Psych 101 Unit 2
Edward C. Tolman would have most likely made which of the following statements?
"Animals develop a mental representation of the layout of a maze, which allows them to run quickly and accurately through a maze.
What is one of the most common causes of dementia?
Alzheimer's disease
Which of the following statements best captures the basic idea of operant conditioning?
Behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
According to research on déjà vu, which of the following individuals is MOST likely to have this experience?
D'Andre, who is well-educated and travels frequently
What discovery sparked Pavlov's interest in the phenomenon that eventually became known as "classical conditioning"?
Dogs displayed a reflexive response before the stimulus was presented rather than after it was presented.
Which learning researcher believed that operant conditioning involved an organism learning "what leads to what," or the cognitive expectation that a particular consequence would follow a particular behavior?
Edward C. Tolman
Which psychologist studied the development of taste aversions, noting how they seemed to violate the basic principles of classical conditioning?
John Garcia
Which psychologist trained rats to run a maze, then tried to identify the location of the memory by removing a tiny portion of the rat's brain?
Karl Lashley
How can you explain the finding that quail could be easily conditioned to associate an illness with blue-colored water, but rats could not?
Quail are biologically prepared to associate visual stimuli with illness, while rats are not.
Who was the physician and founder of psychoanalysis who proposed that dream images are disguised and symbolic expressions of unconscious wishes and urges?
Sigmund Freud
Which of the following statements about B.F. Skinner's view is FALSE?
Skinner advocated the greater use of punishment to control human behavior and achieve a more perfect society.
In a series of studies, Thorndike put hungry cats into specially constructed cages called "puzzle boxes." There was a plate of food just outside the cage where the cats could see and smell it. At the end of his studies, what did Thorndike conclude about the cats?
The cats used trial and error to escape from the puzzle box.
According to the discussion in your textbook, why did Karl Lashley fail to find evidence for the specific location of the engram?
The maze-running behavior that he studied involved a complex set of interrelated memories that existed in different brain areas.
What is the most valid conclusion to be drawn about the different models of conditioning and learning?
The principles of operant and classical conditioning are generally valid, but cannot account for all aspects of behavior.
Addictive drugs, such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, nicotine, and amphetamines, share a common effect on the brain. What is that effect?
They all activate dopamine-producing neurons, producing a surge of dopamine.
Which statement is TRUE regarding nightmares?
They are not indicative of psychological or sleep disorders unless they occur frequently, cause difficulties returning to sleep, or cause daytime distress.
According to Bandura's model of observational learning, which of the following characteristics of television depictions of violent behavior makes the violent behavior more likely to be imitated?
Violent behavior is performed by the hero or another attractive, high-status individual.
Which of the following statements about sensory memory is FALSE?
Visual sensory memory holds information longer than auditory sensory memory.
Which of the following statements about alcohol is FALSE?
Women metabolize alcohol more quickly than men.
How does working memory differ from short-term memory?
Working memory involves a conscious manipulation of temporarily stored information.
Shortly after going to bed and as he is falling asleep, Neville feels like he is suddenly falling forward, which jolts him awake. This vivid sensation exemplifies:
a hypnagogic hallucination.
To produce a learned response in classical conditioning, what two elements are repeatedly paired?
a neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally elicits a response
"I could have sworn that I parked my Subaru in this row," Jayda said with embarrassment as the airport parking van driver drove down yet another row of parked cars. "It's okay," the van driver reassured her, then added, "This happens all the time when people are rushing to catch a plane and they don't pay attention to the row signs." This is an everyday example of _____ due to _____.
absentmindedness; encoding failure
When the gill-withdrawal reflex of the sea snail Aplysia has been successfully conditioned to a stimulus such as a squirt of water, observed changes in the neural circuit include:
an increase in the number of synapses.
Modern research on advertising and marketing techniques has shown that:
attitudes toward a product or a particular brand can be influenced by the use of classical conditioning techniques in advertising campaigns.
