Psych 133F Midterm

Test Enhanced Learning Takeaway

Do students need corrective feedback? NO, but can profit from it. Is testing better than additional studying? YES Which is best? SHORT ANSWER

Study 1 (japan vs america) Perceived Importance Results

Canadians thought that creativity was more important to daily life if they succeeded than if they had failed. Japanese ratings not affected by feedback.

Encoding

Getting knowledge into memory. Like listening to lecture.

Types of Note Taking

1) Generative- summarizing, paraphrasing 2) Non- Generative: verbatim copying. The more deeply information is processed during note taking, the better the memory for it.

Study 1 (praise for intelligence) Method

- 5th graders, Americans. - Used 3 sets of 10 standard progressive matrices (you see 8 figures and your task is to say what should go in 9th position) and they were moderately difficult. Set 1: Participants were told that they did really well (more than 80%). Then they got one kind of praise (IV): ability (you must be really smart at these problems) or effort (you must have worked really hard at these problems), or none at all (just that they did really well). -Dependent variable (DV) related to choice of problems they wanted next: Do you want to be given problems that were not so hard so that you don't get many wrong or ones that you will learn more from even if you wont look so smart because they are harder? They said that they will do the follow up test if they had time so that the kid's expectations were not ruined. Set 2: Then, they did a set that was much harder. All participants were told that they did worse this time (less than 50%). Then took a series of DVs: persistence, enjoyment, perceptions about quality of performance, and attributions for poor performance. Set 3: Then, did a third set, and switched back to moderate problems. The DV for this was performance post failure.

Additional Points on Learning Styles

- All students learn more when CONTENT drives choice of modality. Ex. if you are learning about Beethoven, you probably want to listen to a song. - Meshing hypothesis is not supported by all research.

Problems with the learning styles study they found

- Examined only a subset of students (1/3) so they took only highest people. - Outliers were excluded and they did not say why or what an outlier even is. - The instructional learning styles were not the most common forms of learning styles (visual auditory kinesthetic). So, we do not know anything about how their learning styles used generalize to the most common one. - Supporting evidence on 2 or 3 assessments. Disappointing study when it comes to supporting meshing hypothesis.

Study 1 (praise for intelligence) Expectations

- Expected that if you were praised for ability, you would attribute your failure to lack of ability. You are much more likely to pursue performance goals (do things that show how smart you are) and you want to document your intelligence. - Expected that if you were praised for effort the opposite would happen. You are more likely to attribute your failure to lack of effort, pursue learning goals (improvement)- suggests that you can change your intelligence. - Someone praised for their effort is more likely to have higher enjoyment, persistence, and better actual performance than someone who is praised for ability.

Study 1 (japan vs america) Questionnaire Method

- Manipulation Check: report score and percentile. Dropped anyone who did not pass this. - Perceived accuracy of measure: how accurate does that test measure creativity? - Perceived importance of creativity to daily life: how important is creativity to daily life? - Feeling after getting score. (So DV's are persistence time, perceived accuracy, perceived importance, and feeling after score)

Success and Failure: Japan vs. North America Study Predictions

- North American students persist longer when they are aware of their strengths. - Japanese students persist longer when they are aware of their weaknesses. 3 STUDIES.

Whats the appeal of learning styles?

- People like to classify themselves. - People like being treated as being special and a part of a group. - People want to be seen as having potential to learn. - Learning styles makes it possible to place blame outside oneself.

Existence of Study Preferences

- People will, if ask, volunteer their preferences. - Preferences are reliable, we all think we have a learning style and stick with it. - People have different aptitudes (for ex. spacial, oral, etc. knowledge). - Just because we have different preferences and aptitudes, does not mean they should affect instruction. **EXISTENCE IS NOT A TEST OF THE LEARNING STYLES HYPOTHESIS.

Study 2 (goal orientation) Results

- Those praised for effort chose interesting new ideas way more than average scores. - Those praised for intelligence had the opposite results 75:20. - Those in control group asked for average scores more, but not as much as those praised for ability. - Proportion of children who misrepresented their scores: 14% for control, 13% for effort, and 38% for those praised for ability (a lot more lied).

Implications of learning styles study

- We need more studies with factorial randomized research designs. - If there is evidence to support learning styles hypothesis, benefits still must outweigh the cost before you implement these. For ex. testing and special instruction is hard to carry out.

New information conflicting with the old

- You often revert back to your old thinking... it is difficult to change your view. Ex. Letter of recommendation: girl said wrong thing about the class to her. *This explains why so many people still think there are learning styles.

