PSYC-330 Psychology of Diversity, UNL, Witt, Exam 2 Study Guide
Social Identity -how it relates to prejudice
-optimal distinctiveness: balance between large group and uniqueness -group goals-activism -can buffer against discrimination
ingroup vs outgroup -homogeneity vs heterogeneity -dehumanization
-seeing outgroup as more homogeneous and ingroup as more heterogeneous -exaggerate differences between in-group and out-group -tend to dehumanize outgroup -anticipate bias from out-group members -prefer in-group members when they are biased against out-group members
Individuals who hold stigmatized identities may have worse health outcomes due to _________. •The stress of experiencing prejudice •Lack of care options or resources in their neighborhoods •Lack of trust created by feelings of prejudice from the provider •All of these factors
Answer: All of these factors Explanation: You should also be familiar with the many other potential causes and know that the cause in health disparities is not the identity itself, but due to the reaction and additional factors surrounding it (e.g. how one treats people with those identities).
A person with prejudice may ________. •Restrict their individuality •Experience cognitive dissonance •Lose freedom to advance socially •Have all of the above experiences
Answer: Have all of the above experiences
Olga sees her group as being high in _____, meaning ________. •Homogeneity; she sees the members of her group as being more similar than dissimilar •Homogeneity; she sees her group as more human than less human •Heterogeneity; she sees the members of her group as being more similar than dissimilar •Heterogeneity; she sees her group as more human than less human
Answer: Homogeneity; she sees the members of her group as being more similar than dissimilar Explanation: The incorrect explanation is describing dehumanization
In studying stereotype threat, ______ is the most important element that predicts its occurrence. •Identity salience •Diagnostic task •Both of these are equally likely to impact stereotype threat •We do not yet know what elements are most important
Answer: Identity salience Explanation: The study we read about found this and noted it was consistent with some previous work. Many studies are still determining if diagnosticity is really necessary.
Benjamin is taking part in a research study where he was told he belongs to a group of people with a predisposition towards overestimating the loudness of a particular noise. Benjamin finds himself preferring people within the over estimator group and thinks those in the underestimating group are a little less intelligent. This is an example of _______. •Realistic group conflict theory •Stereotype threat •Minimal groups paradigm •Dehumanization
Answer: Minimal groups paradigm Explanation: In minimal groups paradigm, people do not have to have known anyone in their group prior to being told they are a member. They are usually randomly assigned to the group, and the group membership itself is meaningless (e.g. blue vs. red team). However, being told one is in such a group is enough to activate processes based on social identity theory and can result in prejudice and discrimination toward outgroup members. While he obviously doesn't think the outgroup is as good as his group, there is not enough specific information to indicate any dehumanization (i.e. assigning animal-like attributes to another group)
If an individual performs better on a task because of a reminder of a group identity relevant to that task, that individual has experienced _______. •Stereotype salience •Stereotype threat •Stereotype lift •None of these things.
Answer: Stereotype lift Explanation: This is basically the opposite of what happens with stereotype threat. The graph on slide 16 of this topic shows how those of high SES performed better with SES salient than when it was not salient.
Based on the Stroop task, one can see that people automatically process _______. •A color •The meaning of a word •Age •Race/ethnicity
Answer: The meaning of a word Explanation: We do automatically process things like one's race/ethnicity, age, hair color, etc. However, that is not something we can tell from the Stroop task.
The social-cognitive development theory relies on understanding prejudice by understanding the different cognitive stage a child may be experiencing. One of those important stages is the ability to determine that one's self is able to think and know things differently from other people. This concept is ____________. •Socialization •Intergroup theory •Social identity •Theory of mind
Answer: Theory of mind Explanation: Social identity is how we see ourselves as a member of a group. The other 2 options are related to the other main developmental theories of prejudice, of which social-cognitive developmental theory is one.
Which of the following is true about the implicit association test? A. Most people seem more biased on the IAT than on explicit measures like questionnaires. B. The IAT works by measuring reaction time and error rates in how you associate groups with positive or negative words. C. Some have argued that the IAT does not necessarily translate into actual discrimination. D. All of these are true E. None of these are true.
