Psy 200 Lifespan 11-13

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 11 abusive relationship-relationships in which one person becomes aggressive toward the partner. assortative mating-theory stating that people and partners based on their similarity to each other. battered woman syndrome-situation occurring when a woman believes that she cannot leave the abusive situation and may even go so far as to kill her abuser cohabitation-people in committed, intimate, sexual relationships who live together but are not married. exchange theory-theory that states marriage is based on each partner contributing something to the relationship that the other would be hard-pressed to provide. extended family-most common form of family around the world; one in which grandparents and other relatives live with parents and children. familism-the idea that the family's well-being takes precedence over the concerns of individual family members. homogamy-similarity of values and interests. married singles-middle-aged couples that have grown apart emotionally but continue to live together. nuclear family-most common form of family in Western societies, consisting only of parent(s) and child(ren).

Chapter 12 age discrimination-denying a job or promotion to someone solely on the basis of age. alienation-feeling that results in workers when their work seems meaningless and their eorts devalued or when they see no connection between their own work and the final product burnout-a depletion of a person's energy and motivation, the loss of occupational idealism, and the feeling that one is being exploited. career plateauing-when promotional advancement is either not possible or not desired by the worker. gender discrimination-denying a job to someone solely on the basis of whether the person is a man or a woman. glass ceiling-the level to which women may rise in an organization but beyond which they may not go job satisfaction.-the positive feeling that results from an appraisal of one's work leisure-discretionary activity that includes simple relaxation, activities for enjoyment, and creative pursuits. pay equity-equalizing pay across occupations that are determined to be equivalent in importance but dier in the gender distribution of the people doing the jobs. vocational maturity-degree of congruence between people's occupational behavior and what is expected of them at different ages. work-family conflict- the feeling of being pulled in multiple directions by incompatible demands from one's job and one's family.

11.1 Relationships:Learning Objectives What type of friendships do adults have? How do adult friendships develop? What is love? How does it begin? How does it develop through adulthood? What is the nature of abuse in some relationships? Friendships Three themes of friendship Affective or emotional: self-disclosure, expressions of intimacy, appreciation, and support Chapter Eleven Being with Others: Forming Relationships in Young and Middle Adulthood Requires trust, loyalty, and commitment Shared or communal nature: mutual interests Sociability and compatibility: source of fun and entertainment Friendship quality: satisfaction one derives from the relationship Friendships (cont'd) Adult friendships develop over several stages Acquaintanceship Buildup Continuation Deterioration Ending Friendships (cont'd) Young adults tend to have more friends than during any other stage of adulthood Self-esteem and life satisfaction partly depend upon the quantity and quality of contact with friends Online friendships are just as high in quality as other types of friendships Trust is key to these friendships due to the lack of visual cues to verify any presented information Sibling friendships are important as well, more so for women than for men Men's, Women's, and Cross-Sex Friendships Women tend to base friendships more on confiding in others; intimate and emotional sharing Women tend to have more close friends Men's friendships are less intimate; based more on shared interests or activities Men's friendships tend to involve less sharing and more competition Cross-sex relationships may help men with their dating anxiety and capacity for intimacy Men overperceive but women underperceive, these friends' sexual interest in them Love Relationships Sternberg's three basic components of love Passion: intense physical desire Intimacy: feeling of being able to share all one's thoughts and actions with the other Commitment: willingness to stay with the person through good and bad times Couples are happier when each feels the same types of love to a similar degree The longer a relationship lasts the lower its intimacy and passion, but the greater its commitment Love Through Adulthood Infatuation: characterizes early stages of romance when passion is high, but intimacy and commitment are lower Higher divorce rates in couples who marry based primarily on infatuation Assortative mating: selecting one's partner based on similarity across many dimensions Homogamy: Degree to which people are similar; greater when couples meet through school or a religious setting Love Through Adulthood (cont'd) Mixed findings regarding relationship satisfaction and homogamy Higher marital satisfaction if couples are similar (homogamous) in openness to experience, but not other personality dimensions when couples' physical health is similar Love Through Adulthood (cont'd) Speed dating has become popular Date selection and date satisfaction are higher when the date is attractive, outgoing, self-assured, and moderately self-focused Online dating is more common in the U.S. (1 in 5) than other countries (1 in 10-20) Physical attractiveness strongly affects partner selection in online and offline contexts Love Through Adulthood (cont'd) Women choose masculine-looking men for shorter-term relationships and feminine-looking men for long-term relationships Certain traits are universally desirable in mate selection Physical attractiveness, especially for men Being a good provider, especially for women In both genders: love, mutual attraction, dependability, emotional stability, kindness, and understanding VIDEO: Internet Relationships-Green Love Through Adulthood (cont'd) Two dimensions describe mate preference across 37 cultures (Buss et al., 1990) These cultures showed great diversity in which end of each dimension they emphasized (1) Cultural values: traditional values vs. Western-industrial values Traditional value cultures: men want children; value a woman's chastity plus her ability to cook and housekeep; women value a man's ambition, industry, social status, and financial prospects Western value cultures: value more Western ideals Love Through Adulthood (cont'd) (2) Having a pleasing disposition vs. importance of education, intelligence, and social refinement This dimension is equally important to both genders Developmental Forces and Relationships Love is a function of biopsychosocial forces Love is a distinct neurological emotion system, with different stages of love involving different neurochemicals Early romantic/passionate love: amphetamine-related and dopamine activity Long-term commitment and tranquility: morphine-related Attachment and women's orgasms: oxytocin Women more strongly bonded to their boyfriends are less able to identify a different male's body odor Developmental Forces and Relationships (cont'd) Erikson: mature love is impossible without a capacity for intimacy Relationships one experienced as a child affect adults' definition of love, and actions in, romantic relationships Sociocultural and lifecycle forces shape our mate preferences and which type(s) of love are important to us The Dark Side of Relationships: Abuse Abusive relationship: when one partner becomes violent or aggressive toward the other Battered woman syndrome: when a woman believes she cannot leave an abusive situation and may go so far as to kill her abuser Aggressive behavior is a continuum (verbal aggression physical aggression severe physical aggression murder) This behavior's causes are more numerous and complex as its severity increases