NT by inhibiting further synthesis and release
ventral
recognition
anecephaly
recsults in the absence of much of the cortex,overlying skull and scalp (amniotic fluid causes tissue degeneration) condition is fatal
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
reduces neurotrophin signals and so apoptosis occurs
chromatography
refers to a number of a techniques that separate mixtures of chemicals based on the differences in the compounds affinity for a stationary phase; porous solid, or mobile stage- liquid gas
-Closed head injuries
refers to a sharp blow to the head that does not puncture the brain •One of the main causes of brain injury in young adults
a set point
refers to a single value that the body works to maintain -levels of water, oxygen, glucose, calcium, protein, fat and acidity in the body
homeostasis
refers to temperature regulation and other biological processes that keep certain body variables within a fixed range
allostasis
refers to the adaptive way in which the body changes its set point in response to changes in life or the environment = environmental need. Opposite of homeostasis.
myelination
refers to the process by which glial produce the fatty sheath that covers the axon of some nuerons
penumbra
region surrounding the epicenter of a stroke
What is Physiological explanation?
relates a behavior to brain (and other organ) activity
thalamus
relay center for the senses
thalamus
relay station to primary visual cortex
nuclear fission
release large amounts of energy, emit gamma rays and form daughter products
Glucagon
released from pancreas; inhibits glycogen production, lowers blood glucose levels
photopigments
releases energy when struck by light 1 in rod rhodopsin, 3 in cones (iodopsin)- chemicals 11-cis> all-trans-retinal light absorbed and energy is released that activates second messenger.. light converts this.. electric signals allows axon to fire so that we can see in optic nerve
somatosensory cortex
reorganizes itself after the amputation of a body part.
Temporal
repeated stimuli within a short amount of time has a cumulative effect ex: lightly pinching a dogs foot in rapid succession produces a reflex
broca
researcher who determined that different parts of the cortex were responsible for different tasks
health hazard from chronic marijuana use
respiratory problems (cough, bronchitis/asthma) or a heart attack
simple cells in v1
respond to lines of a certain angle (edges)
golgi tendon organ
responds to increases in muscle tension; acts as a "brake against excessively vigorous contraction
organ of corti
responsible for sound transduction
-70
resting potential for most neurons
amygdalar lessions
result in difficulty recognizing fear in facial expressions; block fear conditioning
central pattern generator
rhythmic patterns 4rm spine (wing flapping in birds)
Valence model
right hemisphere specialized in the negative emotions and the left is positive
optic
route by which visual information can cross one eye to the contralateral hemisphere alone with the corpus collasum; the largest cerebral commissure
Arachnoid granulations
sagittal sinus drains into the veins serving the brain
this causes a sensation of thirst as well as a
salt appetite to bring blood pressure and osmotic balance back
ionotropic
salty and sour
lateral and superior geniculate tracts
same as audition; in primary cortex ; see angles
ritalin
same as cocaine but differs in time course and dose
What are some similarities and differences between human brains and the brains of other mammals?
same: Brain areas Chemicals (neurotransmitters) Proteins (channels & receptors) Differences: Overall brain size Size of individual parts Neocortex (primates) Olfactory bulb (rodents) Auditory cortex (bats) Muscles and sense organs of forelimbs (monkeys)
drug priming
sample formerly abused drug once and fall back into full blown addiction
axon regrowth in CNS
scar tissue is a mechanical barrier that blocks regrowth myelin secretes chemicals that inhibit regrowth
simple machine
screw, wheels, levers, pulleys, wedges are examples of
olfactory responses
send APs to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb
sensory neurons
send impulses to brain/spinal cord
axon
sends signals, releases neurotransmitters
Cranial nerves: what is their general function. How many are there?
