psych 9b final exam
infant speech progression
1. infants can understand some words and produce single words 2. children can form 2 word utterances that follow word order (nouns and verbs) 3. construct more complex sentences and use their understanding of grammar to infer meaning of words 4. children speak like adults but make over-regularization errors
what do all human languages have in common
1. nouns, verbs, subjects, objects 2. negating ideas and asking questions 3. deaf children made up their own language when denied one of their own
best study methods; best to worst 1. repeated study 2. retrieval 3. concept maps 4. study
2/3/1/4
Alexithymia
A person's inability to, or difficulty in, describing or being aware of emotions or mood
What is the best example of cued recall?
A question you answer by filling in a blank
what is responsible for long term potentiation
CREB
What are the benefits of sleep before a test?
Minimizes retroactive interference of material just studied You perform better and are less stressed if you are well rested Provides an opportunity for memory consolidation
Which of the following accurately describes the difference between non-associative and associative learning?
Non-associative learning involves increased or decreased sensitivity to one stimulus, while associative learning involves forming connections between stimuli and responses.
genetic influence for sexual orientation
One study found that if a man's identical twin is gay, the chances that he is also gay are 52% If the twin is fraternal, the chances drop to 16% Likewise, a woman's chance of having lesbian orientation is 48% if she has a lesbian identical twin; if the twin is fraternal the chances drop to 16%
consequences of suppression
Physiologically, suppression leads to even greater sympathetic nervous system activation, because the individual must exert self-control to keep the emotions from showing Cognitive cost: when presenting something while also suppressing something, participants made more errors when they had not been suppressing
what is reappraisal?
Reappraisal is a type of cognitive change that happens when one tries to decrease emotional response by changing the meaning of the emotional situation.
Which of the following statements accurately describes the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Which of the following experiences is likely to be encoded at the shallowest level of processing?
Seeing a sign written using an alphabet you aren't familiar with; Visual inputs with their meaning concealed by a language barrier are likely to receive very shallow processing.
what is the law of effect
That responses accompanied by satisfaction will be repeated, while those which produce unpleasantness or discomfort will be stamped out; behavior is a function of its consequence
What is a potential cause for infantile amnesia? The hippocampus is not yet fully developed in young children and thus the episodic memories they form are weaker. Adults have access to childhood memories but do not have the language to describe them. Children suffer head trauma as they learn to walk, which affects memory. Children are not capable of forming episodic memories before 3 years old.
The hippocampus is not yet fully developed in young children and thus the episodic memories they form are weaker.
preparedness
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly
socioemotional selectivity theory
The theory that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships.
escape from self hypothesis
This injury-induced narrowing or focusing of attention decreases the person's awareness of broader concerns, such as negative view of self or feelings of hopelessness or depression
estrus
Time periods when females are receptive to mating
How do wanting and liking differ?
Wanting refers to anticipating and actively seeking something pleasurable, whereas liking refers to the response to receiving something pleasurable.
how does creb work
Works by changing the activation of genes in neurons, increasing the neuron's response to stimulation
Insight learning
a form of learning that occurs without trial and error and thus without clear enforcement
BMI
a measure of body weight relative to height
concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
attentional deployment
a method of emotional regulation that involves purposely shifting the focus of one's thoughts in a way that makes a situation feel less emotionally charged
what is preparedness
a predisposition to learn some associations more readily than others
what does an attachment figure provide babies
a secure base as a haven in times of threat and as a source of safety that allows her to explore the environment
working memory
a set of operations that can be performed on info in short term memory
attachment
a strong, enduring emotional bond
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past; drawing from prior knowledge and experience
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
affect heuristic
a tendency to use the affect we associate with various objects and events in the world to make judgments and decisions
neural tube; when does it develop
a tubular structure formed early in the embryonic stage which the brain and spinal cord develop
procedural memory and what brain regions are not needed to maintain it
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits; hippocampus
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher; association between behavior and consequence
body weight set point
a weight that individuals typically return to even after dieting or overeating
Jeremy is concerned that his daughter is spending too much time playing video games and not enough time on her schoolwork. Based on your knowledge of operant conditioning, provide four specific suggestions for how he might modify her behavior via (a) positive reinforcement, (b) negative reinforcement, (c) positive punishment, and (d) negative punishment.