The Dark Side of Relationships (cont'd) Violence may start as common violence or physical aggressiveness between the couple There may be patriarchal terrorism in which men systematically abuse women Men are abuse victims at about a rate 1/3 that of women Heterosexual and gay or lesbian couples show similar patterns of abuse and reasons for it Abusive men and women tend to hold traditional gender beliefs; lack communication and anger management skills The Dark Side of Relationships (cont'd) Abuse is tolerated more in cultures that emphasize male honor, female purity, and male status; value family honor, loyalty, and sacrifice; view women as passive but nurturing of men The U.S. south places value on honor "Honor" cultures are more positive toward women who remain in an abusive relationship less disapproving of abused women who show contrition and self-blame after being abused The Dark Side of Relationships (cont'd) Dating relationship abuse occurs in 40% of young adults Risk factors are being female, Latina, African American, having an atypical family structure, having more romantic partners, early sexual activity, and being a victim of child abuse College women are 4x likelier to be sexually assaulted than other age groups 11.2 Lifestyles:Learning Objectives Why do some people decide not to marry, and what are these people like? What are the characteristics of cohabiting people? What are gay and lesbian relationships like? What is marriage like through the course of adulthood? Singlehood 70% of women and 80% of men are single between the ages of 20 and 24 Twice as many African Americans as European Americans are single throughout adulthood Men tend to remain single longer than women, but men are likelier to marry Cultures differ in their expectations of marrying and marriage Singlehood (cont'd) Young adults view married more than single people as caring, kind, and giving Single people receive less compensation at work Rental agents preferred married couples 60% of the time in a recent study Cohabitation Three reasons for a decision to cohabit Convenience, sharing expenses, and sexual accessibility No long-term commitment, marriage is not a goal Women report this more than men A trial marriage 50% transition to marriage A long-term commitment without legal marriage More common with older couples who may lose financial benefits if they marry Cohabitation (cont'd) The rate of cohabitation differs considerably across cultures Research on cohabitation suggests that it does not increase the chances of a successful marriage May be due to other factors, such as having children, then cohabiting, and then marrying Gay and Lesbian Couples Most research shows no differences between homosexual and heterosexual couples on virtually all dimensions (e.g., relationship issues, satisfaction) Gay and lesbian couples report less support from family than do married or cohabiting couples Marriage Studies show the median age at which couples marry has been rising for the past several decades Women who marry under the age of 20 are 3 times more likely to divorce than women who marry in their 20s 6 times more likely to divorce than those who marry in their 30s What Factors Help Marriage Succeed? Marriages are likelier to succeed when both partners are relatively mature this may be why marriages in one's early 20s or younger tend to fail the couple is homogamous in terms of values and interests each partner contributes equitably, giving something that the other would be hard pressed to provide (exchange theory) couples are honest and committed, they trust and consult each other, and they make decisions jointly Do Married Couples Stay Happy? Marital and cohabital satisfaction is highest in the beginning, falls until children begin leaving home, and rises again in later life When dependence is more equal, marriage tends to stay strong and close When dependence is less equal, people experience more conflict and difficulty Vulnerability-stress adaptation model: marital satisfaction is a function of the couple's ability to deal with stress, given its vulnerabilities and resources at each particular point in time The Early Years of Marriage Discussing financial matters, adjusting to expectations, and good conflict resolution skills are important in the early years Disillusionment and ambivalence are key predictors of marital dissatisfaction Rearing children results in less satisfaction However, childless couples' satisfaction declines as well Keeping Marriages Happy Enduring marital satisfaction is likelier when couples are forgiving, understanding, flexible, adaptive, and available for, and interested in, the other keep the romance alive and express love confide in each other; communicate constructively and positively share spirituality and/or religious beliefs, particularly in lower SES groups 11.3 The Family Lifecycle:Learning Objectives What are the common forms of families? Why do people have children? What is it like to be a parent? What differences are there in different types of parenting? Common Forms of Families The nuclear family consists only of parents and children Common in Western societies The extended family consists of parents, children, grandparents, and other relatives living together Common in many countries Very strong among Latino families Familism: the family's well-being takes precedence over an individual family member's concerns Strong in lower SES Latino families Deciding Whether to Have Children 50%+ of U.S. pregnancies are unplanned Finances are always a big consideration Having a child in 2009 will cost between $206k and $476k over 17 years for food, shelter, and other necessities (cost depends upon income bracket) Childless couples have a higher standard of living and greater marital satisfaction Societal attitudes toward childless couples have improved since the 1970s The Parental Role Couples are having fewer children and waiting longer Older parents are more at ease, affectionate, sensitive, and supportive; spend more time with their babies More than 70% of women with children under 18 are employed outside the home and still perform most of the childrearing tasks Men who become fathers in their 30s spend up to 3 times as much time caring for their preschool children Men who take paternal leave spend no more time with children than fathers who do not take leave Ethnic Diversity and Parenting In African-American households, husbands are very likely to help with household chores and childcare even if the wife is unemployed children are buffered from problems such as drug involvement due to these parents' more conservative views children are raised in a cohesive, loving, and often strongly religious environments stress is placed on pride in cultural heritage, self-respect, and cooperation within the family Ethnic Diversity and Parenting (cont'd) In Native-American families, children are viewed as important family members stress is placed on cooperation, sharing, personal integrity, generosity, harmony with nature, and spirituality (instead of Westerners' emphasis on competition and individuality) retaining a strong sense of tribalism is paramount Ethnic Diversity and Parenting (cont'd) 22% of U.S. children under 18 are Latino Latino families emphasize authoritative parenting familism (higher priority of family over individual) the extended family Ethnic Diversity and Parenting (cont'd) Asian-American families emphasize familism and the extended family maintaining discipline children conforming, earning good grades, and being concerned about what others think In Asian-American families, adolescents report high feelings of familial obligation males enjoy higher status than females Ethnic Diversity and Parenting (cont'd) Parents of biracial children report feeling victimized by prejudice and discrimination fear both racial communities will reject their children Mothers of the majority race tend to raise their biracial children stressing the minority race's identity Single Parents Over 40% of all U.S. births are to unwed mothers Out-of-wedlock births comprise 70% of