sensory and motor for face and head 12 pairs *Some have autonomic component (pupil constriction, tearing, salivating, cardiovascular functions) *Important in neurological exams *Most enter/exit the ventral surface of the brainstem *Information comes in the cranial nerves and eventually ends up in sensory cortex
inactive brain regions during dreaming
sensory cortex prefrontal cortex- week memory
hair cells
sensory neurons of ears bang it's head and it will fire; pulls open sodium channels
cranial nerves
sensory signals that travel through face/head
longitudinal fissure
separates two hemispheres of brain
decay chain
series of decays of a radioactive element into different more stable elements
taste nerves
several; facial nerve and glossopharyngeal
Sex-linked
sex chromosomes; genes tend to be expressed in males; two x's act as a protector for the woman, a male is either affected or not, females can be carriers
meiosis
sexual reproduction
Dendritic Spine
short outgrowths that increase SA available for synapses.
compound machine - has lever and wedge
shovel is a
Type 1 diabetes
shows up in youth; do not manufacture enough insulin
action potential
signal sent by axon
the visual pathway
signals on the right hand side of your vision project to the left of the thalamus, and signals on the left hand side of your vision project to the right of the thalamus
Example of Evolutionary explanation?
similar birdsongs, goosebumps
methadone
similar to heroin and morphine pill used to combat opioid addiction enters blood/metabolizes SLOWLY
parallel processing
simultaneous analysis of signals along different pathways
meiosis II
sister chromatids separate
animals with hypovolemic thirst have a preference for
slightly salty water as pure water dilutes body fluids and changes osmotic pressure
stage 3 of sleep
slow wave sleep
stage 4 of sleep
slow wave sleep thalamus stops relaying sensory info to cortex
What are microglia?
small (micro-) glial cells. function unknown in healthy brain. When there is damage, the microglia proliferate, migrate to the point of damage, turn into macrophages, and devour debris and pathogens. When a PNS nerve is cut, the axons regrow thru the Schwann cell tube.
Arachnoid granulations:
small projections of the arachnoid membrane through the dura mater into the superior sagittal sinus
superior colliculus
smaller amount goes to (causes flinching; cortex made you stop); lets you track stuff while you move
sons of alcoholic fathers
smaller amygdala tolerance higher decrease in stress due to alcohol
CN 1
smell
Olfaction
smell
pattern of receptor-
smell goes from: glomeruli directly to piriform cortex (olfactory cortex) NO THALMUS and also to amygdale- creating an emotional response
retronasal olfaction
smell in back of throat; 90% of flavor discrimination is based on smell
facial feedback hypothesis
smiling makes you happier; facial muscles influence emotional experience
cochlea
snail structure; subdivided into 3 fluid-filled structures
dorsal stream
somatosensory ; where pathway where they r& how they move a. goes to parietal lobe. i. each area receives information from a different part of the body ii. 4 bands of cells- 2 light touch, 1 deep pressure,1 both b. receives mostly non‐color signals. c. how we locate objects. d. closely associated with somatosensory areas of the brain. e. where body motion and vision are integrated
trigeminal nerve
somatosensory part; hot and cold burning sensation in nose and mouth; capsaicin; smell of ammonia
longitudinal
sound & some earthquake waves travel in l___ waves. particles move back/forth in the same direction. (also known as compression waves)
phonological analysis
sound of language
synaptic cleft
space between axon and dendrite
ion channels
specialized pores in the neural membrane that ions pass through
Set point
specific value of an internal state that the body defends
Myelination
speeds transmission; oligodendrocytes (brain/spinal cord)/ schwann cells (periphery)
myelin
speeds up the transmission of nueral impulses
spina bifida
split spine
synaptogenesis
stage five , final stage of the neural development refers to the formation of synapse between nuerons
REM
stage of sleep with fast brain waves and dreams
NREM stage 1 and 2
stage of sleep with fast, repeating waves
NREM stage 3
stage of sleep with slow (delta) waves, restorative
proliferation
stage one , refers to the production of two new glial cells and nuerons (nuerogensis) in the brain some cells become stem cells that continue to divde a subset of stemcells become nuerons or glia
differeation
