PSYCH 315 Midterm 1
Current research on adolescence
multidisciplinary modified storm and stress approach (not just nature or nurture) Most current researchers wont identify with one theory because there are pieces of all theories that have merit. More emphasis on brain development
Millennials (adolescents in the 21st century)
not as much freedom, parents are very involved (moreso than any previous cohort) because the parents had to fight for everything. -confusion about when you are a adult (age? law? lots of mixed messages) -two key things: ethic diversity and attachment to technology -confident, self expressive, liberal
quantitative study of adolescent cognition
psychometric intelligence view -IQ as a measure of intelligence and cognition -adolescents have more verbal and problem solving skills -ability to adapt and to learn from life experience -emotional intelligence (emotional self-awareness, managing and reading emotions, handling relationships)
Ashley Jones Case
-14 y/o killed her whole extended family, stole $300, and drove off in the family car. -she planned this because she was upset about being grounded and given a curfew -should be tried as an adult because at 14 she can make her own choices (age of consent) -should not be tried as an adult because she isn't cognitively mature and is more prone to coersion (there is an increased chance that this behaviour was out of character); negative impact on overall development is tried as an adult -have to look at level of maturity to know culpability -> neuroimaging of PFC and tests of EF
Video: Inside the Teenaged Brain
-Jay Giedd - looks at brain structure of normal teens (PFC); overproduction of cells right before puberty (2nd wave) and thickening of grey matter. this is a huge amount of change in thinking areas and a flurry of growth before unused branches are pruned -the PFC is still being built, so cognitive strategies (EF) is still being established. we don't understand the risks of our own behaviour so this is a high risk group; this is why drugs/alcohol become more prevalent -teens can transition from outburst to calm very quickly as a result of vulnerability and PFC regulation
Kingston case
-RCMP charged 16 year old Kingston boy who planned on carrying out an attack. - knowingly facilitated a terrorist activity involving an explosive. -he was probably charged as an adult, RCMP and FBI said that age doesn't matter with terrorism.
Lev Vygotsky
-Sociocultural view + social constructivist approach -the importance of social interactions and culture guiding cognitive development. -This is key because adols start spending less time with family and more time with peers
puberty
-a brain-neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that occur in this period of development -determinants: weight, body fat, heredity, hormones -low birth weight and rapid gain in infancy linked to early pubertal onset -peak changes at 11.5 for girls and 13.5 for boys
deception and sarcasm
-adols start to understand this ; young kids only understand deception and can mistake sarcasm for deception. kids also tend to assume that if someone says something wrong they are misinformed or lying and that anything adults say is true. -adolescents begin to understand the meaning of a speakers message and the relationship between beliefs and statements (sarcasm; develops around age 12) -belief = statement -> sincere -belief =/= statement -> insincere -must understand TONE to understand sarcasm -they begin to overuse sarcasm because it is the first time they understand it. they can understand it even if it has a sincere tone. by adulthood, they understand sarcasm even if there is no sarcasm in the culture.
temporal lobe
-area that integrates functions of the frontal lobes -controls visual and auditory memory -less important to adolescence
female secondary sex characteristics
-breasts develop -hips broaden -pubic hair
History of adolescence:: 1890-1920
-considered the "age of adolescence" -inventionist perspective - adolescence is a sociohistorical creation -Industrial revolution - laws prohibiting child labour -Mandatory schooling (because youth were getting into trouble without employment because of the new labour laws) ; everyone has to stay in school until age 14. this really helped pronounce the difference between difference aged youth. Study of adolescence became scientific and scholarly.