African-American births 50% of Latino births 30% of European-American births Causes of being a single parent include high divorce rates, the decision to keep out-of-wedlock children, and higher fertility rates Single Parents (cont'd) Divorced and single parents report feelings of frustration and guilt try to be their child's peers, use inconsistent discipline, overindulge and spoil the child Single parents often face financial strains Single mothers are often affected the most Insecurity about sexuality and concerns for how children will react affect decisions to starting dating again Alternate Forms of Parenting 1/3 of North American couples become step, foster, or adoptive parents, and are concerned about how strongly the child will bond with them Many children remain very close to noncustodial parents Stepchildren may manifest emotional and behavioral problems, exacerbating the (step)parents' risk for divorce Adopted children may wish to have contact with birth parents, which may be viewed as rejection by adoptive parents Children adopted from another culture may struggle with identity issues Alternate Forms of Parenting (cont'd) Foster parents have the most difficulty developing and maintaining bonds with their foster children because foster children vary in age at the time they were taken from biological parents foster children may be reunited at any time with their parents or adopted by another couple Alternate Forms of Parenting (cont'd) Society resists gays or lesbians having children and passes laws against it Compared to children of heterosexuals, those raised by gay and lesbian parents show equivalent cognitive development, are equally adjusted psychologically and are no more likely to identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, or heterosexual exhibit lower levels of homophobia and lower fear of negative evaluation as adults experience more egalitarian parenting 11.4 Divorce and Remarriage:Learning Objectives Who gets divorced? How does divorce affect parental relationships with children? What are remarriages like? How are they similar to and different from first marriages? Divorce U.S. couples have a 50/50 chance of divorce and a 60% chance if married between 20-24 The U.S. divorce rate is 54.8% and is virtually tied for the highest rate out of 47 countries Who Gets Divorced and Why? Ethnicity is a big factor in who divorces African- and Asian-American couples have been married longer before divorcing Ethnically mixed marriages are at risk Infidelity is the most commonly reported cause Other commonly reported causes are incompatibility, drug or alcohol use, and growing apart Who Gets Divorced and Why? (cont'd) Reasons men give for divorce Communication problems Unhappiness Incompatibility Sexual problems Financial problems Emotional abuse Women's liberation In-laws Infidelity by spouse Alcohol abuse by self Reasons women give for divorce Communication problems Unhappiness Incompatibility Emotional abuse Financial problems Sexual problems Alcohol abuse by spouse Infidelity by spouse Physical abuse In-laws Who Gets Divorced and Why? (cont'd) Gottman and Levenson's (2000) models Predict with 93% accuracy both early divorce (within marriage's first 7 years) and later divorce (when the first child reaches 14) Show that expressing negative emotions during conflict predict early but not later divorce Includes expressing contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling Show that the absence of positive emotions predicts later divorce Showing these factors to be good predictors may not hold in lower-income, high-risk couples Who Gets Divorced and Why? (cont'd) The odds for divorce are higher earlier rather than later in a marriage With time, couples learn to use more accommodating but fewer destructive or quiet withdrawal behaviors European-American wives African-American couples European-American husbands' conflict management behaviors are more consistent across time Use less withdrawal even early in the marriage Who Gets Divorced and Why? (cont'd) Covenant marriage: makes marriage more difficult by expanding the marriage contract to a lifelong commitment within a supportive community Couple agrees to counseling if problems arise Grounds for divorce are very restrictive Collaborative divorce: voluntary agreement for couples to negotiate their divorce rather than a court imposing the terms; beneficial in many ways Healthy Marriage Initiative Stresses marriage's positive aspects and marital education Effects of Divorce on the Couple Divorced individuals often feel disappointed, misunderstood, and rejected find it difficult to let go or to find new friendships Divorce causes financial and child support problems for women Women who initiate the divorce report self-focused growth and optimism Adjustment to single life is better for people less preoccupied with, less hostile toward, and more forgiving of the ex Remarriage is less likely for middle-aged or older women Relationships with Adult Children Parental divorce negatively affects young adults in many ways, including their views on intimate and marital relationships ability to achieve love, sexual intimacy, and commitment to marriage and parenthood relationships with fathers, while bringing them closer to their mothers Remarriage On average, men and women wait about 3.5 years before remarrying European Americans, military veterans, and those with less education remarry more often Remarriages have a 25% higher rate of divorce than original marriages This rate is higher for remarriages involving stepchildren Women are more likely to initiate a divorce, but are less likely to remarry (unless they are poor) Remarriage (cont'd) Younger generations tend to remarry at a lower rate Those who remarry sooner have no less success in marriage than those who wait Young adult children report a positive effect of their parents happily remarrying on their own intimate relationships

Chapter Twelve Work and Leisure: Occupational and Lifestyle Issues in Young and Middle Adulthood 12.1 Occupational Selection & Development: Learning Objectives How do people view work? How do occupational priorities vary with age? How do people choose their occupations? What factors influence occupational development? What is the relation between job satisfaction and age? The Meaning of Work Most people work to make a living but also find meaning in their work Meaning-mission fit: the alignment between one's personal view of work and the company's missions Greater alignment can have multiple self and other benefits Personal fulfillment is derived from work in 4 ways Developing and becoming self Union with others Expressing self Serving others Occupational Choice Revisited Holland: people pursue careers that are a good fit between their (a) abilities and (b) interests Six personality types result from (a) and (b) — investigative, social, realistic, artistic, conventional, and enterprising Gender, but few ethnic/racial, differences exist Women are more likely manifest the social, artistic, or conventional type Men and women in the same occupation are similar in personality type Occupational Choice Revisited (cont'd) Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) The 4-variable version Self-efficacy (perceived ability) Outcome expectations (predicted success) Interest (what one likes) Choice goals (what one desires to achieve) The 6-variable version adds two more factors Support (how environment would help) Barriers (how environment would frustrate one's career) Occupational Choice Revisited (cont'd) The 6-variable SCCT model receives better support People will not choose an occupation or career, even though interested, unless they have high self-efficacy External factors (e.g., stereotypes) affect perceptions of self-efficacy Occupational Development How we advance within chosen occupations depends on many factors, including expectations support from coworkers priorities job satisfaction Vocational maturity: a continuum through the working years reflecting how congruent a person's occupational behaviors are with what is