stage three refers to the forming of the axon and dendrite that gives the neuron its distinctive shape the axon grows first either durng migration or once it has reached its target this is followed by the development of dendrites
migration
stage two refers to the movement of newly formed nuerons and glia to there eventual locations
Astrocytes
star-shaped glia that synchronize the activity of the axons
amphetamine and haloperidol
stimulants that help prevent diaschisis improves behavior
taste
stimulation of taste buds (receptors on tounge)
zeitgeber
stimulus that resets biological clock temperature exercise noise meals bright light
transduction for vision
stop sodium from leaving cell
Glycogen
storing glucose (animal starch)
three causes of relapse
stress, drug priming, or environmental cues
ischemic
stroke in which blood clots starve brain areas of oxygen
hemorrhage
stroke in which blood vessel in brain bursts
grammatical
structure of language
skeletal structure
structure that maintains body shape, protects internal organs
taste buds
structures that activate taste receptors
law of thermodynamics
study of conversion of energy into heat and work in a system
genetics
study of heredity
injection drug administration
subcutaneously (under the skin), intramuscularly (into the muscle), of intravenously (in an IV)
patient HM
suffered permanent, complete anterograde memory impairment and substantial retrograde memory impairment
left hemisphere
superior in controlling ipsilateral movement, an "interpreter"
right hemisphere
superior in spatial ability, emotion, mucial ability, some memory tasks
soma
support system of neuron, cell body
cajal
supported the neuron doctrine that stated that there is a small gap between neurons that chemical messengers must cross for neurons to communicate
ligaments
supports movable joint
astrocyte
supports neurons, maintains BBB
Deep Water Currents
surface water more dense than what is underneath it (in regions with low density stratification)...water sinks, makes slow deep current
megatropic
sweet, bitter, umami
neuromuscular junction
synapse between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber
glomerilus
synapse between receptor cell and mitral cell (reason y smell doesn't go thru thalmus) - reacts to multiple odors
Spatial
synaptic inputs from separate locations combine their effects on a single neuron ex: lightly pinching a dog in two places produces a reflex; combination of stimuli.
korsakoff
syndrome associated with alcoholism
cushing syndrome
syndrome that shuts down GH production, slows wound healing, reduces reproductive function
limbic
system containing hippocampus and amygdala
parasympathetic nervous system
system responsible for lowering the heart rate, dilates blood vessels increases secretions of digestive system
sympathetic nervous system
system that accelerates heart, contracts blood vessels, decreases digestive secretions.
CNS
system that is composed of brain and spinal cord
sympathetic nervous system
system that is part of the autonomous nervous system
Lipogenesis
takes glucose and convert it to fat
adaptive immune system
targets specific pathogens identified by their antigens
sense that doesn't cross
taste
tastants
taste molecules
For the following brain structures, be able to identify them on a midline section of the brain, and know generally what they do: medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain (remember the structures that we named within the midbrain?), thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, corpus callosum.
tba medulla-Controls vital reflexes Damage to medulla can be fatal trauma, drugs Midbrain- Reflexive orienting to visual and auditory stimuli Intrinsic/descending pain control Substantia nigra -Parkinson's disease And more...
primary lines of defense
tears, urine, mucus- __ defense
electron microscopy
techniques used to visualize objects that are too small to be seen with "traditional" microscopy techniques
Midbrain
tectum, tegmentum, superior/inferior colliculus, substantia nigra
immunostaining
tells us where the different proteins are in different brain regions or parts of the cell, telling us what chemicals different parts of the brain produce or respond to
dorsal stream
tells where/how objects are moving
psychosis
temp/permanent psychiatric condition (hallucinations, disordered thoughts, delusional beliefs)
What are temporal and spatial summation?
temporal-several impulses from one neuron over time spatial-impulses from several neurons at the same time
adolescence
tends to be more impulsive than adults.