The psychologists and teachers at the Center for Children with Special Needs have designed an elaborate program that teaches the children how to feed themselves, brush their teeth, and so forth using a carefully designed program of shaping and reinforcement. This is an example of:
behavior modification.
Researchers found that people easily acquire a conditioned fear response to pictures of snakes and spiders when the slides were paired with a mild electric shock. However, people did NOT easily acquire a conditioned fear response to pictures of flowers and mushrooms when these images were paired with a mild electric shock. According to the textbook discussion, this is an example of:
biological preparedness.
Based on a review of decades of research, the American Psychological Association and other public health organizations stated that viewing media violence:
can contribute to an increase in aggressive attitudes, values, and behaviors.
An organism enhances its odds of survival by being able to learn that a neutral stimulus can signal an important upcoming event, as in:
classical conditioning.
There are two basic types of conditioning: _____ and _____ conditioning.
classical; operant
When Bernardo was having problems at school, he often sought advice from his grandfather. His grandfather, who always smoked tobacco in a pipe, was kind, reassuring, and always supportive. Years later, Bernardo still finds the smell of pipe tobacco soothing. In classical conditioning terms, Bernardo's fondness for the smell of pipe tobacco may be described as a(n):
conditioned response
After repeatedly pairing the sound of a ticking metronome with food being placed in a dog's mouth, the sound of the ticking metronome alone will make the dog salivate. The dog's salivation to the sound of the ticking metronome is called the:
conditioned response (CR).
Initially, an infant has no response to a nurse's white uniform. But after a couple of painful experiences of getting a vaccination shot from a nurse in a white uniform, the infant will react with fear in response to a nurse in a white uniform who simply walks into the examining room. In this example, the sight of a nurse in a white uniform has become a(n) _____ to the infant.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
Another name for explicit memory is _____ memory.
declarative
Which of these factors is NOT a factor that influences a drug's effects?
dissociative ability, IQ or intelligence level, and imaginative suggestibility
"Can you believe it? Another cell phone, and this one looks expensive!" the cosmetics salesperson laughed as he waved the cell phone that the customer had left behind. "Well, put it in the drawer with the others," his co-worker said. "They'll probably come back for this one." Such everyday instances of absentmindedness are usually caused by:
encoding failure
On a visit to his mother's home, Steve's mother introduced him to her new next-door neighbor. After chatting with the neighbor for a few minutes, Steve realized that he could not remember the new neighbor's name. The MOST likely explanation for Steve's forgetting the neighbor's name is:
encoding failure
During episodes of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), the sleeper:
experiences a blocked or narrowing airway, which causes shallow breathing or repeated pauses in breathing that disrupt sleep.
Every Friday, Dr. Velasquez would give a quiz in his theology class. Students quickly learned to be nervous on Friday mornings, just before each quiz. Halfway through the semester, Dr. Velasquez stopped giving quizzes on Fridays and the students' anxiety began to diminish with each passing week in which there was no quiz. The decrease in the students' anxiety may be attributed to the process of:
extinction.
Numerous studies have been conducted looking at the factors involved in criminal convictions in which the convicted person ultimately turned out to be innocent of the crime. Those studies have consistently shown that the leading cause of wrongful convictions is:
eyewitness misidentification.
Research on flashbulb memories indicates that:
flashbulb memories function just like ordinary memories; we remember some details, forget some details, and think we remember some details.
Meditation techniques that involve focusing your awareness on an image, a word, a phrase, or your breathing are referred to as "_____ techniques."
focused attention
The graphic representation of the results of Ebbinghaus's research is called the:
forgetting curve
According to research presented in the Focus on Neuroscience box "The Dreaming Brain," REM sleep involves decreased activity in the:
frontal lobes.