Author's Task (Learning Styles)

1) Determine necessary forms of evidence. 2) Review lit. for that evidence

Methodology required to test learning styles hypothesis

1) Divide learners into 2+ groups based on learning styles. Split into kinesthetic and visual learners. 2) Randomly assign participants in each group to 2+ learning style methods. Half would get visual and half would get kinesthetic from each group. 2x2 factorial design. 3) Give all participants the same achievement test at the end. *4) Results must show that the learning method that optimizes test performance for one group is different than the learning method that optimizes test performance for the other group. CRITICAL.

Learning Styles Study Hypothesis

1. Claim that individualizing instruction to learners can allow people to achieve a better learning outcome. (They can teach people with learning styles they don't like because difficulties can make you learn more- desirable difficulties.) 2. Meshing Hypothesis: Instruction is best provided in a format that matches the preferences of the learner. Ex. If you a visual, you should be presented with info visually.

Study 3 (laptops vs written) Method

109 UCLA students. 4 filmed lectures, 7 minutes each, all students watched all. 2x2 design. Compared laptop vs longhand as well as studying vs no studying. Returned after 1 week: students in study condition had 10 minutes to review notes. DV: 40 item test (10 items per lecture) on facts, seductive details, concepts, inferences, applications- variety of question types.

Study 2 (laptops vs written) Method

151 students from UCLA Same TED talks from study 1. Laptops: Nonintervention- take notes just as you would in class. Intervention- take notes in your own words and try not to copy verbatim. Longhand: Nonintervention- take notes, juts as you would in class. Intervention- NA Same distractor tasks Same factual recall and concept application questions as Study 1.

Study 1 (multitasking) DVs

20 multiple choice questions (comparing simple/factual questions and complex/application questions. Multitasking condition asked (likert scale): To what extent do you think the act of multitasking hindered your learning of the lecture material? To what extend do you think multitasking hindered the learning experience of other students? Also, their notes were coded for quality!

Study 1 (multitasking) Method

40 UG intro to psych. Attend 45 min live lecture. Primary task: take notes on laptop (all students). Secondary task: Complete 12 online tasks during lecture (half of students). This mimics typical browsing and could be completed in 15 min- 33% of lecture time which is typical in actual educational settings.

Kids and Science Study Method

402 9th and 10th graders. All read 3 storied of scientists. IV: all scientists either: - struggle intellectually - struggle in personal life - made great discoveries (typical) (3 groups)

Study 1 (laptops vs written) Methods

67 Princeton UGs Showed them TED talks that were interesting and not common knowledge. Room set up with laptops (no internet) or notebooks. Follow normal note- taking strategies. 1) Watch talk. 2) Distractor tasks for 30 min. 3) Answer questions which either consisted of factual recall (how many years ago did the Indus civilization exist?) or conceptual application (how do japan and sweden differ in approaches to equality?)

Social Belonging Study Sample

92 stanford undergrad freshmen. African vs euro-american. African americans compromise 4% of stanford UG pop.

Executive Function Study Method

96 typically developing children- half 3 and half 5 Had them complete theory of mind scale (like test described earlier)- based on how many stages of task they can pass. Had them complete baseline executive function flanker task. Flashed pics of fish facing different directions on screen and asked which direction middle fish was pointing. Dependent variable: minnesota executive functioning scale Children sort cards according to rules concerning shared features (color, shape) flexibly as rules change through game. "Lets play the color game first so put all animals with same color together, okay now were going to play the animal game so all the animals go together now" Requires inhibition, working memory, and set shifting Scores calculated using accuracy and reaction time Control/ Distancing Manipulations: After reviewing MEFS instructions told: "sometimes this game can be tricky! Some kids like to..." - Not told anything (control) - Self immersed: "focus on what they are thinking and how they feel when it gets hard". Ex. "where do I think this card should go" (one of the controlled conditions) - Third Person: "talk to themselves using their own name when it gets hard" - Exemplar: "pretend that they are someone else who would be really good at this game when it gets hard" Ex. where does batman think this card should go

Zombie Reform

A belief about policy that has been repeatedly refuted with evidence and analysis but refuses to die. There is so much evidence against learning styles but people still push for it.

Self Enhancement

A selective attention to positive aspects of self. More typical of North American students- efforts to improve yield little reward to them. Like to focus on their strengths.

Theory of Mind

Ability to attribute different mental states to individuals and understand that others possess differing mental states (beliefs emotions knowledge) Develops bet. age 2-5. Critical for everyday social interactions.

Self Distancing

Ability to take a step back and adopt a less egocentric perspective. Improves ability to delay gratification, down-regulates intense emotional responses (overwhelmed), facilitates wise decision making, promotes rational views of emotional situations. Helpful because you do not help your own emotional bias or personal experiences to get in way of your response.

Goal Orientations

Achievement goals: represent different ways of approaching, engaging in, and responding to achievement abilities. Your ability to demonstrate your ability especially compared to others.