Information Processing
-considers the role of executive functions (decision making, reasoning, critical thinking and idealism, creative thinking) -we can recognize credible sources and are less naive -reasoning becomes inductive and more advanced as we becomes more critical of our own thinking. PFC development is also key for this -critical thinking becomes more analytical and resourceful as we distinguish between real and ideal. we realize the adult world isn't what it could be (ex. greta Thunberg); we understand social injustice and the implications of what happens when we don't act -creative thinking improves: in childhood we used more closed thinking. this becomes more divergent in adolescence (there are many answers to one question)
amygdala
-emotional centre (emotions are not just hormones) -adolescents rely on this when processing emotional info and making decisions vs. adults who rely on rational prefrontal cortex -quick to react -one of the first areas to mature
pruning
-happens in two stages: just prior to birth and late childhood to adolescence (can last into early 20s) -the more that you do/use, the more that becomes hardwired in the brain -overproduction of grey matter just before puberty -last parts to be pruned: PFC, temporal lobe, and areas involved in EF -pruning is guided by genetics and the idea of "use it or lose it" -not well understood (esp role of genetics) -motor control and puberty happen around the same time which is why adolescents move awkwardly. adolescent athletes are more coordinated bc use it or lose it.
puberty and behaviour
-hormonal factors account for some of the behaviour shift in youth -estrogen linked to depression -social factors have a way bigger impact though -negative life events mediates the link between hormones and (estradiol and adrenal) and aggression in 10-14 year old girls. -hormones are not independent, they are influenced by parent factors, relationships, stress, eating, sexual activity, and depression.
adolescent generalization gap
-important for fear of youth -generalizations being made about all adolescents based on the visible few
hormone-brain relationship
-increase of sex hormones -- adrenal sex hormones are esp. active -hormones influence serotonin and other neurochemicals that regulate mood and excitability (and since EF is last to develop, accidents from risks are more likely) -hormone-brain relationship contributes to appetite for thrills and excitement -- hormones stabilize around 18-19 and the brain in the early 20s which starts to calm everything down.
prefrontal cortex
-like a CEO -area of sober second thought/ rational thought -home of EF -highest level of the frontal lobes -develops after most other regions of the brain -late development of this + early development of amygdala might be the source of angst lol
basal ganglia
-like a secretary to the CEO/prefrontal cortex -helps keep track/prioritize info -"use it or lose it" (pruning)
pubertal maladjustment treatment
-minidosing with small amounts of compounds (hydrocortisone) used to treat congenital adrenal hyperplasia (defect in enzymes used to make steroid hormones) -this can delay puberty; the earlier you start, the better -> transgender community often treated w/ this.
how do hormone and physical changes impact behaviour
-negotiation, judgement -impaired decision making as desire to take risks increases (hormones) but the ability to critically examine consequences isn't really there (EF) -because of mixed messages in laws (drinking, license, army, trials, etc.) they feel misunderstood. there is often a cognitive basis for these rules, but laws don't explain why they are in place so youth don't understand. they feel mature enough.
male secondary sex characteristics
-penis and scrotum grow -facial hair -larynx elongates, lower voice -shoulders broaden -body hair -body-wide muscle growth
corpus callosum
-problem solving -creativity -during adolescence, the nerve fibres thicken and process info more quickly
Elkind Social Reasoning + 7 parts
-reasoning about the social world, themselves, and others; increased knowledge and thinking ability affects personality and behaviour -egocentrism - distinguishing between their thoughts and others -metacognition - thinking about thinking -daydreaming -imaginary audience - result of daydreaming; self talk and feeling that others are watching (can provoke anxiety); social media impacts this -personal fable - ideal place/life; sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability "nobody understands me" (pretty removed from reality) -perspective taking - improves through the years; everyone has a unique worldview (at the time it feels like nobody understands and they are the first person to deal with anything) -deception and sarcasm
social physique anxiety
-self esteem has a negative relationship with SPA -found to predict both drive for muscularity and drive for thinness, but experienced more by adol girls
Video: Should you get the HPV vaccine
-the vaccine protects against the 70% of cervical cancers caused by warts -most warts are harmless but some are terrible (strain 16 and 18 cause most) -gardasil - protects against all dangerous and non-dangerous warts -cervarix - just protects against the dangerous ones -vaccinating males would prevent anal cancer and female cancers -early data is promising (less cancer and warts); after being positive, it helped reduce further infection -negatives: possible neurological disease, blood clots, or death, but this was likely data error. no obvious clustering to suggest causality. (except a slightly higher rate of anaphylaxis) side effects: mild injection site reactions -no evidence that a booster dose is necessary -1/150 chance of cervical cancer, 1/40,000 of anaphylaxis
sociocultural/environmental factors and pubertal timing