D. All of these are true
Jane Elliot's blue-eyed/brown-eyed experiment
The day after Martin Luther King, Jr. was killed, a teacher in a small town in Iowa tried a daring classroom experiment. She decided to treat children with blue eyes as superior to children with brown eyes. FRONTLINE explores what those children learned about discrimination and how it still affects them today. development of prejudice, scapegoating
Social Identity
a person's sense of who they are based on group membership(s) the more strongly you identify with a group, the more strongly you perceived yourself as a typical member of the group
external attributions
ascribe the causes of behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints
Social-cognitive development theory (developmental theory)
children go through cognitive stages in which they acquire various cognitive abilities to understand different perspectives, categorize things by different features, differentiate outer appearance from inner reality, etc. -requires theory of mind
Stroop Effect
delay in reaction time when color of words on a test and their meaning differ automatic processing of words is hard to suppress anxiety stroop: people are slower to read words related to their fears, but not other threat words
Sherif Robber's Cave experiment
goal: test if prejudice is caused by competition between an in group and out group -see if intergroup conflict could be reduced by the introduction of superordinate goals (outcomes that are mutually desired by different groups that can be accomplished only if the groups work together - competition vs cooperation) results: significant increase in the number of boys who had friendships in the out-group compared to the results found in stage two.
Attributions -Internal vs. External -Why it matters
implicit bias impacts the attributions we make, which can impact behavior internal attributions: ascribe the causes of behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings external attributions: ascribe the causes of behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints
sociofunctional threat approach
intergroup prejudices carry specific emotional profiles, and emerge from perceptions of specific threats/opportunities primary emotional reaction -> eliciting threat perception -> associated motivations -> secondary emotional reaction anger -> obstacles to in-group: threat to group econ resources -> remove obstacles: reclaim econ control -> envy, fear
Building blocks for prejudice in children
middle childhood: (5-13) -social comparisons leads to awareness of biases and understanding of social hierarchy ingroup favoritism: -7-10 years: prefer their ingroup
Developmental intergroup theory (developmental theory)
mix of social cognitive and social identity development theories -adds that *children's prejudice is shaped by the social context* 4 processes: -ability to identity differences -categorize people according to valued differences -develop stereotypes and prejudices based on the valued group markers -use stereotypes to filter their perceptions of others
Types of Racism
old fashioned racism: explicit prejudice -(racial slurs) symbolic racism: opposition to policies that support minority communities -(redlining) aversive racism: prejudice of the well-intentioned -low explicit bias, higher implicit bias -(colorblind racism)
Effects on the prejudiced person
positive: -increase in status within ingroup -creates a sense of belonging -avoid a sense of inferiority "(at least I'm not a...") -material group gains negative: -curtailment of individual personality -restriction of talent or social advances -conflict with value systems
Realistic group conflict and zero-sum beliefs
prejudice is motivated by perceived or actual competition over scarce resources zero-sum beliefs: one's gain is another's loss (job availability)
Social Identity -benefits
-feel good when group succeeds -sense of community, social support -optimal distinctiveness: balance between large group and uniqueness -group goals-activism -can buffer against discrimination
minority stress model
A model that explains how the experience of discrimination can produce both negative and positive physical and mental health outcomes for stigmatized group members risk of bias and discrimination is a stressor that can lead to health and mental health problems concealing one's identity may be particular problematic (cause is not being gay but the stress associated with it due to anti-gay bias) in most cases, average LGB individual is just as healthy as average heterosexual person
For people who don't like the IAT, other forms of tested implicit prejudice measures may include ____________. •A study that has participants read out the color of various words as a distraction •A survey with response options of how comfortable participants feel around those of various genders •A study that involves subliminally showing participants images of people who are older or younger •All of these
Answer: A study that involves subliminally showing participants images of people who are older or younger Explanation: This answer involves the use of priming which is when participants are unaware of some subtle influence the researcher is imposing on them in order to see how it changes their behavior or reactions. The second option is a direct measure of explicit prejudice. The first measure is not detailed enough to even show it's measuring anything related to prejudice, but is essentially the process of the stroop task. You should know the other 2 ways we discussed regarding how we could measure implicit bias if need be.
Developmental intergroup theory suggests __________. •We should pay close attention to children's cognitive stage of development. •We should focus on the social context the child is raised in. •We should consider how a child's identification with a group impacts attitudes of prejudice. •All of these factors are equally important in understanding prejudice in children.
Answer: All of these factors are equally important in understanding prejudice in children.