Second Clicker Study Procedure

Across groups- same instructor, reading, lectures, exams. Different years so the students for each group were different. Manipulation- clicker class spent 5-10 min per class on q's. No clickr class had same q's on paper. Control class asked if they had questions.

Generative Learning

Active processing in the learner. Selecting relevant material from the lesson, organizing the selected material into coherent representation, integrating the representation with existing knowledge. COGNITIVE activity during teaching causes learning... not behavioral activity. Its the thinking that comes with the doing, not the doing.

Social Belonging Study Daily Surveys 1 Week Post Int. Results

African american student control group's feelings of belonging rose and fell with degree of recent adversity. Treatment group- sense of belonging was unrelated to daily hardship. If they had a bad day, it did NOT have a negative impact on how well they felt they belonged. TREATMENT UNTETHERED SENSE OF BELONGING FROM DAILY HARDSHIP.

Social Belonging Study End of Senior Year Survey Results

African americans showed consistent treatment effects! Reported higher stability and less uncertainty about belonging in school, reported being healthier (physically) and visiting doctor less, higher subjective happiness. On none of these measures did euro americans differ by conditions, so intervention seems to be able to work well only w students who need it. Only 14% reported that the study had any effect on their college experience. They did not really remember it. EFFECTIVENESS WAS NOT DEPENDENT ON AWARENESS- we are not always totally aware about why we feel how we do... only 8% remembered what they key content of the report was.

Study 1 (japan vs america) Feeling About Self Results

All reported feeling better about success than failure. Felt equally bad about failure. Canadians felt significantly better about success than Japanese did. Canadians have greater emotional benefit of success.

Study 2 (japan vs america) Method

Almost same as study 1. Told purpose was to assess "pattern recognition skills" and "emotional intelligence". Along with other questions, they also measured fixed vs. incremental conceptions of ability by asking q's like "everyone is a certain kind of person and theres not much to change them." Also, two possible tasks with which to pass time when computer breaks: RAT-another set of items like the first, or GFT- a geometric figure tracing task, or DV- just time spent on each... so wanted to see how long they persisted.

Study 2 (japan vs america) Task Preference Results

Americans displayed a non significant trend to prefer the RAT over the GFT task more after succeeding than after failing. Japanese were significantly more likely to prefer RAT over GFT after failing than after succeeding.

Study 2 (japan vs america) Persistence Results

Americans persisted marginally longer after success feedback than after failure feedback. Japanese persisted significantly longer following failure feedback than following success feedback.

Study 3 (japan vs america) Results

Americans persisted more with high effort tip. Japanese persisted less with low effort tip. (hypotheses were right).

Study 2 (laptops vs written) General Results

Among conceptual items, if you took notes longhand, you did better than students who took notes on laptop (with or without intervention). INTERVENTION DID NOT HELP. Students who took notes with laptop and had intervention did not significantly improve over students who took notes with laptop and did not have intervention. No statistical difference between performance on factual- recall questions.

Concept mapping

An activity in which students construct a diagram of concepts. Links. Causes, requires, consists of... Encode meaningful relationship- elaborative study method.

Study 1 (laptops vs written) Mediating Effect

Basically, this study had two mediators: verbatim overlap and word count. The note taking medium affected both of these and both of these affected performance. Note- taking medium has a direct affect on performance. Note taking medium affects word count, which affects performance. Note taking medium affects verbatim overlap which affects performance. Full model is a significant predictor of performance. Direct effects of note taking medium on performance remained a marginally significant predictor, and both indirect effects were significant. DIRECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NOTE TAKING MEDIUM AND PERFORMANCE DECREASED WHEN CONTROLLING FOR WORD COUNT AND VERBATIM OVERLAP.

Study 3 (test enhanced learning) Method

CLASSROOM SETTING. College course, 40 pages reading out of tb each week, 20 facts identified from each week. For 10 facts, ss were exposed via a short answer quiz, multiple choice quiz, or a reading targeting the facts. Type of exposure was manipulated within subjects- across 3 weeks each student got all 3 forms of exposure. Counterbalancing. Immediate feedback on quizzes. Unit test every 3 weeks- including quizzed and nonquizzed items.

Retrieval

Calling back up what is in memory. Like test taking.

Hypotheses for Laptop vs Hand Study

Can potentially go together. 1) External Storage- Benefits of the ability to review; you can can store it to look at later with laptops. There is robust support for this 2) Encoding- Processing during note taking improves learning and retention. Depth to which you process the information affects your ability to retain that information. There are mixed findings with this because there is a lot of variability in the way people take notes.

Second Clicker Study Research Question

Can questioning be used to foster generative learning in a large lecture class? NOTE: they are studying generative learning- use clickers to study.