a) give her an increase in allowance every time she does her homework on time b) take away her sleepover privileges until she finishes her homework c) play a loud noise every time she picks up her controller without having finished her homework d) turn off the wifi to stop her from playing video games
willpower
ability to engage in self-control
situation modification
active efforts to directly modify the situation so as to alter its emotional impact
Premack Principle
activities someone frequently engages in can be harnessed and used to reinforce activities that the person is less inclined to do
Nicole and Liz are college roommates and have similar happiness set points. In their third year of school, Nicole's childhood home burns down and she must withdraw from her classes to aide her family's recovery. Liz, however, is elected president of her sorority and begins a romantic relationship with a wonderful partner. Despite initial deviations in happiness in response to these events, both women eventually return to similar levels of happiness. Which phenomenon is likely responsible for this? gratitude adaptation flexible set point contentment
adaptation
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
cognitive aspect of emotion
affect as information perspective --> subjective experience of emotion is a key resource during problem solving A feeling of sadness is a cue that things are not going well for you at the moment, so that your thinking becomes more systematic, analytical, and careful This way of thinking may help us work out what is wrong and how to fix it By contrast, if you are happy this feeling is a cue that things are going well and your thinking becomes more expansive and creative Positive emotions may help us broaden our behavioral and cognitive repertoires
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
what does reconsolidation do for the brain
allows the brain to update information or forget the original memory
classical conditioning of fear depends on what part of the brain
amygdala
Discrete Emotions Approach
an approach to analyzing emotions that focuses on specific emotions such as anger, fear, and pride
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
analogical vs. symbolic representations
analogical: generate a mental image, we recreate visual information from memory. symbolic: does not share physical qualities with the concept it represents, as the representation is rather abstract in nature.
how did chomsky think children learned language
argued that children come prewired with a universal grammar and language acquisition device that is inborn with no teaching
person confronted with a new experience has 2 key processes for aligning that experience with an understanding of the world
assimilation and accomodation
added to further define a problem and narrow his options
assumptions and constraints
reflexes
automatic patterns of motor responses that are triggered by specific types of sensory stimulation
motive to belong has two parts
avoiding loneliness and seeking the benefits of being with others
loss aversion
avoiding losses is more important than achieving comparable gains
children who could delay gratification were found to ____ and predicted _____
be more articulate, attentive, self-reliant, able to plan and think ahead, academically competent, and resilient under stress when they were young teens. lower levels of physical illness and substance dependence, and higher levels of income and socioeconomic status
why does adaptation prevent life circumstances from mattering more than it does
because of humans' ability to quickly grow accustomed to (and cease paying attention to) any stimulus or state to which one is continually exposed
causes us to continue holding our beliefs even after encountering information that refutes them.
belief perseverance
Germaine, who has schizophrenia, often forms connections between events that have no basis in reality and has a hard time learning when something has truly caused something else. Which of the following aspects of classical conditioning is most likely impaired for Germaine? extinction generalization discrimination blocking
blocking
____ reveals that stimuli are learned only if they have additional predictive value, providing evidence that the occurrence of closely timed events is not enough for learning
blocking
is anorexia genetic or social
both: 10x more likely to have it if you have a relative who has it, but it is also influenced by culture
pain matrix
brain regions activated by different types of pain; underlie both the sensory and the emotional components of pain and give rise to the associated behavioral response, which is often to withdraw
bounded rationality
capacity to make rational decisions is bounded, or constrained by their limited resources
One of the functions of the ____ is to judge which pieces of information are irrelevant or not worth retaining
central executive
motor development
changes in the developing child's ability to coordinate bodily movements
response modulation
changing one or more aspects of your emotional responses
temperament
characteristic pattern of emotion and behavior that is evident from an early age and believed to be determined by genetic factors
sociocultural view of development
child's mind grows through interaction with the social environment
what occurs when a previously neutral stimulus elicits an involuntary behavior
classical conditioning
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
what kind of emotional regulation is reappraisal
cognitive change
tolman argued that organisms used ____ which were internal mental representations of the world
cognitive maps
active encoding learning strategies
concept mapping and rereading material
for conditioning to be successful, the ___ should be presented right before the ______
conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
mental representations
contents in the mind that stand for some object, event, or state of affairs
two events important to conditioning
contiguity and contingency
what factors does an organism need to be successfully conditioned?