What is in the cortex?
thalamus & hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala, basal ganglia, etc
midbrain
that's where you protect yourself
Swelling associated with meningitis often triggers
the "hallmark" signs and symptoms of this condition
brain plasticity
the ability of the brain to change over time (e.g., form new synapses, increase dendritic branching and spines
Edema
the accumulation of fluid in the brain resulting in increased pressure on the brain and increasing the probability of further strokes.
sex-linked inheritance
the acquisition of characters or qualities by transmission from parent to offspring
10 months
the age at which one can discriminate between all phonemes; by 30 months they can discriminate only those sounds that compose the language to which they have been exposed
entropy
the amount of energy that is no longer available for work, and related to the 2nd law of thermodynamics
semantic analysis
the analysis of the meaning of language
to inhibit thirst,
the body monitors swallowing and detects the water contents of the stomach and intestines
daughter nuclide
the changed parent nuclide
Water Cycle
the continuous process by which water moves from Earth's surface to the atmosphere and back
sublimation of water
the conversion between solid and the gaseous phases of matter, with no intermediate liquid stage
Diaschisis
the decreased activity of surviving neurons after damage to other neurons.
Concentration Gradient
the difference in distribution of ions across the selectively permeable membrane
membrane potential
the difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of a cell
Resting Potential
the difference in voltage of a resting neuron (intracellular charge (-) differs from extracellular charge (+))
The End
the end
the vagus nerve stimulates
the hypothalamus to initiate a fever
but when our salt intake levels are very high
the kidneys cannot keep up
Atmosphere
the mass of air surrounding the Earth
Absolute refractory period
the membrane cannot produce an action potential, regardless of the stimulation.
Weather
the meteorological conditions: temperature and wind and clouds and precipitation
Ischemia
the most common type of stroke, resulting from a blood clot or obstruction of an artery.
The refractory period
the neuron resists the production of any further action potentials
Air Pressure
the pressure exerted by the atmosphere
•Collateral sprouting
the process by which new axon branches are formed on adjacent, non-damaged axons.
radiation
the propagating waves of particles, such as light, sound, radiant heat, or particles, emitted by radioactivity.
the concentrations of chemicals in water determines
the rate of all chemical reactions in the body
Upwelling
the rising of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface water that has been moved away
when there is too much salt in the blood
the salt draws more water into the blood
heat
the state of a body perceived as having or generating a relatively high degree of warmth.
gas
the state of matter distinguished from the solid and liquid states by: relatively low density and viscosity
resting potential
the steady membrane potential of the neuron at about - 70 mV
place theory
the string that vibrates is the one you hear (causes diff. areas of ear to vibrate- but many parts are to close to vibrate independently )
boiling point
the temperature at which a liquid boils at sea level
absolute zero
the temperature at which substances possess no thermal energy, equal to -273.15 degrees C. or -459.67 degrees F.
same
the temperature of a substance during any time of any phase change _____remains the same or changes
Solutes inside and outside a cell produce osmotic pressure,
the tendency of water to flow across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration -occurs when solutes are more concentrated on one side of the membrane -certain neurons detect the loss of water and trigger osmotic thirst to help restore the body to the normal state
conduction
the transfer of thermal energy by direct contact of matter.
convection
the transfer of thermal energy through the motion of fluids.
proteins in the body break their bonds and lose
their useful properties at higher temperatures -reproductive cells require cooler temperatures
incentive-sensitization theory
theory that addicts develop when drug use sensitizes the neural circuits mediating the wanting of the drug - no necessarily the liking for the drug
TMS
therapeutic brain test
Axon
thin fiber of constant diameter; neurons information sender
hypovolemic thirst is
thirst associated with low volume of body fluids. Lose of salt and water, will crave salt.