expected of them at different ages Super's Theory Changes in self-concept and adaptation to one's occupational role progress through five distinct stages Implementation Establishment Maintenance Deceleration Retirement During adulthood, people progress through three developmental tasks Implementation (trying out jobs) Stabilization (making an occupational choice) Consolidation (advancing up the career ladder) Super's Theory (cont'd) The three adult developmental tasks overlap with four developmental stages Exploratory (age 15-24) Establishment (age 24-44) Maintenance (age 45-64) Decline (age 65 and beyond) As we stay in a career or change careers, we cycle and recycle through the tasks and stages Aspirations of U.K. 16-year-olds predicted actual occupational attainment at age 33 Supports Super's theory Occupational Expectations Occupational and career expectations change over time as a function of changes in self-concept and self-efficacy Ex.: interests change as we experience our occupation as a poor fit or as requiring different types of education Reality shock: what we learned during training (e.g., in a classroom) may not transfer directly into what the "real world" job expects of us or needs us to know to perform the job well The Role of Mentors and Coaches Compared to any formal training, more experienced workers often communicate informally the most critical kinds of information Mentors help young workers avoid trouble and explain the unwritten rules of the job Mentors often guide young workers, ensuring supervisors notice them and give them credit; help job and pay advancement Mentoring is one way for the mentor to fulfill Erikson's generativity stage The Role of Mentors (cont'd) Kram described four phases of the mentoring relationship Initiation Cultivation Separation Redefinition Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction: the positive feeling resulting from an appraisal of one's work Increases with age for white collar workers, but decreases for blue collar workers Middle-aged workers are more satisfied with work's intrinsic rewards than its extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) Satisfaction's relationship to age is cyclical, depending on how well the job allows one to meet the family responsibilities present at any given age age-related differences in how people balance their lives with work Alienation and Burnout Alienation: workers' feelings that their work is meaningless and devalued, or when they see no connection between what they do and the end product Reducing alienation requires workers feeling trust in the organization being involved in decision-making having flexible work schedules having access to employee development or enhancement programs Alienation and Burnout (cont'd) Burnout: feeling exploited and the depletion of a worker's energy, motivation, and occupational idealism State of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion Results from job stress Can be avoided by stress-reduction techniques, cognitively restructuring the work, lowering other people's expectations, and finding other ways to enhance personal growth and identity Alienation and Burnout (cont'd) Passion: strong inclination toward an activity one likes or loves, values, and in which one invests time and energy Passion model: two types of passion accurately predict who burns out Obsessive passion: uncontrollable urges to engage in work; interferes with positive feelings or satisfaction; leads to conflict in other life areas because person cannot disengage fully from work Harmonious passion: freely choosing to engage in work, and work does not overpower one's identity 12.2 Gender, Ethnicity, and Discrimination Issues: Learning Objectives How do women's and men's occupational expectations differ? How are people viewed when they enter occupations that are not traditional for their gender? What factors are related to women's occupational development? What factors affect ethnic minority workers' occupational experiences and occupational development? What types of bias and discrimination hinder the occupational development of women and ethnic minority workers? Gender Differences in Occupational Selection 47% of U.S. workforce is female 60% of all 16-year-old females are working 62% of African-American women work 56% of Latina women work Although more women have entered nontraditional occupations, society still perceives them negatively and disrespects them, describing them as being cold, bitter, quarrelsome, selfish, deceitful, devious with men still preferring to date women who work in traditional settings Gender Differences in Occupational Selection (cont'd) People are less likely to perceive sexual coercion as harassing when directed to women in nontraditional occupations Women themselves are less likely to see themselves as having been sexually harassed when working in a nontraditional field Women and Occupational Development More recent generations of women do negotiate their salaries, benefits, and work environments However, women of these generations still tend to commit more to traditional jobs Women working in traditional jobs report increased financial and emotional stress associated with family obligations Working mothers are not seen as team players or being able to do the tough work Women and Occupational Development (cont'd) Female professionals leave jobs for two reasons: they see the organization as supporting masculine values rather than women's preference for ones valuing relationships, interdependence, and collaboration alienating, where workers are disconnected from each other and where the work lacks meaning Ethnicity and Occupational Development No ethnic group differences in women choosing nontraditional occupations Compared to European Americans, African-American women choosing nontraditional careers seek more formal training, becoming overqualified report lower levels of leadership aspiration Latinas may unnecessarily limit their career choices due to perceptions of career barriers and myths Ethnicity and Occupational Development (cont'd) Women more favorably perceive organizations that are responsive and communicative regarding ethnic minorities' needs Compared to European Americans, African-American managers report negatively on their careers and the organizations treatment of them more career dissatisfaction, lower performance evaluations, and too quickly reaching promotion plateaus All ethnic groups benefit the most from same-ethnicity mentors, but many minorities still receive cross-ethnic mentoring Bias and Discrimination Gender bias Only 15 women are CEOs in the Fortune 500 In 2010's U.S. elections, the number of women in Congress declined Gender discrimination: denying someone a job based on their gender Glass ceiling: the promotional level above which women may not go Glass cliff: women obtaining a precarious promotion, e.g., in times of an organizational crisis Bias and Discrimination (cont'd) Gender bias (cont'd) Men at the top keep women out of high-status jobs Women are paid, on average, 80% of what men in the same positions are paid Bias and Discrimination (cont'd) Needed to reduce the gender bias and gap are women digging deep into the organization to make informed decisions women getting necessary support, resources, and buy-in; also, showing one makes a difference to the company companies must value women's competencies (e.g., interpersonal and democratic orientations), make men more comfortable with female colleagues, and provide mentoring to women Bias and Discrimination (cont'd) To reduce pay inequities, organizations should encourage women to negotiate salaries more effectively rethink using the number of hours worked as the main measure of productivity value women's competencies create more work options for working mothers end gender discrimination in the workplace Sexual Harassment Women in the workplace report being sexually harassed (28%+) or its potential (58%) 16% of formal legal charges involve sexual harassment of men U.S. women judged specific acts as more sexually harassing than did