PSY20005 Sports Psychology, Week 8, Feedback, reinforcement, and intrinsic motivation, Chapter 6

locus of causality

(i.e., what causes a person's behavior) in the situation. If a reward is seen as controlling one's behavior, then people believe that the cause of their behavior (an external locus of causality) resides outside themselves and thus intrinsic motivation decreases

negative side of flow

A potential negative consequence might be that of contributing to dependence on an activity once associated with a flow experience. Some surfers were found to be addicted to the euphoric feelings they experienced and were willing to continue to surf despite family commitments, injury, or potential death to replicate these sensations

harmonious passion (HP)

A strong desire to engage in an activity freely as it becomes part of one's identity.

obsessive passion (OP):

An uncontrollable desire to participate in an activity that does not become part of one's identity.

elements of flow

Balance of challenges and skills Complete absorption in the activity Clear goals Merging of action and awareness Total concentration on the task Loss of self-consciousness A sense of control No goals or rewards external to the activity Transformation of time Effortless movement

guidelines for using punishment

Be consistent by giving everyone the same type of punishment for breaking similar rules. Punish the behavior, not the person—convey to the person that it's his or her behavior that needs to change. Allow athlete's input in making up punishments for breaking rules. Do not use physical activity or conditioning as a punishment. Make sure the punishment is not perceived as a reward or simply as attention. Impose punishment impersonally—do not berate the person or yell. Simply inform the person of the punishment. Do not punish athletes for making errors while playing. Do not embarrass individuals in front of teammates or classmates. Use punishment sparingly, but enforce it when you use it. Do not punish other teammates for an individual's mistake. Make sure punishment is age appropriate. Make certain athletes understand the reason for the punishment.

achieve flow

Be motivated to perform (maintain a balance between goals and skills). Achieve optimal arousal before performing. Maintain an appropriate focus (stay in the present, focus on key points). Use precompetitive and competitive plans and preparation. Achieve optimal physical preparation and readiness. Experience optimal environmental and situational conditions. Exhibit confidence and positive mental attitude. Have positive team play and interaction (positive play and shared purposes). Feel good about performance

cognitive behavior therapy

Behavior modification and ___________ ___________ _________ can be combined and integrated to produce even greater performance enhancement.

rewards, feedback, reinforcement, situations

CET hypothesizes that any events that affect individuals' perceptions of competence and feelings of self-determination ultimately will also affect their levels of intrinsic motivation. These events are?

success, failure (How Extrinsic Rewards Affect Intrinsic Motivation in Sport)

Competitive success and failure ________ tends to increase intrinsic motivation. ________ tends to decrease intrinsic motivation. Feedback: Positive feedback increases intrinsic motivation.

TARGET

Create a mastery-oriented climate by manipulating the following environmental conditions using the ________________ principle

inappropriate approaches to motivation

Focus on criticism. Focus on criticism with sarcasm. Use physical abuse. Employ guilt

functional significance of the event

How a reward affects intrinsic motivation depends on whether the recipient perceives it to be more controlling or more informational. (cognitive evaluation theory)

cognitive evaluation theory

How rewards are perceived (external or internal locus of control) is critical in determining whether intrinsic motivation increases or decreases. What enhances internal motivation?

controlling (controlling aspects)

If a reward is seen as ________________ one's behavior, then people believe that the cause of their behavior (an external locus of causality) resides outside themselves and thus intrinsic motivation decreases

positive reinforcement

If doing something results in a good consequence (such as being rewarded), people tend to repeat the behavior focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior

negative reinforcement

If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (such as being punished), people tend not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative consequences focus on punishing undesirable behaviors

backward chaining

In this approach, the last step in a chain is established first. Then the last step is paired with the next-to-last step, and so forth, with the steps finally progressing back to the beginning of the chain. In the case of golf, the last step in the chain would be putting on the green into the hole. Putting the ball into the hole in the smallest number of strokes is the goal in golf, and the successful putt should therefore be reinforced. As the next step, chipping onto the green is the focus, and putts are made as reinforcement. Then comes the fairway shot, followed by a successful chip and an equally successful putt. The final step involves driving the ball off the tee box, followed in turn by successful completion of the previous three steps

psychological factors

Influencing intrinsic motivation: Need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

social factors

Influencing intrinsic motivation: Success and failure Focus of competition Coaches' behavior