-those in developed countries and urban areas reach puberty sooner (even when adopted from less developed countries) -related to low SES and stress -growth hormone in meats -median age of menarche is decreasing significantly over time
impact of social media
-we can't help but imagine everyones reaction -blurs the line between reality and fantasy as we can make things appear ideal -we don't post the negative aspects of the self even though that is part of what is real
three important issues in development
1 nature-nurture issue - the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture 2 early-later experience issue - Issue focusing on the degree to which early experiences (especially early in childhood) or later experiences are the key determinants of development. 3 continuity-discontinuity issue - the debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)
Two Psychoanalytic Theories
1. Freud - 5 stages 2. Erikson - 8 stages
three cognitive theories
1. Piaget - 4 stages 2. Vygotsky - continuous 3. information processing
two behavioural/social cognitive theories
1. Skinner/conditioning 2. social cognitive theory (observational learning)
7 main methods for collecting data about lifespan development
1. observation - either in a lab or a naturalistic setting 2. survey/questionnaire 3. interview 4. standardized tests 5. physiological measures 6. experience sampling method 7. case study
2 qualitative research aspects of adolescent cognition
1. piaget's formal operational thought (11-15) -abstract and hypothetical thinking -ability to see that reality and thoughts about reality are different (ability to think hypothetically) -abstract thinking allows us to project into the future, distinguish reality from possibility, and think about what might be -we start to question reality and what is real vs. ideal; we construct our own world -this type of thinking depends on PFC development, it is difficult to reach this stage without this development, but based on the time this theory was created, it was reasonable to expect 15 year olds to be ready for adult life. 2. information processing - individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize information -not in stages
psychometric/intelligence view
A view that emphasizes the importance of individual differences in intelligence; many advocates of this view also argue that intelligence should be assessed with intelligence tests.
Equilibration
A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. -as we experience disequilibrium we resolve it with equilibrium.
Five Key Features of Emerging Adulthood
Age of identity exploration (esp. love and work) Age of instability Age of self-focus Age of feeling in-between Age of possibilities
Positive Youth Development (PYD)
An approach that emphasizes developing the strengths of youth rather than reducing their problem behaviors. -competence, confidence, connection, character, caring
social constructivist approach
An approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed through social interaction. Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach.
B.F Skinner
Behavioural view - rewards and punishments; all behaviour is a result of classical and operant conditioning -adolescent behaviours due to their environment (role models, conditioning, etc. change behaviour)
Developmental tasks of adolescence
Biological - puberty (impacts social and emotional development) Psychological - identity, cognitive, emotional autonomy; start to not rely on parents for protection; aspects of identity, children adapt parent identity but adolescent needs to find their own Social - roles, responsibilities and relationships; sense of connectedness and social integration *influenced by cultural, societal, historical, and psychology factors. All children must progress through these changes in order to reach adulthood.
Piaget
Cognitive view Development occurs in four stages as we learn to construct an understanding of the world. Adolescence is Formal operational stage in which we reason in more abstract and logical ways.
general development in adolescence
Early adolescence - 10-11 Emerging adulthood - new term referring to 18+ (prior to this, adolescence was 10-28) ; characterized by exploration and experimentation -Developmentally you aren't an adult; raises questions about how teen criminals should be tried -Leaving the security and certainty of childhood. (most important in middle adolescence; relying on not just family for information, peers playing a larger role) -Adult brain doesn't fully develop until 20s -some say that adolescence begins in biology but ends in culture
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological view - what are all of the different factors that can influence a person. 1. Individual -sex, age, health 2. microsystem- family, peers, neighbourhood 3. mesosystem - looks at how systems within microsystem combine and work together (ex. Relationship between parents and school) 4. exosystem - mass media, social welfare services, legal services 5. macrosystem - attitudes and ideologies of the culture 6. chronosystem - patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course; ex. Distance from 9/11) * time is also key - sociohistorical conditions and time since life events
History of adolescence: Socrates, aristotle, rousseau
For the first time, Youth viewed as different from children and adults Reasoning and development not fully there -aristotle made the argument that the most important aspect of adolescence is the ability to choose and self determination is a hallmark of maturity -in the Middle Ages, Adult responsibilities were expected but not handled effectively -rousseau concluded that curiosity should be encouraged, reasoning develops in adolescence , and development has distinct phases.