Symptoms of dehydration include:
thirst, fatigue, weakness, decreased urination and a dark yellow color of the urine, left unchecked, dehydration can even be fatal
ITD
time diff between one ear and the other
epithelial tissue
tissue for internal organs
muscle tissue
tissue for skeletal, smooth, cardiac, for contractions
connective tissue
tissue hold body together- bones, cartilage, blood, fat
nervous tissue
tissue made of neurons
receptors in the OVLT, subfornical organ, stomach and elsewhere relay information
to areas of the hypothalamus, including the: -supraoptic nucleus -paraventricular nucleus: both control the rate at which the posterior pituitary releases vasopressin
•One of the most effective laboratory methods used to minimize damage caused by strokes is
to cool the brain.
how does drug tolerance shift the dose-response curve?
to the right
convergence
to view nearby objects in both eyes, your eyes have to tilt inward toward the object to view faraway object, your eyes are pointed straight ahead
prefrontal cortex & decreased reinforcement
too much drug use inhibts prefrontal cortex results in nucleus accumebs inability to reinforce
serotonin syndrome
too much serotonin released due to too much of a serotonin agonist
optic tract
transfers info from temporal retinal fibers
optic nerve
transmits signal from eye
spinal cord
transmits signals between nerves and brain
deep brain stimulation
treatment for dystonia/parkinsons
•Edema and excess potassium
triggers the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.
causes of brain damage
tumor toxic substances degenerative diseases penetrating head injury (TBI) closed head injury (TBI) strokes
rooting
turns head and sucks when cheek is stimulated
bipolar and horizontal cells
two types of cells in the intermediate layer
middle ear
tympanic membrane
drosophila
type of fruit fly
Auditory Cortex
understand language; songs get stuck in your head
perception
understanding the stimulus
urine
urea, water, other wastes is called
frequency-place theory
use 1st theory for sounds lower than 100 hz; and place theory for anything higher than 100 hz
analgesics
used to block pain
electron microscopy
used to visualize cells in greater detail than is possible with traditional light microscopy
temperature regulation
uses about two-thirds of our energy/kilocalories per day
electrophoresis
uses electrical charges to separate substances , proteins, DNA, RNA
optogenetics
uses light pulses directed at light activated ion channels to determine what the activation of a single group of neurons does
Glycolysis
using glucose for energy
hubel and weisal's experiment
v1& v2
supertasters
variation; changes what you think of food higher sensitivity to all tastes
thirst is triggered by the release of the horomones
vasopressin and angiotensin II, which constrict blood vessels to compensate for a drop in blood pressure
motion sickness
vestibular system and eyes are tellin u 2 diff. things
temperature regulation is accomplished
via choosing locations in the enviorment
stiff end
vibrates at high frequency
floppy end
vibrates at low frequency
tympanic membrane
vibrates at same rate as sound of voice (sound waves; known as ear drum) - 2)Connect to 3 tiny bones
CN 2
vision
lateral geniculate
vision; Most ganglion cell axons go there (in thalmus)
LGN
visual area of thalamus
Superior Colliculi:
visual sensation
temperature regulation is
vital to the normal functioning of many behavioral processes -temperature affects many aspects of behavior
amplitude
volume
WHY: some bacteria grow less vigorously in
warmer than normal body temperature --fever enhances activity of the immune system
Osmosis
water moves across cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration; occurs until concentration of dissolved particles in intracellular and extracellular fluid are equal
when osmotic thirst is triggered,
water that you drink has to be absorbed through the digestive system. Don't add salt, only water.
trichromatic theory
we have 3 cones(red, green, blue) and pigment mixing occurs within the ratio and that's how we see colors; more intense light increases the brightness but doesn't change ratio
Humidity
wetness in the atmosphere
line orientation
what do cells in the primary visual cortex of cats detect?
retinotopic maps
what do the thalamus, midbrain, and primary visual cortex all contain?