The IAT is a main test used in psychology for implicit prejudice. There have been a lot of critiques of the measure though. Proponents of the measure say we should keep using it because ____________. •It does seem to predict behavior in certain situations •Any implicit measure is going to have similar issues •It's easy to administer and interpret •All of these factors are true arguments in favor of the IAT
Answer: All of these factors are true arguments in favor of the IAT Explanation: The IAT predicts behavior in situations where people have to make implicit/automatic decisions. You should also be familiar with some of the negative things of the test- such as the fact that it lacks standardization, it may just be measuring learned associations rather than how one feels about a group, and it usually is just comparing 2 groups to each other instead of multiple groups. There are other concerns, but as mentioned in the 2nd option, pretty much all implicit measures have this issue because we are trying to measure something beyond our conscious awareness.
Harriet is high on aversive racism. Even though she does not have explicit bias, her implicit bias is likely to impact _________. •The reason she gives for other people's behavior •The amount of internal attributions she makes for someone's negative actions •How much benefit of the doubt she's willing to give to an individual with ambiguous qualifications •None of these things •All of these things
Answer: All of these things Explanation: Each of these options is getting at the impact of implicit bias on our attributions. For groups that she has high implicit bias, she will likely judge other people's behavior as being related to internal factors when it's negative and less external factors.
"A woman's place belongs in the home, because women are more nurturing, and that's where nurturance will best be used." This statement is an example of _________. •Aversive prejudice •Benevolent prejudice •Sociofunctional threat theory •Intergroup theory
Answer: Benevolent prejudice Explanation: Specifically, benevolent sexism.
What are the building blocks for prejudice already in existence in newborns? •Differentiation between something new or familiar •Differentiating the self from others •Ingroup favoritism •Dishabituation paradigm
Answer: Differentiation between something new or familiar Explanation: We test this phenomena with the dishabituation paradigm; it is not itself the building block within children. Children do not fully distinguish themselves from others until they are ~4-5 years old we think, though elements happen earlier on.
Allport developed a theory of prejudice with a pyramid of different levels of seriousness. One critic of this theory has been _______. •He did not seem to value group level actions as much as those on an individual level. •He did not create a standardized measure for his hierarchy. •Prejudice cannot be viewed as a mental disorder because it is a normal part of one's culture. •All of these are common criticisms.
Answer: He did not seem to value group level actions as much as those on an individual level. Explanation: People are also concerned that the order may not be quite right. This theory does not have a specific measure associated with it that needs standardization, and if it did, there would be a different measure for each level to focus on- not just one measure for the theory. The third option is referring to a different theory.
Social identity theory predicts prejudice occurs because _______. •Individuals form a collective identity with others •Individuals' group identity is valued such that it impacts their personal sense of self-worth •Individuals see another group as competing with them for scarce resources •Individuals are high in social dominance orientation
Answer: Individuals' group identity is valued such that it impacts their personal sense of self-worth Explanation: There does not need to be any group competition according to social identity theory for prejudice to occur. Forming a collective identity may be a start according to social identity theory, but it's really the 2nd option element that leads to prejudice
Kindra is a member of the working class and struggles to pay her monthly bills. She believes the social hierarchy of society is unjust in its current form and wishes society was more egalitarian. Kindra is likely _______. •High in sociofunctional threat •Low in social dominance orientation •High in system justification theory •Low in implicit prejudice
Answer: Low in social dominance orientation Explanation: No information is given to make a judgement on the last option. One is not high or low in sociofunctional threat or system justification theory. Note: make sure that you don't assume because of someone's social status, they will be high or low in social dominance orientation. They can have a strong support for the structure even if it doesn't benefit them personally.
Joshua is determining what job candidate is best suited for a CEO position. He notices that the candidate is a woman and covertly makes a decision not to hire her, because he believes women do not make good business leaders. While he is intentionally discriminating against the candidate, he does not want his co-workers to know, so he finds other reasons that make her seem like a bad candidate. Joshua would be described as having ___________. •Implicit prejudice •Old fashioned prejudice •Symbolic prejudice •Aversive prejudice
Answer: Old fashioned prejudice Explanation: He is aware of his bias and does not see a problem with the view itself, so long as he doesn't get noticed by others. He may well have symbolic prejudice, but there is not enough information in this example to make that decision. Aversive prejudice is when a person does not think they have explicit or intentional bias, but they have implicit bias that later impacts their decisions/treatment in certain situations.