Study 2 (japan vs america) Pattern Recognition Skills as Important

Canadians thought that creativity was more important to daily life if they succeeded than if they had failed. Japanese ratings not affected by feedback. Same as study 1. What if students respond differently to information that is consistent or inconsistent with their existing beliefs? Leads to study 3.

Study 1 (japan vs america) Perceived Accuracy Results

Canadians who discovered they did well thought that the test was more accurate than those who did poorly. SELF ENHANCEMENT. Japanese displaced a non significant tendency to view the test more accurate when they had failed than when they had succeeded. SELF CRITICIZING.

Study 2 (japan vs america) Perceived Accuracy Results

Canadians who discovered they did well thought that the test was more accurate than those who did poorly. SELF ENHANCEMENT. Japanese displaced a non significant tendency to view the test more accurate when they had failed than when they had succeeded. SELF CRITICIZING. (same as study 1)

Study 1 (praise for intelligence) Response to Failure Results

Children praised for intelligence attributed failure to lack of ability more than those praised for effort. Children praised for effort assigned greater weight to low effort than those praised for ability. This puts you in the position to do well next time.

Study 1 (praise for intelligence) Post Failure Task Enjoyment Results

Children praised for intelligence enjoyed the task less than those praised for effort. Children in control condition were less likely to enjoy the problems than those praised for effort. You can make someone like the activity more by just telling them they worked hard at it.

Study 1 (praise for intelligence) Task Persistence Results

Children praised for intelligence were less likely to want to persist than those praised for effort. If you think you are good at something and see that you are bad, you do not want to do it anymore.

Taking Notes on a Laptop vs. Hand Study

Clearly, access to laptop allows for distraction. We know that multitasking leads to decrements in performance but what if we get past the problem of distraction?

Using Clickers in Large College Psych Classes Article Past Research

Clickers have positive effect on attendance, class participation, class enjoyment, an learning. Problems with large class settings are: lack of engagement, lack of ability to ID what you dont know, students intimidated to ask or answer questions, instructors have difficulty knowing where students are at until exam.

Retrieval Practice Study

Compared 4 different ways of studying. One was concept mapping, a type of an elaborative study method. Two studies

Study 1 (retrieval practice) Results

Concept mapping and retrieval practice produced similar initial learning- proportion of ideas produced on concept maps and recalled in retrieval practice was nearly identical. Predicted that repeated study learning would be highest, and retrieval would have lowest learning. WRONG. Retrieval learning was highest on verbatim and inference. Significant results: all 3 were significantly better than study once and retrieval was significantly better for conceptual.

Social Belonging Study DVs

Daily surveys during week after intervention to assess psychological responses to adversity. End of college survey- sense of belonging, health, and well being. GPA

Using Clickers in Large College Psych Classes Article Procedure

Demographic info collected at start of class. Questionnaire collected at the end. Took the demographic info at beginning so that they were not primed to think about their intelligence in a different way by race or gender. Lecture content showed with power point. In clicker class: questions delivered throughout, bar graphs shown after, if less than 10% correct, instructor would reteach. In both classes, review quizzes available online.

Self Improvement

Discovering one's shortcomings and correcting them. More typical of Japanese students- see themselves as fluid (not fixed). Tend to focus on weaknesses to improve.

Blocked vs Interleaved Practice

Doing a bit of something then something else and going back and forth when studying (interleaved) is really good for learning, though it may be more difficult and less satisfying than blocked learning.

Second Clicker Study Method

Ed. psych class at UCSB over 3 years. Three groups, same class same teachers. Clicker group (questioning with clickers, no clicker group (questioning), control group (no tech no questioning) 2-4 mc questions per lecture on lecture content. 1/3 of exam questions were similar to clicker.

Elaborative study method

Encode meaningful relationships among concepts. Active learning- students enrich the materials they are studying. For example, organize spelling list with common vowel sounds.

Study 1 (japan vs america) Method Phase 2

Experimenter told them that next phase was to do an emotional intelligence test on computer, then computer started to crash and researcher "panicked" and said "I'll brb, if you want to do more tests they are here. Hidden cam showed which students would take the extra test to measure persistence. After 90 sec of no work or 15 min of work, experimenter returns and gives follow up questionnaire.

Fixed vs Incremental Mindst

Fixed= your ability is stable over time and you can't change it. Incremental= you can change your effort to change outcome, you ability is malleable.

Purpose/value of testing

Grades and credit, encouragement to learn, diagnostic tool, formative assessment for teachers, TAKING AN INITIAL TEST ON STUDIED MATERIAL ENHANCES ITS LATER RETENTION- TEST ENHANCED LEARNING.