Some businesses give reductions on health insurance premiums to employees who rack up enough points on a specially equipped pedometer that monitors their daily activity level. This is an example of a movement called "_____" that is based on principles of operant conditioning.
gamification
Janae's dog, Tulip, was classically conditioned with food to salivate at the sound of a bell. Janae then repeatedly paired the bell with another stimulus, a whistle. Now, whenever she blows the whistle, Tulip salivates, even though the whistle has never been paired with food. This example illustrates:
higher order conditioning (or second-order conditioning).
Martin Seligman noted that phobias seem to be quite selective, involving only certain stimuli. To explain this, Seligman proposed that:
humans are biologically prepared to develop fears of things that may once have posed an evolutionary threat to humans.
Which of the following factors was NOT identified as a factor that contributes to the effectiveness of entertainment-education programs?
identifying a specific villain who is to blame for unhealthy behaviors
A phenomenon known as _____ occurs when we fail to notice something in our clear field of view because our limited attentional resources are devoted to another task or object in the environment.
inattentional blindness
Compared to Asian mothers, when engaging in shared reminiscing with their children, Western mothers tend to emphasize the child's:
individual activities and emotional reactions
At a loud party, Amari met so many new people that when she ran into one of her new acquaintances on campus the next day she was unable to remember his name. The MOST likely explanation for her forgetting the name of her new acquaintance is:
interference.
In the year during which a dramatic series that promoted literacy among adults was broadcast on television in Mexico, enrollment in literacy instruction groups:
jumped from 90,000 to more than 800,000 people.
Studies with the sea snail Aplysia show that _____ is the neural basis for memories acquired through classical conditioning.
long-term potentiation
At an auto parts store, Adam looked up the oil filter number in the parts catalog. Adam mentally repeated the number, PF3807A, as he searched the shelves for the correct oil filter for his car. Adam was using _____ to keep the information in his short-term memory.
maintenance rehearsal
A phenomenon known as _____ refers to focusing on two stimuli at once.
multitasking
The early "school" or approach to psychology called "behaviorism" emphasized the scientific study of:
observable behaviors rather than mental processes.
After a vervet monkey learned a new food preference, the rest of its group acquired the new preference within a few days. In turn, the newly acquired preference spread to other monkey groups who could see the new behavior. According to the textbook, this is evidence for:
observational learning.
Participants in Sperling's experiment stared at a screen on which three rows of letters were flashed for just one-twentieth of a second. If Sperling sounded a high-pitched, medium-pitched, or low-pitched tone within _____, the person could recall the letters in the upper, middle, or lower row.
one-third of a second
An organism enhances its odds of survival by being responsive to the consequences of its actions, as in:
operant conditioning.
Overdose from _____ is now the second leading cause of accidental death in the United States, second only to motor vehicle accidents.
opioids
Behavior that is conditioned with _____ reinforcement is _____ resistant to extinction.
partial; more
You want to make sure that you aren't late for work, so you call a co-worker who is always punctual and ask her to meet you for coffee before work the next morning. You know you'll be more likely to be on time if someone is waiting to meet you. What strategy are you using?
precommitment
The fifth time that Billy was late for school he was given a detention. However, the following day he was late for school again. In this situation it is likely that:
punishment has not occurred, because the operant response of being late for school was not suppressed.
This multiple-choice test question is a good example of using _____ to test long-term memory.
recognition
Long-term potentiation:
refers to the functional and structural changes in neurons that increase the strength of the synaptic connections involved in a particular memory.
The tip-of-the-tongue experience is a common example of:
retrieval failure.
Loss of memory, especially episodic information, from the past is:
retrograde amnesia.
Researchers found that for Chinese and Taiwanese respondents, early autobiographical memories tended to focus on:
routine activities done in the company of others.
The _____ model describes the way that information is organized in long-term memory.
semantic network
On a night out, Eli asks a man he met at a bar for his number. Eli repeats the number in his mind over and over because his phone is dead and he doesn't have a piece of paper handy to write down the number. Eli was trying to keep the information in:
short-term memory.
When you combine the research findings of Karl Lashley and Richard Thompson, the findings suggest that:
simple memories may be localized in specific areas, but complex memories seem to be distributed throughout the brain.