Gonadarche
Puberty phase involving the maturation of primary sexual characteristics (ovaries in females, testes in males) and secondary sexual characteristics (pubic hair, breast and genital development). This period follows adrenarche by about two years and is what most people think of as puberty.
Scientific Method Steps
Question, Research, Hypothesis, Experiment, Analyze the Data, Conclusion
Margaret mead
Nurture theorist - disagreed with Hall, adolescence is not universal or only biological, it is more than just hormones. Sociocultural and sociohistorical view -The transition could be stress free and smooth like in remote islands. -Studied different cultures around the world and found that some cultures did not experience the same turmoil
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about ways to solve problems. they then systematically deduce the best way to solve the problem.
Sigmund and Anna Freud
Psychoanalytic There is constant conflict between the ID, Superego, and Ego. During Adol, ID is in overdrive bc hormones and there is new pressure on the ego with sexual drives. Healthy Adult sexuality can only occur if psychosexual development was not restricted in previous years/ adolescence (if you didn't carry any fixations from previous stages). Therefore understanding adol is about overcoming these conflicts and the issues with imbalance ID - drives/instincts Superego - morality Ego - reason -puberty onward is the genital stage of psychosexual development: a time of sexual reawakening, source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside of the family.
Erikson
Psychosocial view - in adolescence, we face the 5th developmental task of identity vs. confusion -four identity statuses: diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, or achievement.
triarchic theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions
eclectic theoretical orientation
an orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it
Bandura
Socio-cognitive view/ social cognitive theory - behaviour, environment, and person/cognition are all key factors in development. -self efficacy is a key development at this age
fuzzy-trace theory dual-process model
States that decision making is influenced by two systems- "verbatim" analytical thinking (literal and precise) and gist-based intuition (simple, bottom-line meaning), which operate in parallel; in this model, it is the gist-based system that benefits adolescents' decision making most
neo-piagetians
Theorists who argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision. In their revision, they give more emphasis to information processing that involves attention, memory, and strategies; they also seek to provide more precise explanations of cognitive changes.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information assimilation - incorporating new info into existing schema accommodation - adjustment of schema in response to new information
postformal thought
cognitive development beyond Piaget's formal operational stage -relative, reflective, and contextual thought that is subjective and open to emotions. also more provisional (more skeptical and less willing to accept an answer as final)
G Stanley hall
coined the term adolescence, first guy to study it. Father of adol research Defined adol as a period of storm and stress that is universal and biologically driven; only hormones change -storm and stress = turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings Nature theorist - studied western society and that shaped his view.
convergent vs divergent thinking
convergent- believing there is a single correct answer; typically tested on intelligence tests divergent- thinking there are multiple possible answers to a problem; more characteristic of creativity
neuroconstructivist view
developmental perspective in which biological processes and environmental conditions influence the brain's development; the brain has plasticity and is context dependent; and cognitive development is closely linked with brain development
early vs. late formal operational thought
early - new ability to think hypothetically is unconstrained; lots of fantasy and idealist perception. assimilation is the dominant process in this superiod late - individuals test their reasoning against experience to restore intellectual balance. accommodation allows people to adjust to upheaval. this appears in middle adolescent years.
psychopathology and early puberty
early maturing girls have higher rates of: MDD, substance abuse, externalizing, ED, lower self esteem, more missed school, suicide -peer harassment mediates relationship between early maturation, self esteem, and depression -relational victimization partially accounts for link between timing and depression early maturing boys report higher rates of: MDD, tobacco and drug use
wisdom
expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life -high levels are rare -late adolescence to early adulthood is the main window for it to emerge -personality more predictive than intelligence -balance theory - making competence decisions take into account self interest, the interests of others, and context to produce a common good.