contingency and contiguity
Contingent vs non-contingent reinforcement
contingent: specific response is reinforced because it yields some desired change to the environment noncontingent: where a reward was delivered to pigeons on a fixed-interval schedule no matter what behavior they were doing at the time
sensory memory is supported by neural persistence --
continued activity in neurons after a stimulus ceases, which rapidly fades
central executive
control center for working memory, responsible for handling information and solving problem
dual processing theory
controlled and automatic system
emotion
coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals
display rules
cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
cumulative cultural evolution
cultures evolve over many generations to build complex practices
reality monitoring
deciding whether memories are based on external or internal sources
full term fetus
developed brain, lungs, and liver enough to survive outside of the womb
superstitious conditioning
develops after noncontingent reinforcement begins and increases during the intervals between reinforcement.
egocentrism
difficulty perceiving things from another's point of view
two ways of classifying emotional experiences
discrete emotions and dimensional approach
When an organism learns to ignore a stimulus similar to a CS, while still responding to the CS, this is an example of?
discrimination
working memory and long term memory are
distinct
example of encoding specificity principle
doorway effect -- context change of walking in through a doorway can impede retrieval
_________ in the nucleus accumbens are important for prediction and prediction error.
dopaminergic neurons
self-referential encoding
encoding of information based on how it relates to you
deep encoding
encoding of information based on past experiences or knowledge
three stages of memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
strength model of ego control
engaging in self-control efforts depletes a finite pool of cognitive resources in the same way that a using muscle repeatedly tires it out
how does body arousal impact memory
enhances long-term memory for neutral events that were presented just prior
latent learning can occur
even when no behavior is reinforced, without an incentive and without any clear motivation to need to learn
T or F: accurate recall of some memories requires the suppression of other memories.
false
True or False: Languages differ in the way that they assign color names to colors. However, whether speakers of a language refer to two distinct colors with two separate words or just a single word, does not affect perceived similarity of the colors for those speakers or the time it takes the speakers to distinguish between the colors.
false
t or f A meta-analysis of brain-training studies found that the effects were long-term and generalized to various cognitive processes.
false
true or false: genes contain all the information we need to survive
false
true or false: the ability to develop phonemes develops earlier than the ability to recognize them
false
true or false: infants begin processing auditory information right after birth.
false: Infants begin processing auditory information while still in the womb and tune into social stimuli right after birth.
true or false: infants develop motor skills at the same time
false: Infants develop motor skills in a fairly universal sequence but there are individual differences in the timing of motor development
true or false: psychologists think that language is due solely to human nature
false: combination of human nature and experience
true or false: priming is dependent on depth of processing
false: dependent more on sensory regions
true or false: ego depleted participants are incapable of exerting further effort
false: ego-depleted participants may no longer be willing to exert the effort required to engage in self-control
true or false: practicing one task leads to enhanced cognitive function that will transfer to other aspects of daily life (transfer of learning)
false: improvement in any single mental function rarely brings about equal improvement in any other function, no matter how similar; learning is specific to what is learned and does not generalize very far
true or false: If an individual has a severely impaired short-term memory, they will be unable to form long-term memories.