Executive Functioning

Higher order regulatory processes. Important in tasks involving inhibition (allocating attention away from things that are not relevant to task), set shifting, working memory, persistence. Relevant to achievement related outcomes.

Hot vs Cold Contexts

Hot- emotional, you want it now, reflexive, simple, fast, accentuated by stress, stimulus control (responding to stimuli without processing too much) Cold- cognitive more rational, you can wait, reflective, complex, slow, attenuated by stress (self control) Executive function facilitates the cold.

Praise for Intelligence Paper (IV and DV)

IV: Praise for intelligence vs. praise for effort. DV: Attributions, goal orientation, beliefs about intelligence, enjoyment, persistence, and performance. TWO STUDIES.

Study 2 (laptops vs written) Word Count Results

If you used a laptop, intervention or not, you wrote more.

Study 3 (test enhanced learning) Results

If you were not quizzed, all the same proportion correct on unit tests. If you were quizzed, reading them was better than nothing, MC was better than that, and SHORT ANSWER significantly the best. Matched lab settings- testing effects for both short answer and multiple choice quizzes.

Success and Failure: Japan vs. North America Study Discussion

Individuals from both cultures want to do their best but they way they go about it differs. Japanese students work harder when focusing on shortcomings- with history of failure. American students work harder when focusing on strengths- with history of success. BIG TAKEAWAY: Self critical tendencies (being hard on yourself) among Japanese serve an important function of directing self improving efforts.

Social Belonging Study: Why Care?

Inequality in academic performance and health arise, at least in part, from concerns about social belonging Psychological interventions can mitigate concerns and improve academic performance and health Impact of adversity depends on its perceived meaning.

Second Clicker Study: Tech vs. Padagogy

Instructional medium= physical advice (clicker) or ipad or power point slides Instructional method= techniques to foster cognitive processing (like questioning). Just having a clicker (tech) wont necessarily help, it depends on what you do with it. This methodology explores variation in both.

Using Clickers in Large College Psych Classes Method

Intro to psych class 145 students. 2 sections of same class: control group had no clickers and treatment group had clickers. Questionnaire asking students each of the 5 research questions... first question was just the corse grade.

Study 1 (japan vs america) Method Phase 1

Intro to psych students in Canada and Japan. Creativity test. Conditions: tests varied in difficulty. Half students got 10 easy items (scored above 50th percentile) and half students got 10 difficult items (scored below 50th percentile). Self graded and provided distribution of scores of peers. Asked to report out number correct and percentile. (IV is success or failure on test. )

Study 1 (test enhanced learning) Method

LAB SETTING Students read short articles from journal. Experimental conditions: short answer test, multiple choice test, read key statements from text, nothing (control) Immediate feedback either provided or not. Final test 3 days later: short answer or multiple choice

Problem with Laptops

Laptops facilitate verbatim transcription because you can type so fast. You get a nice record (external storage) and neat notes. But, you do not get encoding benefits unless you go back to your notes and summarize/relate them to other info.

Study 1 (laptops vs written) Conclusion

Laptops may harm academic performance (BEYOND their potential to distract). Mindless transcription seems to offset the benefit of increased content (at least when there is no opportunity to review).

Study 2 (laptops vs written) Overlap Between Student's Notes and Lecture Transcript Results

Longhand students had less overlap of notes with transcript than did either group of laptop users. Instruction not to take verbatim notes was COMPLETELY INEFFECTIVE AT REDUCING VERBATIM CONTENT. INTRODUCTION WAS NOT EFFECTIVE.

Study 2 (laptops vs written) Conclusion

Longhand vs. Laptop (no intervention): For conceptual questions, students taking more notes performed better. Those whose notes had less verbatim overlap performed better. More words is a good thing but if they contain more overlap, then it is not a good thing anymore. BENEFIT OF WORD COUNT IS NEGATED BY THE DETRIMENT OF VERBATIM OVERLAP. This is why overall, longhand note takers did better. There was a mediating effect as seen in study 1.

Past Research: Delay of Gratification

Marshmallow test. But, there's a misrepresentation of results! It's difficult for all children and it may not be innate? Note that one of the kids are actively directing attention from marshmallow by looking away... creating distance. This worked!! You can teach kids to better regulate themselves with these tactics.

Study 1 (multitasking) Results

Multitaskers had notes of poor quality. Multitaskers performed more poorly on comprehension test (11% lower). Multitaskers thought that multitasking would somewhat hinder their learning. Thought peers learning would be barely hindered. There was no difference in performance between simple/factual and complex/application post-test questions.

Summary of Multitasking Article

Multitasking reduces quality of your note taking. Multitasking reduces comprehension. Others' multitasking reduces comprehension. Probably mechanism is impaired attention and processing. Simple/factual and complex/ application equally impaired. UG's are not aware of the magnitude of negative effects.