men, whereas there was no gender effect in other cultures Victims are most often young, single, or divorced Research shows that harassment results in negative emotional, mental health, and job-related outcomes Federal law protects men and women from sexual harassment Age Discrimination Age discrimination: denying a job or promotion to an individual solely based on age Age discrimination usually occurs when employees rather than HR make the hiring decision Federal law prohibits this practice for workers over the age of 40 People must be hired based on their ability Age cannot be even an indirect factor in job performance ratings Nonetheless, older people commonly are offered retirement incentives to stop working and stereotyped beliefs affect their job performance 12.3 Occupational Transitions:Learning Objectives Why do people change occupations? Is worrying about potential job loss a major source of stress? How does job loss affect the amount of stress experienced? Occupational Transitions The reasons people leave their jobs are varied Unhappy with the work Obsolete skills Economic trends Pursuing additional training or education Retraining workers Career plateauing occurs when there is a lack of opportunity or when a person decides not to seek advancement The retraining of mid-career and older workers emphasizes the need for lifelong learning Occupational Insecurity Economic conditions in the U.S. have resulted in many people losing jobs Many people experience feelings of insecurity People who worry about their jobs tend to have poorer mental and physical health Occupational Insecurity (cont'd) Even if their job is not in jeopardy, people who worry about job loss suffer poorer well-being People's coping strategy predicts how stressed they will feel about job loss regardless of whether they have or have not been laid off Emotion-focused coping: trying to make oneself feel better about a stressful situation or denying their feelings; results in greater stress. Problem-focused coping: recognizing the problem and doing something to fix it Coping with Unemployment Unemployment often results in declines in physical and mental health plus self-esteem Middle-aged men are more susceptible to the negative effects of unemployment Unemployment rates are higher for ethnic minority groups than for European Americans. Unemployment-related stress similarly affects all ethnic groups Coping with Unemployment (cont'd) Recommendations Approach job loss with a healthy sense of urgency Consider next career move and what must be done to achieve it, even if there are no immediate prospects Admit and react to change as soon as you realize it is there Be cautious of stop-gap employment Identify a realistic goal and list the steps needed to achieve it 12.4 Work and Family:Learning Objectives What are the issues faced by people who care for dependents? How do partners view the division of household chores? What is work-family conflict? How does it affect couples' lives? The Dependent Care Dilemma Employed caregivers revisited Many mothers have to return to work after the birth of a baby 57% of married and single mothers with children ≤ 1 year old work for pay Some women struggle with the dilemma of financial need vs. caring for their children Some women feel the need to return to work as a result of attachment to their work Stage of the lifecycle and gender both affect perceptions of ideal working hours Employed Caregivers (cont'd) U.S. women are punished even for taking short leaves Swedish women also are punished for taking long leaves although living in a women-friendly country 80% of women spend 23 hours/week caring for parents and 70% contribute money Caring for dependents negatively affects stress levels career opportunities and promotions coping abilities Dependent Care and Effects on Workers Women caregivers experience greater problems than men Problems can be ameliorated by providing good partner or family support systems women with high control over their jobs (e.g., schedules) Dependent Care and Employer Responses Backup care: emergency care for dependents preventing employee from missing work Backup care results in less work-family conflict, lower absenteeism, and higher job satisfaction only when organizations adopt a justice approach Sympathetic and supportive supervisors Support for family and childcare issues Also helpful are job sharing, nursery facilities, better job security, autonomy, lower productivity demands, and flexible schedules Juggling Multiple Roles Dividing household chores Women still perform the lion's share of housework Men are contributing more since 1970, but mostly on weekends and regardless of whether their wives work Men endorsing feminine or androgynous rather than masculine gender roles do contribute more Unequal division of labor causes the most arguments and most unhappiness in dual-earner couples Men do perform more household chores the longer their wives have been in the workforce Juggling Multiple Roles (cont'd) Dividing household chores (cont'd) Satisfaction with the division of household labor is higher for men when equitably divided and based on the number of hours spent, especially if they spend few hours women when men are willing to perform women's traditional chores (e.g., cooking, childcare) Dividing Household Chores (cont'd) European-American men help with chores less than Latino- or African-American men In dual-earner couples, African-American women are twice as likely as men to feel overburdened with housework and dissatisfied with family life Mexican-American men born in Mexico help out more especially when their wives earn more of the family's income Navajo women not living on a reservation do more of the traditional chores, but men and women share equally in home maintenance Women report spending more time on housework than do men in several world countries Work-Family Conflict 60% of married couples with children are dual-income earners Highest stress level and work-family conflict is when there are at least two preschool children in the home Cross-cultural data suggests that work- and parenting-related burnout is more likely to affect women Work-Family Conflict (cont'd) Women are most bothered when husbands are unwilling to do "women's work" The inequitable division of household labor reflects past socialization experiences Dual-earner couples have difficulty finding time for each other Enjoying time together and spending it on shared activities is more important than the amount of time Work-Family Conflict (cont'd) Work need not negatively affect family life if both partners' work schedules allow for coordination of childcare and other home responsibilities Work-family conflict can be reduced by keeping open lines of communication between partners teaching children that men and women are equally responsible for household chores 12.5 Leisure Activities:Learning Objectives What activities are leisure activities? How do people choose among them? What changes in leisure activities occur with age? What do people derive from leisure activities? Types of Leisure Activities Leisure: discretionary activities including simple relaxation and those for enjoyment or creative pursuits *Cultural *Crafts *Games *Physical *Technology *Social-Private *Social-public *Religious *Travel *Experiential *Developmental *TV Choice of leisure activities depends upon perceived competence, psychological comfort health, income, transportation, education, social characteristics, interests, and abilities Depression and dementia increase as frequency of leisure activities decreases Developmental Changes in Leisure Young adults participate in a greater range of, and more intense, activities Middle-aged adults' leisure activities are home- and family-oriented and less physically strenuous Engagement in, and preferences for, types of leisure activities is stable from young to older adulthood Consequences of Leisure Activities Participation in leisure activities is related to well-being, mental health strengthens feelings of attachment to, and satisfaction with, partners, family, and friends allows exploration of interpersonal relationships and approval seeking improves social acceptance, friendships, and acceptance of differences in persons with disabilities serves as a personal transformation vehicle Consequences of Leisure Activities (cont'd) Participation in leisure activities (cont'd) is a primary coping strategy, lessening effects of unforeseen negative events or stress by distracting us from the negative promoting optimism about the future because leisure itself is pleasant connecting us to our personal past can create family conflict if taken to extremes High post-vacation workloads can largely undermine a vacation's benefits promote mood or sleep deficits even after a restful vacation