false: short and long term memory are distinct
true or false: language learning begins when the child can speak
false: some begins before birth
true or false: avoiding pain is the only motivation
false: we also have incentives to seek pleasure
true or false: we would be fulfilled if we satisfied motives of food, sex, and social connection
false: we would be unfulfilled if we did not satisfy the motivation to create, accomplish, and achieve
fastest and slowest areas of the brain to mature
fastest = sensory like auditory slowest = prefrontal cortex
zygote
fertilized egg
most of adulthood is dominated by two psychosocial tasks:
finding love and engaging in meaningful work
two types of intelligence
fluid and crystallized
dimensional emotion approach: name dimensions
focuses on dimensions such as pleasantness and activation; uses dimensions rather than categories to make sense of emotion
motives
forces that move us to act in certain ways and not others; not innate
what will the neural tube develop into
forebrain; midbrain; spinal cord, brain stem and cerebellum
Deep encoding maps onto higher-order brain regions related to thought like the ______ and _______ related to semantic information
frontal lobes; temporal lobes
While cooking dinner, Tobias accidentally breaks his last bowl. To solve this problem, he goes to the store to buy a new bowl instead of realizing he could have used the paper already in his apartment to make a temporary origami bowl. In this instance, Tobias exhibited ________ because paper is not often used to make bowls.
functional fixedness
After getting bitten by a dog as a child, Allie is now terrified of dogs both in real life and on TV and the internet. This is best seen as an example of?
generalization
stages of zygote development
germinal, embryonic, fetal
neural migration
glia create guide wires that move the newly created neurons to appropriate positions
forgetting curve
graphs retention and forgetting over time; initially steep but levels off
3 factors that influence an individual's happiness
happiness set point, circumstances, intentional activities
what brain structure is involved in memory formation
hippocampus
what brain structures work together to increase consolidation of emotional memories
hippocampus and amygdala
what does the motive to belong influence
how we think and feel, what we wear, drink, political opinions
Which statement is true about differences between humans and rats regarding hormonally influenced sexual behavior? Human females can respond sexually at all points of their menstrual cycle, whereas rats do not. Human males do not require a refractory period between orgasms, whereas rats do. Human females do not have changes in sexual desire during ovulation, whereas rats do. Human males lose sexual interest after castration, whereas rats do not.
human females can respond sexually at all points of their menstrual cycle, whereas rats do not c is not true because humans do have changes in sexual desire during ovulation
language acquisition in order
identification of phonemes, production of phonemes, babbling turns more identifiable, determining when words begin and end
trace decay theory
if a person does not access and use a memory, the memory trace will weaken or decay over time and will be less available for later retrieval
Example of Premack Principle
if you eat your veggies you can have dessert
anterograde amnesia
inability to transfer into from short into long term memory, preventing new long term memories from forming
retrograde amnesia
incapacity to retrieve old memories; ability to form new long term memories is intact
motivated forgetting; is it impaired retrieval or improper storage?
individuals intentionally try to forget information so that they are less likely to retrieve it later; impaired retrieval
diffusion chain
individuals learn a behavior by observing a model and then serve as models from which other individuals can learn
evidence that our emotional expressions are part of our evolutionary heritage
individuals who are congenitally blind express emotions in the same way that sighted people do even when they could not have learned those expressions
instincts
innate tendencies that determine behavior; genetically determined
encoding failure, failure of retrieval, infantile amnesia, interference, motivated forgetting. Select the most likely cause of forgetting Parking your car on Monday gets in the way of remembering where you parked your car on Tuesday
interference
drive
internal states of biological and psychological tension
social aspect of emotion
interpersonal connection by signaling social intent
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
operations
involve imagining how things like people or objects might be different than they are, or imagining the consequences of some event without needing to see it happen (manipulation of schemas)
overregularization
involves extending rules of word formation, revealing their little understanding of grammar
Issues with James-Lange theory
it takes a bit of time for the body to respond to some types of emotional stimuli. Is it reasonable to imagine that one waits this long for the emotional experience? Also if all it takes to generate emotion is the experience of bodily changes, why don't we feel emotional when we run up stairs?
sensory memory is characterized by
large storage, limited duration
storage
maintenance of the encoded information in our brains for later access
availability heuristic
making judgments or decisions based on how frequently it comes to mind
motive to achieve can arise via (2 parts)
mastery orientation, which focuses on learning and improving, or a performance orientation, which focuses on avoiding failure.