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
what genes are made up
vision
what you see is light's reflection; as far as light can move is how far you can see
blindsight
when V1 is damaged but V2 is intact, where you can see objects but aren't aware of them
drug conditioning
when a drug is taken in a different setting from usual, body does not compensate as usual
boil
when a liquid boils, it becomes so hot that it bubbles and steams.
metabolic tolerance
when a subject's reaction to a specific drug and concentration of the drug is progressively reduced, requiring an increase in concentration to achieve the desired effect
diaschisis
when brain area degenerates due to damage in activation area
necrosis
when cells die due to accidents/injury
spatial summation
when many axons projecting to diff parts of postsynaptic neuron send signals at the same time
temporal summation
when one axon sends many fast signals so PSPs overlap
absolute refractory period
when sodium channels are inactivated (need to rest)
Organum Vasculosum of the Laminae Terminalis (OVLT)
when these neurons shrink, they increase cell firing potential
aphasias
when you break something
taste aversion
when you hate a type of food insular cortex, amygdala and PVN
differentiation in cortex
when young you can rewire, once they differentiate, it will be unable 2 rewire
lateral ventricle and hippocampal formation
where adult neurogeneis occurs
axon hillock
where decision to activate neuron is made
optic chiasm
where do fibers from the contralateral eye decussate?
optic chiasm
where fibers from contralateral eye decussate
retina
where is light processed?
context
where you determine how far away an object is by gauging how large it looks in your vision compared to how large you know it actually is
daughter nuclide
which is more stable, the parent or daughter nuclide
more water increases the volume of blood
which raises blood pressure
Prevailing Winds
winds that blow in the same direction over large areas of Earth
Sham feeding
with presence of oral factors that promote food intake, animals will keep trying to ingest food
optic chiasm
x-shaped structure on the inferior surface of the diencephalon; the point where the optic nerves decussate
if you lose fluid while also losing solutes (like salts)
you experience hypovolemic thirst -usually happens after blood loss -excess vomiting and sweating can also cause this
Paralysis
• caused by spinal cord damage is relatively permanent
Direction of CSF flow:
• lateral ventricles • third ventricle • cerebral aqueduct • fourth ventricle
tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)
•A drug that breaks up blood clots.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
•Alcohol suppresses glutamate and enhances GABA.
nueral tube defects
•Can be detected in utero by the third month during pregnancy. At this time, amniotic fluid will have increased concentrations of alpha-fetoprotein.
neurotrophines
•Cells that have lost their source of innervation release _________ that induce axons to form collateral sprouts and new synapses.
A stroke or cerebrovascular accident
•Common cause of brain damage in elderly
mature mammals
•Damaged axons in the CNS do not regenerate well in ...
cannot
•Destroyed cell bodies __________ be replaced, but damaged axons do grow back under certain circumstances.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
•Hyperactivity, impulsiveness •Attention deficits •Cognitive impairment •Motor problems •Heart defects •Facial abnormalities
Neural tube defects
•Incidence is greatly decreased by taking folic acid during pregnancy.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
•Neurotrophins are co-released with neurotransmitters. •Less neurotransmitter release = less neurotrophin release = greater cell death. .
grey matter
•People who learned to read as adults compared to those who never learned how to read developed more ____ (cell bodies and dendrites) in the cerebral cortex and a thicker corpus callosum.
neurotrophins
•Postsynaptic cells produce and release -these chemicals that promote the survival and activity of presynaptic neurons (e.g., nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor).
adolescence
•Show stronger reward responses (this, together with increased impulsivity, can be problematic...).
adolescence
•Show weaker prefrontal cortex response when they should be inhibiting their behavior - this may or may not be the cause of increased impulsivity.
Medulla
•Site where cranial nerves enter/leave the brain. In the hindbrain it controls sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and multiple parasympathetic outputs to organs (e.g., intestinal secretions).
Plasticity after Brain Damage
•Survivors of brain damage show subtle to significant behavioral recovery.
brain plasticity
•The brain isn't hard-wired; use or disuse of an area can cause it to grow or contract, especially in the cortex.
relates to learning and enrichment.
•The gain and loss of spines indicates new connections
nueral reorganization
•This translates into heightened sensation in remaining, adjacent body parts.
stimulate activity
•Use of drugs (stimulants) to _____ in healthy regions of the brain after injury may be a mechanism of later recovery.
Medulla
•located in the hindbrain it is Important for vital reflexes. •Damage is often fatal.