Chapter 13 aerobic exercise-exercise that places moderate stress on the heart by maintaining a pulse rate between 60 and 90% of the person's maximum heart rate agreeableness-people high on this dimension are likely to be accepting, willing to work with others, and caring climacteric-process during which middle-aged women pass from their reproductive to nonreproductive years. conscientiousness-people high on this dimension tend to be hard working, ambitious, energetic, scrupulous, and persevering. coping-any attempt to deal with stress ego resilience-a person's ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situations. encapsulation-process that occurs when the processes of thinking (information processing, memory, fluid intelligence) become connected or encapsulated to the products of thinking (expertise). extraversion-people high on this dimension thrive on social interaction, readily express their opinions and feelings, like to keep busy, and prefer stimulating and challenging environments filial obligation.-grown children's sense of responsibility to care for their aging parents if necessary. generativity-in Erikson's theory, being productive by helping others in order to ensure the continuation of society by guiding the next generation hormone replacement therapy (HRT)-therapy in which women take low doses of estrogen, which is often combined with progestin (synthetic form of progesterone) kinkeeper-the person who gathers family members together for celebrations and keeps them in touch with each other menopause-the point at which menstruation stops. neuroticism-people high on this dimension tend to be anxious,hostile, self-conscious, depressed, impulsive, and vulnerable. openness to experience.-people high on this dimension tends to have a vivid imagination and dream life, appreciation of art, and a strong desire to try anything once. osteoarthritis-a disease marked by gradual onset of bone damage underneath the cartilage leading to pain and disability as well as minor signs of inflammation. osteoporosis-severe loss of bone mass in which bones become porous and extremely easy to break. practical intelligence-the broad range of skills related to how individuals shape, select, or adapt to their physical and social environments. rheumatoid arthritis-a more common and destructive disease of the joints that also develops slowly and typically affects different joints and causes dierent types of pain than osteoarthritis. sandwich generation-middle-aged people who are caught between the competing demands of two generations (their parents and their children). stagnation-in Erikson's theory, midlife outcome in which people are unable to deal with the needs of their children or to provide mentoring to younger adults. stress and coping paradigm-dominant framework used to study stress that emphasizes the transactions between a person and the environment. Type A behavior pattern-behavior pattern in which people tend to be intensely competitive, angry, hostile, restless, aggressive, and impatient. Type B behavior pattern-behavior pattern in which people show the opposite tendencies to Type A behavior pattern.

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Chapter Thirteen Making It in Midlife: The Unique Challenges of Middle Adulthood 13.1 Physical Changes and Health:Learning Objectives How does appearance change in middle age? What changes occur in bones and joints? What reproductive changes occur in men and women in middle age? What is stress? How does it affect physical and psychological health? What benefits are there to exercise? Changes in Appearance Middle age: starts at age 40 People notice beginning wrinkles, gray hair, and possibly baldness Male pattern baldness is a genetic trait involving progressive hair loss starting at the top of the head Most people gain weight between their 30s and middle 50s Due to a slowing metabolism Changes in Bones and Joints Skeletal maturity: bone mass and skeletal development are at their peak Usually age 19 for women and 20 for men Bone mass decreases around menopause in women and late life in men Can cause disease and risk for broken bones Osteoporosis: a disease in which bones become porous and break easily More common in women, especially non-Latina white and Asian women Changes in Bones and Joints (cont'd) Osteoporosis is more common in women, because they have less bone mass in general post-menopausal estrogen decreases Other risk factors include lack of weight-bearing exercise smoking, alcohol, sodium, caffeine intake, high-protein diets, and certain medications inadequate calcium and vitamin D intake in childhood and as young adults Changes in Bones and Joints (cont'd) Osteoporosis prevention Some evidence suggests benefits of ingesting vitamin K, magnesium, zinc, and certain fluorides Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMS): drugs allowing estrogen to affect bones, while blocking negative effects on breasts and uterus Raloxifene (e.g., Evista) is one SERM proven to prevent bone loss and reduce fracture risks Changes in Bones and Joints (cont'd) DXA tests are advised for women 65 and older; this test measures bone mineral density (BMD) at the hip and spine the more negative the T-score, the worse the bone loss T < -2.5 is the first cutoff for osteoporosis Osteoarthritis: a disease involving the deterioration of the bones under the cartilage and gradual onset of bone damage with progressively more pain, inflammation, and damage Changes in Bones and Joints (cont'd) Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease caused by injury or overuse ("wear-and-tear"), usually affecting hands, spine, hips, and knees not affecting the wrists, elbows, shoulders, or ankles treated by steroids, anti-inflammatory drugs, nonstressful exercise, and diet Rheumatoid arthritis: very destructive, slowly developing disease of the joints, causing pain and swelling Is incurable Treated by three classes of drugs (anti-rheumatic, NSAID, and corticosteroid drugs) Reproductive Changes The climacteric: passing from the reproductive to the nonreproductive years due to biological changes Perimenopause: transition phase from regular menstruation to menopause Starts in the 40s and usually complete by the mid-50s Considerable variation in how long the transition takes Involves estrogen and progesterone decreases; changes in reproductive organs and sexual functioning The Climacteric and Menopause Lower female hormonal levels — especially estrogen — result in various symptoms Hot flashes, mood changes, headaches, memory loss, difficulty concentrating Sleep problems, night sweats, joint stiffness or soreness, weight gain, urinary incontinence Osteoporosis, changing cholesterol levels, rapid heart-beat, cardiovascular disease Low libido; painful intercourse due to dryness, thinning vaginal wall, and external vaginal shrinkage The Climacteric and Menopause (cont'd) Sociocultural factors influence women's experience of menopause and its symptoms Ethnic and cultural differences African-American women report more physical symptoms after than before the climacteric; opposite is true for European Americans Japanese women report few hot flashes, but more headaches, shoulder stiffness, ringing in the ears, and dizziness Government labeled "menopausal syndrome" as a modern affliction of women with too much time on