Ephebiphobia
fear of youth term emerged in 1994 as a result of the freedom that adols wanted from the 60s-80s. Stereotyping from older people that youth can't be trusted
Synaptogenesis
formation of synapses -as this continues in the PFC, reasoning and self-regulation can continue
general outcomes and early puberty
girls: higher rates of breast cancer, more skin problems, early sexual behaviour, earlier pregnancy and STIs -menarche before 11 linked to more distress, fear, and externalizing disorders -lower level of relationship quality in adulthood; more easily lured into problem behaviours boys: more academic failure, more alcohol/drugs, more motor vehicle accidents, more risk of paternity, perceive themselves more positively and have more successful peer relations
the feedback system or sex hormones
hypothalamus -> stimulates growth hormone -> pituitary -> LH (luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone stimulating follicle and sperm development) ->gonads -> androgens and estrogens * kisspeptins regulate growth hormone
parts of the endocrine system
hypothalamus - interacts with pituitary to regulate hormones pituitary - master glad to produce hormones stimulating other glands; influences growth by reducing growth hormones thyroid - interacts with pituitary to influence growth adrenal (abdomen area) - plays a role in pubertal development and may be involved in male adolescent behaviour gonads/sex glands - testes in males and ovaries in females. involved in the appearance of secondary sex characteristics. testosterone and estradiol are key.
slender man case
internet task where you had to do things for slender man to not be killed by him. you have to prove yourself to slender man by killing someone. -2 12 y/o girls tried to kill another 12 y/o while playing hide and seek -this took 6 months to plan; Anissa would command, Morgan would attack, Peyton would get stabbed (19 times but didn't die) -they walked for 5 hours on a freeway before being caught. Morgan seemed relaxed and unconcerned. -found not guilty by mental disease or defect -Anissa got 25y because he showed some remorse (more cog. advances) -Morgan got 40y - mental institution rather than prison but still shows no remorse or understanding -illustrates the question of sentencing and cognitive development. they understood that slender man was fictitious but still were afraid and took the time to plan this in advance.
psychopathology and late puberty
late maturing boys have more: daily hassles, internalizing, poorer self-esteem, poorer coping, more tardiness at school -by age 30 they viewed themselves more positively than early boys (identity and career development)
cohort effects on adolescence
roaring 20s - started having fun dirty 30s - loss of freedom, rationing, very challenging, took life seriously 30s-40s - WWII; adolescents thrown into the adult world and taking on way more responsibility (either at home or at war) 50s - focus on stability, education, independence; the American dream (baby boom) 60s - peace movements and counterculture because of Vietnam. peace, freedom, drugs. birth control introduced 70s - women movement from BCP; lots of career motivation as women were choosing to have jobs 80s - carry over, non discrimination, gender and sexual equality
4 types of attention
selective divided sustained executive - involved planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting errors, monitoring progress, and handling problems. *all types of attention are key cognitive resources in general but specifically in the information processing model. cognitive control is the ability to control attention.