schemas
mental structures that represent our experiences
nonassociative learning vs associative learning
nonassociative = learning about a stimulus in the environment and either becoming habituated or sensitized associative = learning an association between 2 events
life circumstances in happiness (what determines it, how much does it determine happiness)
nurture, 10%,
spontaneous recovery
observed when an extinct behavior reappears after a delay
shallow encoding shown to map onto basic regions more related to the perception of sensory information like the
occipital lobe
quantitative stage
occurs as a result of continuous acquisition of novel information and experiences.
encoding
occurs as we first perceive information in our environment and convert it into a form ready for storage
encoding failure
occurs when memory never makes it into long term memory
reappraisal
occurs when someone tried to decrease an emotional response by changing the meaning a potentially emotion-eliciting situation has
suppression
occurs when someone tries to decrease the emotion he shows on his face or in his behavior; inhibiting one's emotion-expressive behavior
implicit memory
occurs without intentional recollection or awareness and is measured indirectly through the influence of prior learning on behavior
dual center theory and associated signals
one area in the lateral hypothalamus is the "on" center, the initiator of eating, while another area in the ventromedial hypothalamus is the "off" center, the terminator of eating. stopping eating = CKK favor eating = NPY
skinner box examined
operant conditioning
what is associative learning involving behavioral consequences
operant conditioning
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Neuroplasticity
our brain's ability to reinvent and rewire itself
hindsight bias
overestimate the likelihood that they would have predicted some outcome
factors in the hierarchy of motives
physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, self actualization, self transcendence
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
preconventional = self interest, rewards conventional = upholding social rules and roles postconventional = broad principles and abstract ideals
neurogenesis first occurs in ____ development
prenatal
affective conditioning
previously neutral stimulus comes to acquire positive or negative value.
implicit memory is made up of
priming, procedural memory, classical conditioning
counterconditioning:
procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that had triggered unwanted behaviors, like negative associations from childhood
vicarious punishment
process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior
amisomycin
protein synthesis inhibitor; prevents reconsolidation
Framing effects can change how people make decisions because they change the ________ involved in the decision. choice alternatives decision contingencies reference points rational constraints
reference points
qualitative stage
reflects a new stage that is different, in quality, from what was happening before.
insight learning involves learning without
reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; rapid learning but rapid extinction
recognition memory and example
relies on identifying information that you have previously seen or experienced ex. multiple choice
social referencing
relying on the facial expression of their caregiver or some other adult as a source of information for how to react
retrospective memory
remembering information from the past
prospective memory; can it decline with age?
remembering to do things in the future; yes
what kind of emotional regulation is suppression
response modulation
two dimensions of parenting
responsiveness and demand
when prior experience gets in the way, the best bet is
restructuring: change one's understanding of the problem
three infant reflexes
rooting, grasping, sucking
If, for an athlete, athletic shoes are a basic-level category, what might be an example of a subordinate category?
running shoe
3 types of attachment
secure, anxious, avoidant
explicit memory is made up of
semantic and episodic memory
social identity
sense of identity rooted in group membership
Piaget's stages of cognitive development and important terms related to each
sensorimotor --> object permanence preoperational --> symbols concrete operational --> conservation formal operational --> abstract thinking
multistore model of memory
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
maturation
series of genetically determine biological processes that enable orderly growth
neurodevelopmental perspective for sexual orientation and evidence
sexual orientation is built into the circuitry of the brain early in fetal development ex. handedness ex. having older brothers
example of blocking in cancer patients
specifically conditioned taste aversion to help cancer patients associate their nausea with a unique taste to create a 30% reduction of aversion to other foods
visual priming
supported by decreased neural activity for previously seen images in visual cortical regions, suggesting that the brain finds repeated images easier to process, consistent with the idea of priming to brain to perceive more readily something it has seen before
how does working memory work with long and short term?
takes info from short term memory, enhances it to facilitate transfer into long term memory
cause of attachment styles
temperament or infant expectations for caregiver
instinctive drift
tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
overconfidence bias
tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments
explicit memory
the act of consciously and intentionally retrieving past experiences
Acquisition is
the act of learning some behavior not previously exhibited.