their hands Treating Symptoms of Menopause Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT): low does of estrogen, sometimes with progestin Large studies in the U.S. and United Kingdom showed benefits but many more risks of MHT Positively affects the earlier-mentioned negative conditions Decreases fractures & colorectal cancer risks Considerably increases risks of heart attack, stroke, blood clots, breast cancer, and other cancers Risks were so great that the U.S. study was stopped long before the planned finish date Reproductive Changes in Men With increasing age, the prostate gland enlarges, becomes stiffer, and may block the urinary tract prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood tests recommended for men over 50 PSA does have a high error rate testosterone levels gradually decline ~1%/year (after age 40) Older men report less demand to ejaculate, a need for longer stimulation to achieve erection and orgasm, and a longer post-sex resolution phase Stress and Health Stress is highest for occupations involving little direct control over the job Long- and short-term effects greater during middle age Work- and family-related matters are main stressors for middle-aged and younger adults Older adults are stressed more by health and chronic disease issues Women rate stress as more uncontrollable and negative than men Greatest stressors are daily hassles for women and men, family and health matters for women and financial and work-related matters for men What Is Stress? Stressful events immediately increase heart rate, hormone secretions (e.g., cortisol), and palmar sweating Stress and coping paradigm: person and environmental factors interact to determine stress perception and coping with it Stress is an appraisal of events as exceeding resources and negatively affecting well-being Coping: all efforts to deal with stress emotion- vs. problem-focused coping redefining events as not stressful religious or spiritual approaches How Are Stress and Coping Related to Physical Health? Short-term stress helps one respond effectively (e.g., fight-or-flight responses) Chronic stress has multiple negative effects increases cardiovascular disease, blood pressure, angina, arrhythmias, cholesterol, insulin resistance, cell damage, weight fluctuations, risk for irritable bowel syndrome, sexual dysfunction decreases immunity, memory and cognitive performance, and women's estrogen levels VIDEO: Health and Stress How Are Stress and Coping Related to Behavior and Psychological Health? Type A behavior pattern: intensely competitive, angry, hostile, restless, and aggressive, whereas "Type B" is the opposite Type A behavior better predicts cardiovascular disease (CVD) than weight, alcohol intake, or exercise Type As are twice as likely to develop CVD due mostly to their anger and hostility Type A's competiveness and restlessness may motivate behaviors leading to quicker recovery from a heart attack than Type B's "laid back" approach How Are Stress and Coping Related to Behavior and Psychological Health? (cont'd) Posttraumatic stress disorder: anxiety disorder developing after exposure to terrifying ordeals involving grave physical harm or its threat Ethnic groups differently report stress as a function of self-esteem Latina-American professionals: lower stress in various domains the higher their self-esteem; their coping styles differ from Westerners' Lower self-esteem in Mexican-American immigrants predicts higher stress and depression Stress's effects on well-being lessen with age in Hong Kong How Are Stress and Coping Related to Behavior and Psychological Health? (cont'd) Disclosing breast cancer led to optimism and lower stress compared to not disclosing Expressing one's feelings about stressful events through writing seems to enhance well-being The U.K. has helped businesses manage work-related stress by attending to six work standards: demands, control, support, relationships, role, and organizational change Exercise Exercise improves physical, cognitive, and psychological fitness as well as heart, blood pressure, and oxygen indices Aerobic exercise: placing moderate stress on the heart by maintaining a pulse rate between 60-90% of one's maximum heart rate Ideally, per week, adults should engage in 150 min of aerobic activity at moderate intensity 75 min of vigorous intensity aerobic activity strengthening exercise twice per week 13.2 Cognitive Development:Learning Objectives How does practical intelligence develop in adulthood? How does a person become an expert? What is meant by lifelong learning? What differences are there between adults and young people in how they learn? Practical Intelligence Measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence do not reflect real-world situations Practical intelligence: broad range of skills related to how individuals adapt to their physical and social environments and solve "real world" problems Practical Intelligence (cont'd) Measuring of practical intelligence differs from that of traditional tests People are more motivated to solve the problems Personal experience is more relevant There is more than one correct answer Fluid and crystallized intelligences' relation to practical intelligence is high when the latter's test problems are well-structured daily life challenges, but less so when poorly structured Applications of Practical Intelligence When solving practical problems, adults blend emotion with cognition, whereas adolescents are caught up in logic How a practical problem is approached depends on experience, preferred modes of thinking, and how much it evokes an emotional response Strategies include problem-focused action passive-dependent behavior avoidant thinking or denial Applications of Practical Intelligence (cont'd) The type of problem affects which strategies middle-age adults use If the problem is highly emotional, they use avoidance-denial instrumental or home management-related, they use problem-focused strategies Practical intelligence does not differ among European-, Caribbean-, and African-Americans Higher practical intelligence predicts dealing with a rapid change of pace, using new and more effective problem-solving strategies, and persuading others to change the way they do things Practical Intelligence: Mechanics and Pragmatics Two component model of life-span intelligence Mechanics of intelligence: aspects of fluid intelligence Reflects the mind's neurophysiological architecture Shows decreases with age, related to gradual loss of brain efficiency Pragmatics of intelligence: aspects of crystallized intelligence Reflects socially- and culturally-mediated bodies of knowledge Increases with age and is thereafter maintained across the adult life span Becoming an Expert Relative to novices, experts know a lot about alternative ways to solve problems and make decisions are more efficient thinkers, bypass steps that novices need, and do not always follow rules are more flexible, creative, curious Becoming an Expert (cont'd) Expert performance peaks in middle age, despite declines in fluid intelligence and cognitive processes (e.g., memory) Why? Encapsulation: when thinking processes merge with the products of thinking (expertise) Encapsulation allows expertise to compensate for declines in cognitive processes and fluid intelligence is consistent with different brain structures "specializing" in different types of processing results in "implicit" knowledge, with experts being less able to explicitly explain to novices what is involved in performing the expert task Lifelong Learning The current job market requires lifelong learning through workshops or online courses Compared to younger learners, adults want to learn information relevant to the real world rather than abstractions or hypotheticals want to know why they are learning something bring more and different experiences to the learning context are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated 13.3 Personality:Learning Objectives What is the five-factor model? What evidence is there for stability in personality traits? What changes