Tanner system (female)
stage 1: (8-11)prepubertal-- abdominal hair; increased growth hormone stage 2: (8-14) beginning pubertal-- elevation of breast and papilla and enlargement of areola (breast buds); long slightly pigmented hair; release of LH and FSH stage 3: (9-15) mid pubertal-- enlargement of breast and areola; darker, coarser, more curled hair (incidence of depression diverges from a 1:1 ratio to 2:1); LH and FSH trigger estrogen production in the ovaries stage 4: (10-16)advanced pubertal -- areola and papilla form secondary mound; adult hair present but not on thighs; folliculogenisis from estrogen stage 5: (12-19)post pubertal-- papilla projects but is related to areola projection; adult hair stabilizes; hypothalamus and pituitary sensitivity decrease to stable levels (it is the initial spike that stimulates the development of secondary sex characteristics) ** note that hormones are present from birth
Tanner system (male)
stage 1: (9-12) prepubertal; hair on abdomen; hypothalamus increases production of growth hormone stage 2: (9-15)beginning pubertal -- scrotum and testes enlargement and redness; long slightly pigmented hair; Growth hormone releases luteinizing and follicle stimulating hormones stage 3: (11-16) midpubertal -- penis and testes enlargement; coarser darker hair; hormones trigger testosterone production stage 4: (11-17)advanced pubertal -- glans and skin darkening; adult hair present but not on thighs; spermatogenesis from testosterone stage 5: (12-19) post pubertal-- M adult size and morphology, adult hair patterns stabilize; hypothalamus and pituitary sensitivity decrease to stable levels (it is the initial spike that stimulates the development of secondary sex characteristics) ** note that hormones are present from birth
Lawrence Kohlberg
studied three levels of moral reasoning. Levels dependant on a nature/nurture balance. morals rely on decision making asks where do we learn morals? Cognitive view
adolescent egocentrism
the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescents' beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility ** alternative: imaginary audience and personal fable are mainly the result of changes in perspective taking and ego. vulnerability may have two dimensions: danger and psychological
adrenarche
the maturation of the adrenal glands that takes place during adolescence; considered the beginning of puberty (6-9 years for girls and a year later for boys)
debate: is body dissatisfaction and its outcomes of equal concern to boys and girls?
yes - boys and girls are equally dissatisfied with their bodies, but boys place greater importance on body shape and size no - body perceptions and body change behaviour have a greater negative effect on the mental well being of girls
Debate: should the HPV vaccine be mandatory for early adolescent girls
yes - its a necessary step in preventing cervical cancer -HPV is extremely common (75% of people contract) -most cases happen soon after virginity is lost -disproportionate number of women diagnosed with cervical cancer from low SES and minority group (less access to regular Pap tests) -this would target children before they reach the high risk age, and eliminate the SES and cultural factors. no - there are potential adverse health effects, economic impact, and the implications of a universal vaccine for only girls must be considered. -long term safety and effectiveness unknown -historical criteria for mandatory vaccine not met (not a public health necessity associated with extreme contagion and mortality) -males also experience HPV, why not just make it fully universal -cost could divert funds from other important public health causes. common ground - both agree that HPV is an issue associated with cervical cancer, and that the vaccine is a major advance for women -the yes side agrees that in order to eradicate cervical cancer, universal vaccination is a must and the benefits of this outweigh potential problems -the no side takes an "above all do no harm" stance and argues that the side effects of mandatory vaccination (health, economic, and political) must be first understood and addressed.
debate: should juvenile offenders be tried and convicted as adults?
yes - what about when crimes show more cruelty and disregard than the juvenile system is prepared for? -collective rights: threat to society, social order, and public opinion -adult crimes = adult sentences for youth as young as 12 -questionable facts -legal informed consent model - at age 14 (16+ for canada_ someone can be a competent decision maker if they have an above average IQ no - adolescents lack the cognitive, social, and emotional maturity to make mature judgements -they are not fully developed and can't be held to the same standard - adult sentences can negatively impact future development -informed consent model is inadequate because it overemphasizes cognitive components at the expense of the non-cognitive (ex. peer pressure) common ground - both agree on a separate system for youth, the disagreement is when it comes to serious offenses -the no group agrees on adult sentencing if the youth is found culpable (but culpability is a function of maturity)
debate: are there different sociocultural influences on body image and body change strategies for overweight adolescent boys and girls?
yes - while there was no significant difference in body dissatisfaction between boys and girls, boys scored higher on body importance: the personal significance placed on their body size - girls scores higher in use of weight loss strategies as well as perceived pressure from the media. no- perception of being overweight or overdeveloped predicted a decrease in self esteem, and an increase in depressive symptoms for girls but not boys -engagement in weight loss strategies was associated with a decrease in self esteem for girls but not boys common ground - both agree that while both genders experience body dissatisfaction, body ideals are different. the strategies used to address the dissatisfaction have a negative impact on the mental well being of girls.