Multitasking Study Hypothesis

Multitasking would lead to lower comprehension scores than not. 2 Studies

Second Clicker Study Discussion

No clicker = control because paper and pencil questions more disruptive. Clickers better able to support instructional method. Clicker use was seamless in class. All paper and pencil questions provided at end of class, not during. Even when they looked at the 2/3 of test questions not similar to clicker, the click group still did better than non clicker and control.

Kids and Science Study Grade Results

No difference in pretest across groups. Both struggle stories led to higher posttest grades relative to control group. Interaction with pre intervention grades- if you were a poor or good science student before you read, INTERVENTION WAS MORE BENEFICIAL ON STUDENTS WITH LOW PRETEST GRADES and did NOT HAVE EFFECT ON STUDENTS WITH HIGH PRETEST GRADES.

Kids and Science Study Motivation Results

No pre test diff. No effect of story intervention on motivation measures. We can cross this out.

Study 1 (japan vs america) Persistence Results

North American students persisted longer after success and Japanese persisted longer after failure. (could be that Japanese worked on extra problems bc they were fearful or wanted something to do)

More on our intuitions about learning

Our intuitions about how we learn are often wrong. If you think you learn a lot from an instructor who speaks clearly, you are wrong. It feels better and less effortful, but that does not mean it is better for your learning.

Social Belonging Study GPA Results

Over time african american treatment group kept doing better and by end of senior year, similar GPA to european americans in control. Control group, less than 10 percent of african americans ended up in top 25 of class. In african american treatment, 3 times amount of students ended up in top 25 percent of class.

Study 2 (retrieval practice) Results

Overall, retrieval practice was better than concept mapping. Better for 101/120. Relative effectiveness of retrieval consistently underestimated- 90/120 thought that concept map would be better!

Study 2 (japan vs america) Feeling About Themselves Results

Participants in both cultures felt better after success. Japanese students did not feel as bad as American students about failure. American students felt better than Japanese about success.

Second Clicker Study Results

People with clickers scored better than all others. No clicker class had = scores to control. Not what researchers anticipated. Clicker average grade B, no clicker and control B-.

Social Belonging Study Intervention Keys

People's SUBJECTIVE interpretations of the quality of their relationships, more so than objective number of attributes of those relationships, strongly affects well being. Intervention designed to encourage non-threatening interpretations of adversity- they did not change objective things or change any of the people's adverse experiences, just how they interpreted them. Intervention might initiate a positive feedback loop- a virtuous cycle. It was only an hour long but this probably had students continually interpreting things positively.

Laptops vs Written Notes Study General Discussion

Performance decrements associated with taking notes on laptops are due to DIFFERENCES IN NOTE-TAKING BEHAVIOR. The specific problem is TAKING VERBATIM NOTES. They are also resistant to intervention. Even when allowed to study, laptop note- takers performed worse.

Study 1 (praise for intelligence) General Results

Proportion of children who selected performance goals rather than learning goals for those praised for intelligence was way more than those praised for effort. The control group had more who selected performance goals like the intelligence praise group.

Study 3 (japan vs america) Hypothesis

Providing Japanese students with info that effort is useful should have little impact on their behavior (redundant with what they thing). Providing Japanese students with info that abilities are fixed should influence their behavior. Similar should be true with Americans but in reverse.

Executive Function Study: Why care?

Psychological distancing can be an essential element in expression of self control at young age. Easy for kids to pretend to be batman bc they always do this anyways. Strategies can improve performance- ability to inhibit or not are not fixed traits (as suggested by marshmallow study). Fixed vs Growth Mindset- Telling a child that they have potential and just need to learn strategics to work on.. Its not an inherent thing they cant change. This can help a lot with self concept because this is a way to show kids that if you think about math in a different way then you can stop struggling and it will be more easy or enjoyable. Instills idea that effort pays off rather than you are born with your intelligent and thats all you can do.

Study 2 (retrieval practice) Methods

Same as experiment 1 but different material to study- 2 sets of materials counterbalanced. 2 conditions: concept mapping and retrieval practice (equal time). Within subjects- each participant used each method.

Executive Function Study Result

Q1: - Graph. Y axis: scores on executive functioning task. X axis- separated by conditions and age. - 5 year olds did better than 3 year olds - Shows that it does not really matter for the 3 year olds... same scores in each manipulation. - But, there is a significant difference between conditions for 5 year olds. They do better in third person and exemplar conditions. - ONLY 5 YEAR OLDS improved on EF task performance from distancing Q2: - Children divided by theory of mind scores High > 4, low <3 - Collapsed across conditions (combined controls and treatments): Self distanced: third person and exemplar Non distanced: self immersed and control ********Looks like the positive effect of distancing with executive functioning did depend on whether or not people had high theory of mind!!! Didn't make a diff with those with low theory of mind. High theory of mind is what leads you to be able to do better with exec. functioning via distancing. If you dont have high theory of minds (most 3 year olds) you cant improve that way. So need to be mature.