Which of the following is not an element explicitly measured by right wing authoritarianism? •Conventionalism •Political orientation •Willingness to submit to those in authority •Hostility towards those outside the mainstream
Answer: Political orientation Explanation: While there may be an overlap in some values, RWA is not a measure of political orientation. The third option is defining authoritarian submission while the 4th option is defining authoritarian aggression.
Sherifs' experiment supported _______ because ________. •Realistic group conflict theory; the boys showed prejudice as a result of being put into a zero-sum competition with another group •Realistic group conflict theory; the kids showed evidence of naturally picking up labels for other groups •Sociofunctional threat theory; the boys showed prejudice as a result of being put into a zero-sum competition with another group •Sociofunctional threat theory; the kids showed evidence of naturally picking up labels for other groups
Answer: Realistic group conflict theory; the boys showed prejudice as a result of being put into a zero-sum competition with another group Explanation: The incorrect explanation was related to Jane Elliot's classroom demonstration on racism/discrimination and prejudice. This study really more so demonstrated the effects of stereotypes/labeling. However, Jane Elliot's demonstration also was not related to either theory.
Clarks' doll study revealed that children of a certain age preferred the group valued by society, even if it meant having negative attitudes towards members of their own group. This study was used in _______. •Overturning Brown v. Board of Education •Settling Brown v. Board of Education •Pumping up national public support for integration •Helping enforce integration laws
Answer: Settling Brown v. Board of Education Explanation: It overturned Plessy v. Ferguson. It's role was more pivotal in the courts than it was in the public sphere at that time. National public support was still not achieved until much later after desegregation was made a law. You should also be familiar with what this study found and implications for children's ingroup favoritism at different ages.
At what age do children pick up on the way adults categorize people and also engage in that categorization (e.g. gender, race, age, etc.)? •Newborns •11 months •~3 years old •~4-5 years old
Answer: ~3 years old Explanation: At this age, they start categorizing people just as adults do, but not until 4-5 years old do they start showing preference to people based on society's preference for different groups. Then they would rather play with someone in line with the type of groups valued by society.
Which person is MOST likely to be HIGH in social dominance orientation? A. Joe is a retired police officer who now runs a tutoring program for kids from a poor neighborhood so they can stay in school and stay out of trouble. B. Alex likes being in the military because you always know where you stand in the hierarchy. Alex is looking to get promoted to being an officer but know that she will always have to respect people higher in rank than her. C. Peter is a social worker at an agency that helps poor young mothers get on their feet and support themselves and their children. D. None of these is someone who is likely high in social dominance orientation.
B. Alex likes being in the military because you always know where you stand in the hierarchy. Alex is looking to get promoted to being an officer but know that she will always have to respect people higher in rank than her.
Which of the following is an automatic process? A. Serving the tennis ball when you are first learning to play. B. Making a first impression about someone's wealth based on their clothing and appearance. C. Walking on a slippery sidewalk the first day of winter. D. Writing a detailed response to a social media post you think is racist.
B. Making a first impression about someone's wealth based on their clothing and appearance.
Which of the following is the best example of the conventionalism aspect of right-wing authoritarianism? A. "I prefer people who are similar to me" B. "It should be against the law to protest in the street and disrupt people's lives." C. "Crazy new ideas are ruining this country." D. "Traditional families with a mom and dad like I had are best and society should have policies to encourage that."