Deci (1971, 1972) SOMA puzzles, Lepper and Greene (1975) nursery school expected and unexpected rewards

Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards name two classic studies

shaping

It may take days or weeks to master the skill, which can be disappointing and frustrating for the learner. It is helpful, therefore, to reward small improvements as the skill is learned. It allows people to continue to improve as they get closer and closer to the desired response

prevent flow

Nonoptimal physical preparation and readiness -Injury -Fatigue -Not feeling good physically -External stresses -Unwanted crowd response -Uncontrollable influences of the event Lack of confidence or a negative mental state -Negative thinking -Self-doubt -No control of mental state Inappropriate focus -Thinking too much -Worrying about what others are doing -Frustration with teammates' effort Problem with precompetitive preparation -Poor precompetitive preparation -Distraction before competition -Interruption to precompetitive preparation Lacking motivation to perform -No goals -Lack of challenge -Low arousal or motivation Nonoptimal arousal level before competition -Not feeling relaxed -Feeling too relaxed Negative team play and interactions -Team not performing well -Not feeling part of the team -Negative talk within the team Performance going poorly -Unforced errors -Poor technique -Things not going as planned Nonoptimal environmental and situational -influences -Stoppage in play -What the opposition is doing -Negative refereeing decisions -Inappropriate, negative, or no feedback

intrinsic motivation

People who have ________ __________ strive inwardly to be competent and self-determining in their quest to master the task at hand. They enjoy competition, like the action and excitement, focus on having fun, and want to learn skills to the best of their ability.

higher levels (of intrinsic motivation)

Playing for an autonomous (democratic) versus a controlling coach Participating in a recreational versus competitive league High versus low perceived competence High versus low perceived control

increasing (intrinsic motivation)

Provide for successful experiences. Give rewards contingent on performance. Use verbal and nonverbal praise. Vary content and sequence of practice drills. Involve participants in decisions. Set realistic performance goals.

providing performance feedback

Provide knowledge of results (feedback regarding the correctness of an action). Provide sincere and contingent feedback. Provide motivational and instructional feedback. Use varied types of feedback—verbal praise, facial expressions, and pats on the back.

drawbacks of punishment:

Punishment can arouse fear of failure. Punishment can act as a reinforcer. Punishment can create an unpleasant, aversive learning environment.

80%, 90%

Punishment can control and change behavior, but _________ to _________ of reinforcement should be positive.

cannot

Research with athletes indicates that they ___________control flow. Athletes do report that they can increase the probability of flow occurring.

outcome

Reward performance, not only __________

informational aspects

Rewards that provide information and positive feedback about competence increase intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards that suggest the person is not competent decrease intrinsic motivation. Similarly, striving for an award and not receiving it will decrease feelings of competence and lower intrinsic motivation.(cognitive evaluation theory)

positive, negative, fear

Sport psychologists agree that the predominant approach with physical activity and sport participants should be ___________ because the ___________ approach often instills ________ in participants

educational purpose, future cheating, wrongdoing

Support of punishment: Punishment can serve an _____________ _____________ (i.e., maintain stability, order, mastery). Punishment can deter _________ __________ or ___________.

contingency management (Siedentop, 1980), behavioral coaching (Martin & Lumsden, 1987), behavior modification (Donahue, Gillis, & King, 1980)

Systematic application of the principles of positive and negative reinforcement to help produce desirable behaviors and eliminate undesirable behaviors has been given various names in the sport psychology literature: _________________________________. These terms all refer to attempts to structure the environment through the systematic use of reinforcement, especially during practice.