Second Clicker Study Mechanism

Questions and feedback encourages active cognitive processing in 3 ways: Before answering: students will be more attentive when asked q. While answering: students may work hard to organize and integrate. After feedback: students may develop metacognitive skills for gauging their understanding.

Social Belonging Study Procedure

Random assignment to treatment or control. Belonging intervention (1hr): read narrative that frames social adversity in school as short lived- everyone experiences it and it does not last forever. Then, write essay about how own experiences echoed report and deliver by speech via camera (saying is believing! also did not want participants to be told how they should feel- they are more receptive to telling others how to feel). Control: Same process but report was not on social belonging. Campus wide control- they used gpa of all other stanford students

Study 2 (japan vs america) Implicit Theory: Fixed or Malleable Results

Regardless of whether American or Japanese, those who endorsed more of an incremental theory tended to persist longer after failure.

Second Clicker Study Limitations

Researcher bias- but then if he really was bias, why would he have set up the clicker to do better than the non clicker class that was still questions- he wasn't trying to prove that clickers are better.

Using Clickers in Large College Psych Classes Article Limitations

Researcher bias- same instructor taught both classes, so they could have performed better bc teacher made sure to have good paper. Sample was not randomly selected and participants not randomly assigned.

Study 3 (laptops vs written) Results

SIGNIFICANT INTERACTION: LONGHAND STUDENTS WHO STUDED PERFORMED BETTER THAN ALL OTHER CONDITIONS.

Study 2 (test enhanced learning) Method

STIMULTED CLASSROOM SETTING. 3, 30 min. art history lectures, viewed on video on consecutive days. 30 facts in each lecture. 20 facts tested/restudied in one of the following ways: short answer, multiple choice- feedback provided on half of the initial test items. Final was a short answer test 30 days after lecture.

Study 3 (japan vs america) Methods

Same as 1 and 2 but all students received failure feedback on RAT (pattern recognition test). RAT included tips- students were randomly assigned to 3 diff ones: 1. High Effort- keep trying and you will get it! 2. Low Effort- Some people can solve these and some can't so trying does not matter. 3. Control- not tip.

Study 2 (multitasking) DVs

Same as experiment 1 but, the distracted condition was asked: To what extent were you distracted by other students laptop use around you? and To what extent do you think being in view of other students laptop use hindered your learning of lecture material? They were trying to gauge students' perceptions of the influence of the distraction. Students notes were also coded for quality.

Study 2 (goal orientation) Method

Same as study 1 above. But, after failure, they were given an option of 2 folders to read. One had interesting strategies and the other had information on average scores. Additionally, students were asked to report their performance to another child at another school in another state (anonymous).

Kids and Science Study DVs

Science class grades. Motivation battery: - beliefs about intelligence (can it increase with effort?) - beliefs about effort - mastery goal orientation- when you want to improve and judge your own performance to your own other performance - attributions and after failure scenario- read and study and had to say what the cause of failure was in the story Feelings of connection to stories and scientists

Social Beloning

Sense of having positive relationships with others. Uncertainties about belonging leads to lower intellectual performance and SENSE of well being (subjective). Negative stereotypes causes this, esp in academic settings.

Study 2 (test enhanced learning) Results

Short answer lead to highest number correct. Reading and multiple choice equivalent. No activity is worst. No effect of feedback! (possible ceiling effect)

Kids and Science Study Feelings of Connection Results

Students in both struggle conditions felt more connected to scientists than did students in control. Struggle stories appeared to reveal scientists vulnerability- they interviewed students and they said this.

Using Clickers in Large College Psych Classes Article Results

Students in clicker class scored higher than students in no clicker class. Low B vs high C. 91% students said clickers thought it helped w understanding. 81% students said it helps them ID areas needed to study. All students thought it was fun But, they did not think it was worth buying.

Study 2 (multitasking) Results

Students in view of multitasking peers showed NO reduction in note quality but had significantly LOWER POST TEST SCORES (17% lower). They reported being somewhat distracted but did not think it impacted their learning. No difference between simple and factual and complex and application.

Study 1 (laptops vs written) Word Count Results

Students who took notes on laptop took more notes. Overall, students who took more notes performed better.

Study 1 (laptops vs written) Overlap Between Notes and Lecture Transcript Results

Students who took notes on laptop were taking more verbatim notes. Students who took notes by hand paraphrased more. (Determined by shared chunks of 3 or more words from lecture slides). Students whose notes had less verbatim overlap with lecture performed better also.