occur in people's priorities and personal concerns? How does a person achieve generativity? How is midlife best described? Stability Is the Rule: The Five-Factor Model Costa and McCrae's "Big Five" model of personality dimensions (OCEAN), depicting the degree of Openness to experience: having a vivid imagination and dream life, appreciating art, and desiring to try anything once Conscientiousness: being hard-working, ambitious, energetic, persevering Extraversion: thriving on social interaction, liking to talk, easily taking charge, readily expressing feelings, liking to keep busy, having boundless energy; preferring stimulating and challenging environments Stability Is the Rule: The Five-Factor Model (cont'd) Costa and McCrae's Big Five model (cont'd) Agreeableness: being accepting, willing to work with others, and caring Neuroticism: being anxious, hostile, self-conscious, depressed, impulsive, and vulnerable Multiple longitudinal studies show these five traits to be relatively stable in adulthood over periods of 6 to-30 years What's the Evidence for Trait Stability? Results of longitudinal studies of the Big Five show very old people show increases in suspiciousness and sensitivity neuroticism and extraversion may decrease as we grow older outgoingness, self-confidence, cognitive commitment, and dependability change over a 30- to 40-year period the less acculturated they were, Hmong Americans' traits differed from European Americans' the Big Five may not apply across ethnic groups The Evidence for Trait Stability (cont'd) One large-scale cross-sectional study of people between 21 to 60 years old showed little "stability" (continuity) in the Big Five personality traits after age 30 conscientious to increase across early adulthood agreeableness to increase the most during the 30s neuroticism in women to decrease Think about it: Can cross-sectional designs address (dis)continuity? Changing Priorities in Midlife Generativity: Erikson's 7th phase, being productive by helping others and guiding the next generation Middle-aged people stress helping young people achieve rather than their own achievement through parenting, mentoring, volunteering, being a foster grandparent true especially of African Americans Stagnation: the opposite of generativity; being unable to deal with their children's needs or mentoring younger adults What Are Generative People Like? McAdam's multidimensional model Generative concern is a trait related to life satisfaction and overall happiness (e.g., reporting concern for grandchildren's well-being) Generative action itself is not a trait, but reflects active societal engagement (e.g., actually regularly providing care for grandchildren) Affected by cultural demands, beliefs, commitment, inner desires, and concerns Narrative: constructing a life story based on an identity of being generative What Are Generative People Like? (cont'd) McAdam's model generalizes across disparate cultures and ethnicities (Cameroon, Chinese and European American women, Germany, Costa Rica) People high in generative action are prosocial toward people within and outside the family; are personally invested in being a parent and are highly satisfied with this role report high well-being and satisfaction with their spousal role have generative work attitudes Life Transition Theories and the Midlife Crisis Studies indicate that a midlife crisis is not a universal experience for middle-aged adults Negotiating transitions are characteristic of most adults, but when these occur is variable Ego-resilience: positive capacity to cope with stress, adversity, or transitions Predicts how well middle-aged adults are likely to achieve generativity (versus stagnation) 13.4 Family Dynamics and Middle Age:Learning Objectives Who are the kinkeepers in families? How does the relationship between middle-aged parents and their young children change? How do middle-aged adults deal with their aging parents? What styles of grandparenthood do middle-aged adults experience? How do grandchildren and grandparents interact? Family Dynamics and Middle Age Kinkeeper: the person who gathers the family together for celebrations and keeps them in touch Typically mothers Sandwich generation: being caught between caring for parents and children Letting Go: Middle-Aged Adults & Their Children Becoming friends and the empty nest During middle age, parents experience the exodus of their children from the home This transition succeeds when parents foster and support their children's autonomy and perceive their children as meeting expectations of being a "good kid" Women who see motherhood as their primary role report more distress and negative mood when children leave home After becoming adults, children see their middle-aged parents more positively When Children Come Back Boomerang kids: when children move back to their parent's home at least once ±50% of U.S. young adults move back home Adult children more likely to move back home are male expect parents to support them financially have low college GPAs and a low sense of autonomy are single or were not abused as children Moving back home until they marry or obtain a full-time job is very common in southern Europe and the U.K. Giving Back: Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents Caring for aging parents Across cultures, daughters (or daughters-in-law) are 3 times more likely to provide care than are sons Parents may move in with their middle-aged children after decades of independent living Creates adjustment problems for both Across cultures, most adult children feel responsibility or a filial obligation to care for parents Caregiving Stresses and Rewards Caring for one's parents often coincides with women's peak employment years, but employment minimally affects women's decision to provide care Caregivers of parents can experience intimacy and feelings of giving back to parents They also may experience burnout and loss of the previous relationship Confining caregiving situations, and those infringing on the adult child's other obligations, may negatively affect work, family, self-identity, and perceptions of the relationship Caregiving Stresses and Rewards (cont'd) Ethnic differences in the experience of caring for parents Mexican Americans are likelier to accept social services to help support caring for parents in their home African Americans prefer family caregiving over placements out of the home more than European-Americans; value family cohesiveness more than independence Care recipients' perceptions of the caregiving depends on multiple factors (Newsom's model) Grandparenthood How do grandparents interact with grandchildren? Grandparents may enrich their grandchildren socially and personally through recreational activities, passing on family histories, teaching skills, and giving advice Grandchildren may help keep grandparents in touch with youth and the latest trends and technology VIDEO: Grandfamilies Being a Grandparent Is Meaningful Some describe grandparenthood as the most important thing in their lives Some describe grandparenthood as providing wisdom to grandchildren and as indulging them For some, the relationship helps them recall experiences with their own grandparents Ethnic Differences Some cultures view grandparenting as burdensome; others view it as an important role (e.g., African Americans) Fictive grandparenting: when adults fill-in for missing or deceased grandparents Often true of Native Americans Cultural conservator: grandchildren live with grandparents in order to learn (tribal) customs Again, often true of Native Americans When Grandparents Care for Grandchildren Today, grandparents are likelier to live farther away from their grandchildren Many grandparents are custodial parents of their grandchildren; can lead to depression in homes with little income Lack of legal consideration presents difficulties (e.g., obtaining school records) Grandchildren living with their grandparents manifest more learning difficulties and problem behaviors (e.g., hyperactivity)

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