scaffolding
the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth
framing
the way an issue is posed
true or false Observational learning differs from operant conditioning in that it is affected by social and cognitive factors.
true
true or false our genes provide the basic machinery for learning and adapting to take place
true
true or false: A problem framed in terms of potential losses can lead people to make riskier decisions than an identical problem framed in terms of potential gains would.
true
true or false: Children born into households with signing parents, babble not just vocally, but also with their hands.
true
true or false: Brain training through mindfulness meditation can help the brain grow new neurons.
true
true or false: language can provide tools for certain kinds of thinking and can also constrain thinking when taken away
true: when a language lacks specific terms for numbers, people struggle to reason about exact quantity;
theory of mind
understanding that we and other people have minds, and these minds represent the world in different ways and these representations explain and predict how people behave
what is the reason for lack of object permanence in infants
undeveloped prefrontal cortex
directing excessive attention to a single stimulus and neglecting peripheral stimuli
weapon focus
What is the glucostatic theory?
what the body cares about most is the body's level of glucose. Glucose is the body's main energy source, and when blood glucose levels drop, the lateral hypothalamus is activated by the glucoreceptors and the periphery, which leads to a feeling of hunger. When there is a lot of glucose in the body, the ventromedial hypothalamus is activated, which leads to decreased levels of hunger.
extinction occurs
when a conditioned response weakens and disappears because it is not reinforced.
when is retrieval the best? what is this called
when the context in which the information was initially encoded is recreated -- encoding specificity principle
ABC's of operant conditioning
Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence
James-Lange Theory
Emotion is the result of perceiving a bodily response to a stimulus stimulus --> physiological response --> emotional experience
wanting vs liking
Liking applies to receiving rewards whereas wanting applies to the anticipation of a reward.
empathy
ability to accurately track what others are feeling, plays an important role in social interactions
reminiscence bump
ability to better recall information from adolescence to early adulthood than from other periods in life
components of social learning theory
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation retention --> when the encoding of info for future memory retrieval is often assisted by verbal descriptions or images
Unlike most of his friends, Roger believes that wearing a mask will do nothing to slow the spread of COVID-19. Whenever he hears that a government official has recommended wearing masks he dismisses this as "politically motivated." When a friend tried to persuade Roger by giving him a scientific study which concludes that wearing masks drastically reduced the spread of the disease in several regions, he made a show of discarding the article after looking just at the title. Roger's behavior is best characterized as ______________ .
belief perseverance
emotion regulation
decreasing, increasing or simply maintaining behavioral, experiential, and physiological aspects of emotion, depending on our goals; attempt to modify one or more aspects of the emotion-response trajectory
ego depletion; is all self control ego depleting?
depleted the pool of resources available to help individuals persevere in the subsequent task; yes
cohort effect
effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time
encoding failure, failure of retrieval, infantile amnesia, interference, motivated forgetting. Select the most likely cause of forgetting Forgetting what your uncle said at dinner because you weren't paying attention
encoding failure
divided attention has detrimental effects on memory during ____ but not during ______
encoding; retrieval
retroactive interference is caused by _____ of past memories
positive transfer
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
cultural transmission
the process by which one generation passes culture to the next
types of short term memory and what organizes this info
visuo spatial sketchpad, phonological loop; central executive
unit bias
when the portion size is larger, people will eat more
Which of the following accurately describes the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, while operant conditioning involves forming associations between behaviors and consequences.
issues with the cannon bard theory
according to the James-Lange theory, people detecting visceral emotional events in their bodies should experience some emotions James was wrong in claiming that the mere perception of bodily changes is sufficient to produce emotional experience, because emotion also involves people's judgments about why their bodies and physiology have changes
____ is associated with insight learning
kohler
explanation for the sensitive period
language learning mechanisms are strongest in childhood and gradually weaken over time. OR because their cognitive abilities are more limited, forcing them to learn language in a way that leads to greater competence.