Partial reinforcement is to _____ as continuous reinforcement is to _____.
sometimes; always
Although he actually learned about Germany's high taxes from talking to someone at a recent party, Paul was absolutely convinced that he had heard about the high taxes in Germany on a radio talk show. This is an example of a false memory due to:
source confusion
The photograph of an unknown young man bravely defying oncoming tanks in an antigovernment protest in China's Tiananmen Square has become an iconic image of individual courage and the struggle for human rights. But after people who remembered the original image correctly were shown a doctored image with a crowd of onlookers, their memories changed to incorporate the crowds of onlookers shown in the fake photo. This can best be explained by:
source confusion.
As Jeremy lays in bed, his mind wanders and he becomes increasingly drowsy. During this short, transitional stage of sleep, he slowly becomes unaware of the hum from his air-conditioning unit, which remains on most of the time. This sleep stage is called:
stage 1 NREM.
Sam lies next to her partner, Jamie, as they fall asleep. Sam hears Jamie's breathing becoming rhythmical and notices occasional muscle twitches in Jamie's hand and leg. Most likely, Jamie is experiencing:
stage 2 NREM.
Pavlov found that once he conditioned a dog to salivate in response to a tone, a tone that was slightly higher or lower in pitch would also make the dog salivate. This phenomenon is called:
stimulus generalization.
A long-lasting increase in synaptic strength that is associated with new memories or learning a new skill is:
termed "long-term potentiation."
Sybil finds that she performs much better on tests when she studies in the room where the test will be held. What does this exemplify?
the context effect
According to the Focus on Neuroscience box "The Addicted Brain: Diminishing Rewards," alcohol, heroin, nicotine, cocaine, and the amphetamines all affect which system in the brain?
the dopamine reward system
Which brain region is especially involved in retrieving and organizing information that is associated with episodic and autobiographical memories?
the frontal lobes
Which of the following refers to the hypothetical brain changes associated with the formation of a long-term memory?
the memory trace or engram
No matter their learning preference, people tend to learn better from words combined with pictures than from just words or just pictures. This phenomenon is called:
the multimedia effect.
Older adults are more likely to remember experiences that occurred in adolescence and young adulthood—a phenomenon called:
the reminiscence bump.
The developmental period of adolescence and young adulthood includes memories of events that are critically important to the formation of adult identity. This is one explanation for a phomenon called:
the reminiscence bump.
You are conducting a study on the organization of information in long-term memory. In the study, participants are told to say the first word that comes to their mind in response to the stimulus words "day," "woods," and "time." Many participants responded "night," "trees," and "clock." In your write-up of the study, you note that the participants' responses seem to support:
the semantic network model.
Ever since she foolishly drank too much beer at a rock concert and vomited all over her boyfriend, Sharon becomes nauseated at the smell or taste of beer. In this example, the conditioned stimulus is _____ and the conditioned response is _____.
the smell or taste of beer; nausea
The term "elicited" is used in classical conditioning, and it means that:
the stimulus "draws out" or causes an existing behavior to occur.
According to the In Focus box "What You Really Want to Know About Sleep," yawning is:
typically followed by an increase in a person's activity level.
The "lost-in-the-mall" technique involves:
using family members of the participant to help induce a false memory for an event that never occurred, such as being lost in a shopping mall as a child.
On the first trial, a rat in a Skinner box is reinforced for the first bar press it makes after 50 seconds have elapsed. On the second trial, the first bar press after 70 seconds is reinforced. Although it varies from trial to trial, the average works out to one reinforcer every 60 seconds. The rat is on a _____ schedule of reinforcement.
variable-interval
Perceiving a picture activates areas of the _____, just as perceiving a sound activates areas of the _____.
visual cortex; auditory cortex
Which of the following terms would Skinner most likely reject in his explanations of learned behavior?
voluntary
"Short-term memory" refers to the active, _____ memory system.
working