Study 1 (retrieval practice) Method

Task was to learn text on science. Initial learning session, 4 conditions: - study once - repeated study (4 periods) - elaborative concept mapping (study first then map) - retrieval practice (study, free recall test, restudy, recall test) Ss judged their own learning (% remembered in week) Delayed Posttest: Short answer test on concepts. Verbatim questions (directly in text), inference questions (connections to concepts). Measure different depths of knowledge.

Kids and Science Study Goal

Teach a growth mindset with respect to achieving success as a scientist. Convey that struggle is part of the process. 1) Compare effects of intellectual and life struggles and if they have different effects. 2) Examine effects on students' motivation (to pursue science). 3) Examine effects on students with different performance levels. 4) Test with low income, minority population

Retrieval Practice Study Bottom Line

The act of retrieving/ restructuring knowledge enhances learning. We might want to change how we learn and view testing differently.

Learning Styles

The concept that individuals differ in regard to what mode of instruction they prefer. Most common are visual, auditory, kinesthetic. People love learning styles but they are proven to be a myth now. They exist because it is a huge business.

Study 1 (praise for intelligence) Post Failure Task Performance Results

The differences in task performance for all three groups on the first trial were not different. But, by trial three those who were praised for performance did way worse than trial one because they had failed during trial 1. Those praised for effort significantly improved by trial three, even after failing, because they had gotten effort praise.

Attribution Theory (effort vs ability)

The theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. - Possible causes: locus (internal, external), stability, controllability: Internal locus and stable: ability. Internal locus and unstable: effort. (Controllable: If you are told that your poor performance is due to lack of effort.) External locus and stable: difficult task. External locus and unstable: Luck.

Study 1 (laptops vs written) Performance Results

The way you took notes did not impact your performance on factual recall questions. Those who took notes by hand scored significantly higher on conceptual questions than those who took scores on a laptop.

Kids and Science Study: Why care?

There is myth that scientists do not struggle, tbs emphasize their success. That myth may be preventing some students from pursuing STEM.

Results (learning styles)

They only found ONE study with the necessary design that also found a crossover effect. This study measured HS students' analytical, creative, and practical ability. Selected subset of whom one style was clearly dominant. Randomly assigned them to intro psych classes that emphasized analytical, creative, practical, or memory instruction- matched or did not match the style of students who were in them. They then compared performance of matched students to mismatched students and removed outliers. Found that matched students outscored mismatched students on 2/3 of the assessments.

Attribution Theory Study Overall Findings

Those praised for effort attribute failure to lack of effort,want to pursue learning goals, want to improve, have more persistence, better performance, and enjoy task more!

Using Clickers in Large College Psych Classes Article Research Questions

To what extent does the use of clickers increase student academic achievement? Do students think that clickers increase understanding? Do students think that clickers help them ID material they need to study more? Do students think that using clickers is fun? Are students willing to purchase a clicker to help them learn?

Results they are looking for (learning styles)

We are looking for Crossover Interaction- for visual learners, their scores are higher with visual method and lower with auditory instruction and vice versa. Unacceptable evidence for meshing hypothesis would be when there is no crossover because regardless of learning style, one method will always work better. Likewise, if for one type of styled learner, it does not matter what you give them- they'll do the same regardless.

Study 2 (goal orientation)

What do children care most about after failure? How well their peers performed (performance orientation) or how to get better at problems (learning orientation)? How do children represent their ask performance to others?

Executive Function Study Discussion

What is causing this change? potential mediating effect of competence is the relation between self distancing and EF- its really the feeling of competence that is driving this effect. Third person talk is associated with greater feelings of being able to cope with a stressor and less overwhelm- and exemplars of more competent characters.

Test Enhanced Learning Study Research Questions

Which is better, cued recall or recognition tests? (short answer vs multiple choice) Do students have to get corrective feedback? Is testing better than additional studying? reviewed 3 studies in 3 settings.

Executive Function Study Research Qs

Will distancing a manipulation enhance performance on an executive function task? Does the effect of distancing on EF depend on theory of mind?

Study 1 (test enhanced learning) Results

With immediate feedback, regardless of form of the final test, short answer and multiple choice initial tests lead to the testing effect. With immediate feedback, initial short answer test led to best retention 3 days later. Without immediate feedback, initial multiple choice test was better at initial short answer. This might be because performance on initial short answer test was poor and getting feedback compensated for this above.

Attribution Theory

judgements about the causes of success and failure affect motivation and behavior. ability attributions- stable and uncontrollable. effort attributions- malleable and controllable. CONNECTS TO OLD ARTICLES.