the capacity of short term memory is (size) and (length)
large; short lived
If a new student asks for directions to a building on campus where you've never had a class, but you walk by nearly every day, you would probably be able to give the student pretty good directions. You would have acquired these directions through
latent learning
what shows evidence of learning with little or no reinforcement
latent learning
Someone with semantic dementia most likely has damage to the __________; someone with anterograde amnesia most likely has damage to the __________.
lateral temporal lobe / hippocampus
discrimination
learn to respond to a particular stimulus but not to similar stimuli, thus preventing generalizations
cognitive maps
learned internal representation of external space
the process that leads to enduring changes in both behavior and the brain based on experience
learning
observational learning
learning by observing and imitating others
representativeness heuristic
shortcut for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or be prototypical of some category
1.The names of the cities, states, and other features. 2. The use of specific colors to represent certain features, for example, blue for water, green for forested areas, white for the tops of high peaks, and brown for desert areas. 3. The spatial layout of the cities, states, and other features. Put them into order from most analogical to most symbolic
3/2/1
testing strategies from best to worst 1. creating concept maps 2. rereading the chapter several times 3. reading the chapter, closing the book, and trying to recall all of the concepts
3/2/1
intentional activities in happiness (what determines it, how much does it determine happiness)
40%, activities that increase happiness include cultivating feelings of gratitude, savoring positive experiences, and using our strengths
algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
hierarchy of motives
Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. physiological needs at the bottom and the needs for self-actualization and self-transcendence at the top.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Bodily response and emotion occur at the same time following a stimulus stimulus --> both emotion and bodily response
When learning occurs, the amount of ___ increases, which in turn increases the response to stimulation by the post-synaptic neuron, which triggers an _____ when it is sufficiently depolarized.
CREB; action potential
how does each developing nerve cell come to know its eventual target?
Early in development, before the neurons begin their migration, genes provide a rough "wiring diagram" that determines where the neurons will migrate When the neurons go where instructed, they seem to attract the appropriate inputs and also connections from the appropriate inputs
Describe the difference between explicit and implicit memories. Describe one example of each these two types of memory.
Explicit memories are those that can be explicitly stated, whereas implicit memories are more procedural and are harder to articulate, though we can demonstrate evidence of our memory with performance. Explicit: remembering a fact learned in class or remembering a specific event Implicit: knowing how to ride a bike, or acquiring a conditioned association
T or F: Multiple-choice tests are necessarily easier than free-response tests, because recognition is always easier than recall.
False: Multiple-choice tests can be designed to turn recognition against the test taker. If the incorrect options are very similar to the correct answers, someone with a shallow understanding of the material will "recognize" that similarity and find it hard to distinguish among the answers.
physical aspect of emotion
Fear is associated with sympathetic nervous system activity that prepares large muscles for fight or flight; these are the bodily adjustments we want for fending off or escaping a fearful encounter
Dual Inheritance Theory
Human behavior is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes: genetic evolution and cultural evolution.
Hussain wants to lose weight, so he starts walking instead of driving to work and skipping breakfast while maintaining his food intake at lunch and dinner. He is puzzled because he does not lose nearly as much weight as he anticipated over two weeks of following this strategy of increasing exercise and reducing the total number of calories that he ate each day. How can we explain why Hussain's weight-loss strategies are unsuccessful?
Hussain's body is compensating for the reduced calories by lowering its metabolic rate.
why is the amount of time that elapses between the performance of the behavior and receipt of the consequence important?
Immediate reinforcing consequences often overpower delayed punishments Ex. we eat candy even though it can cause cavities
infantile amnesia and language
Infants cannot label memories with linguistic cues as we tend to do before speaking; reduce their ability to both store memories and use language as a retrieval cue later
Which is NOT a benefit of sleep before a test? It minimizes retroactive interference of material just studied It minimizes proactive interference during the test You perform better and are less stressed if you are well rested It provides an opportunity for memory consolidation
It minimizes proactive interference during the test
Most effective study aid to remember information for an exam
Julia thinks about how the study of emotions relates to her own life.
how to mirror neurons relate to social cognition
Mirrors pain-related brain activity that allows us to understand and potentially feel other people's pain and learn from their experience
Give one example of how a student might use shallow encoding and one example of how a student could use deep encoding to study for the final exam in this course. Explain which type of encoding is more likely to lead to better retention and why.