C. "Crazy new ideas are ruining this country."
social dominance theory
a theory contending that societal groups can be organized in a power *hierarchy* in which the *dominant groups enjoy a disproportionate share of the society's assets* and the subordinate groups receive most of its liabilities social dominance orientation: extent to which a person agrees with social dominance theory
Building blocks for prejudice in adolescents
adolescents (13-21) -more abstract thinking, importance of peers, internalizing values and checking out self in relation to others -understanding that share common fate/destiny with others who share identity -attitudes towards stigmatized sexual orientations usually improve -straight male youth are least likely to improve based on the normative masculinity prescriptions
Automatic/implicit vs. controlled/explicit processing -Also be familiar with how/what we automatically process
automatic processing: implicit -rapid, fast, efficient (little capacity) -occurs mostly outside of awareness -connect associations between ideas very rapidly -breathing -processing whole words (first and last letter provide needed cue -demographic & appearance characteristics - race, gender, age -first impressions, judgments, emotional reactions, actions in ambiguous situations (we don't use much info when making judgments) -IAT, first person shooter task, priming studies, brain imaging, behavioral measures controlled processing: explicit -slow, takes lots of capacity -have to think about it -focused awareness
Social Identity -negative consequences
connectedness to a group feels good -may come at the expense of others (avoiding outgroup members, potentially set up prejudice and discrimination) group identity superiority: -basic drive to feel good about group(s) you are a member of -social mobility: joining a more valued/higher power social group -social creativity: seeking positive group distinctions by emphasizing a different basis for group comparison where the in-group is superior (Canada and celebrating diversity) -competition: asserting superiority by competing against another group
Building blocks for prejudice in infants
early childhood: (up to age 5) -differentiating self from others -learn to distinguish familiar people vs strangers --spend more time staring at something new --may express stranger anxiety ingroup favoritism: -3-6 years: prefer higher status group (without outgroup prejudice) -playing with white dolls regardless of own skin color
Minimal groups paradigm
even arbitrary and virtually meaningless distinctions between groups can trigger a tendency to favor one's own group at the expense of others Tajfel had participants fill out personality surveys, randomly assigned to groups by being told there is a preference of a painter within matched group -groups compete in game for $ -people prefer own group to the extent that they are willing to hurt own group if hurt other group more
Stereotype threat -what is it -when/for whom does it occur (consider identity salience and diagnostic description)
group members act consistent with group stereotypes (Asian women's performance on a math task when their identity as a woman or as Asian is primed)
hostile vs. benevolent sexism
hostile sexism: -the condemnation of women with negative instead of positive stereotypes and the use of threats and violence to enforce women's subservience to men -"a woman's place is in the home" -"men always strive to have more control in society than women." -oppose policies that give women power and equality such as hiring non-discrimination, equal pay -endorse rape myths benevolent sexism: (protective paternalism and chivalry) -acceptance of positive stereotypes of males and females that leads to unequal treatment -"women should be cherished and protected by men" -"men need women to take care of them." -expects/encourages women to be less ambitious, not make their own decisions
ingroup vs outgroup -how it relates to prejudice
make assumptions about and treat people differently when they are a member of out-group -fundamental attribution error (negative outcomes: external ingroup/internal outgroup) if we view all outgroup members alike, we are not open to hearing real, nuanced differences if outgroup is less powerful in society, they may be disadvantaged
Social identity development theory (developmental theory)
one's social identity drives prejudice -children are motivated to view their own group favorable as their *group identity is closely tied to self-esteem*
Theory of Mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. required in social cognitive development theory
effects on physical and mental health
physical restraints in nursing homes more common for Hispanic and Asian Americans than European Americans hospitalization for heart attack: poorer care for Hispanic Americans than European Americans treatment for pain: African Americans receive less pain medication than European Americans for similar injuries/conditions life expectancy: men live longer than women, on average anxiety and depression: women have higher rates than men, individuals who are LGBT have higher rates gay teens may be at higher risk for suicide substance abuse: men have higher rates than women consider intersectionality: European American women live longer than African American women causes: Poverty: -Physical toll of the stress of being poor -Can't afford health care, even with insurance -Can't afford healthy food, good living conditions, etc. -Biases against poor people - not offered same health care options Prejudice: -Physical toll of the stress of experiencing prejudice -Implicit or explicit prejudice may impact care -Institutional racism: "White cisgender male" is the model patient in health care research and training Care not available
Doll Study
preference for playing with white dolls regardless of own skin color
How do we test prejudice in children?
preference test: -11 months: generally start preferring people who like the same things we do -3 years: easily able to engage in social categorization -4/5 years: start showing bias based on race, gender, age, physical ability, body weight, attractiveness
Socialization (developmental theory)
the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture basically same as social learning theory social learning theory: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
right wing authoritarian
three aspects: -*authoritarian submission* (inclination to submit to those with greater authority or status) -*authoritarian aggression* (general hostility towards people outside the mainstream -deviates- and members of other groups) -*conventionalism* (strong commitment to traditional norms and values of one's group) high in RWA: -politically conservative -higher in prejudice towards many groups (related to Need for Closure (intolerance of ambiguity) and Need for Structure)