tasks, authority, rewards, groupings, evaluation, timing

TARGET stands for

external regulation

The behavior is completely controlled by external sources such as rewards and constraints. For example, an athletic trainer who spends lots of time in the training room simply to get a raise in salary is externally motivated.

identified regulation (part of extrinsic motivation; This is why the "threshold of autonomy" where choice is more intrinsic in nature as shown in figure 6.2 is placed right after identified regulation which has some intrinsic aspects but is still more external than internal)

The behavior is highly valued, accepted, and judged by the individual and thus is performed willingly, even if the activity is not pleasant in itself

Lepper and Greene nursery school experiment

The children who had drawn with the felt pen for expected rewards showed a decrease in intrinsic motivation, whereas the other two groups (unexpected reward, no reward) continued to use the felt pens just as much as they had before the experiment.

perceived locus of causality

The controlling aspect of a reward relates to a person´s ____________ (cognitive evaluation theory)

introjected regulation

The individual is motivated by internal prods and pressures; however, the behavior is still not considered self-determined because it is regulated by external contingencies. For example, an exerciser who stays in shape to impress the opposite sex is practicing it

self determination theory (SDT, Deci and Ryan, 2000)

This theory focuses on three basic psychological needs: effectance, relatedness, autonomy. Therefore, intrinsic motivation, performance, and cognitive development are maximized in social contexts that provide people the opportunity to satisfy these basic needs

intrinsically, external, extrinsically

When people see themselves as the cause of their behavior, they consider themselves ____________ motivated. Conversely, when people perceive the cause of their behavior to be _____________ to themselves (i.e., "I did it for the money"), they consider themselves ______________ motivated. Often, the more an individual is extrinsically motivated, the less that person will be intrinsically motivated (deCharms, 1968)

passion

__________ is a strong inclination and desire toward an activity one likes, finds important, and invests time and energy in.

Deci (1971, 1972), SOMA

____________ found that participants who were rewarded with money for participating in an interesting activity subsequently spent less time at it than did people who were not paid. In his quite original and now classic study, _______ paid participants to play a Parker Brothers mechanical puzzle game called _________, which comprises many different-shaped blocks that can be arranged to form various patterns.

athletic scholarships (How Extrinsic Rewards Affect Intrinsic Motivation in Sport)

can either decrease or increase athletes' levels of intrinsic motivation. Effects depend on which is more emphasized by the coach—the controlling or information aspects.

principles of positive reinforcement

choose effective reinforcers (e.g., social, material, activity, special outings, intrinsic and extrinsic). choose timing or schedule of reinforcement. Reward appropriate behaviors—choose the proper behaviors to reward. Shape or reinforce successful approximations of difficult behaviors. Reward performance as well as outcome. Reward effort. Reward emotional and social skill.

CET (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985)

cognitive evaluation theory

early learning

continuous and immediate reinforcement desirable

cognitive evaluation theory (CET)

hypothesizes that any events that affect individuals' perceptions of competence and feelings of self-determination ultimately will also affect their levels of intrinsic motivation. These events (e.g., distribution of rewards, the quantity and quality of feedback and reinforcement, and the ways in which situations are structured) have two functional components: a controlling aspect and an informational aspect. Both the informational and controlling aspects can increase or decrease intrinsic motivation depending on how they affect one's competence and self-determination

amotivation

individuals are neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated and thus have pervasive feelings of incompetence and lack of control. For instance, a physical education teacher who simply goes through the motions because he really doesn't care about teaching anymore

learned skill

intermittent and immediate reinforcement desirable

flow

is a holistic, intrinsically motivating sensation that people feel when they are totally involved in an activity or are on automatic pilot.

integrated regulation (part of extrinsic motivation)

is the most developmentally advanced form of extrinsic motivation. Activity is personally important because of a valued outcome rather than interest in the activity solely for itself (valued outcome of completing a marathon)

reinforcement (Verstärkung, Animierung)

is the use of rewards and punishment, which increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future.

controlling, informational

two functional components of CET