Reading notes, rewriting notes, listening to podcasts of the lectures, and other methods represent shallow encoding; Relating content to one's own life, elaboration, making connections across topics in the course/outside of the course, mind mapping, and other methods represent deep encoding. Deep encoding results in better memory than shallow encoding because it involves developing connections between already known information and the new information. Information about the self is processed in a special way that makes it even more memorable than other forms of deep encoding.
Designs for Studying Development
The cross-sectional design compares groups of participants of varying ages at a specific point in time. The longitudinal design tracks a single age group of participants across time. The sequential design tracks multiple age groups across time.
law of effect
The principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences
Hector works as an emergency room nurse. When he needs to attend to an incoming patient, his pager—which has a very loud and very specific ringtone—will ring. Every time his pager rings during a shift, he springs into action and his body enters fight-or-flight mode. Recently, he realized that his body responds in a similar way when he hears that same ringtone out in public, even when it doesn't signal a medical emergency. For this scenario, identify the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).
US: a patient needing assistance UR: fight or flight response NS: pager ringtone CS: pager ringtone CR: fight or flight response
Empathy is best described as the ability to express your emotions verbally. express your emotions behaviorally. predict the consequences of others' actions. accurately track what others are feeling.
accurately track what others are feeling
imprinting
attaching to the first moving object an organism sees
Which are the four processes that Bandura's social learning theory suggests is required for observational learning to take place?
attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement
Schachter-Singer Theory
behavioral and physiological changes are crucial for emotional experience; emotion arises from the interpretation of bodily responses in the context of situational cues stimulus --> physiological response --> judgment --> emotion
situation selection
deciding whether or not to enter a situation that is likely to elicit a particular emotion
The need to belong is a part of _________ between unpleasant psychological drives like rejection would motivate us to reduce these feelings
drive reduction
deviations from homeostasis can create a ____ which calls forth behavior that reduces it and helps maintain equilibrium. this is called ____
drive; drive reduction account of motivation
sensitive period; does it affect one language only?
during this period, language acquisition can occur, but afterwards it cannot; it affects acquisition of all languages
Mary has had a trying day in which her co-worker has been getting on her nerves constantly. However, by focusing she has managed to resist responding angrily. That evening, Mary, who is trying to lose weight, is out with her friends who seem determined to try every bad-for-you-but-delicious food available. Which of the strategies below would you expect would be least likely to help Mary stick to her diet? Think of the reasons that her diet is important to her Make a bet with a friend that she can make through the evening with out eating any junk food Eat several radishes Remind herself that she is smart and independent
eat several radishes
embryo's cells divide into 3 kinds that will become which parts of the body
endoderm layer -- gut and digestive system ectoderm layer -- skin and nervous system mesoderm layer -- skeletal system and voluntary muscles
4 aspects of sexual response cycle
excitement, plateau, orgasm, revolution
semantic memory
explicit memory supporting your knowledge about the world, including concepts and facts
flashbulb memories
extremely vivid memories for emotionally significant events, as if the moment were caught in time which gives people great confidence in their accuracy
evolutionary aspect of emotion
facial expressions helped our ancestors survive
source amnesia
fact is known but the individual does not remember where, when, or how they learned the info
encoding failure, failure of retrieval, infantile amnesia, interference, motivated forgetting. Select the most likely cause of forgetting Failing to recall the name of a famous actress that you've seen in many movies and are a fan of, even though you're sure you know her name failure of retrieval
failure of retrieval
T or F: by practicing active suppression, we can choose to forget most of what we learn
false -- although suppression reduces recall, it only does so by around 8%
true or false: episodic and semantic memory are stored in the same places in the brain
false: episodic stored in the hippocampus semantic stored in lateral and anterior temporal lobes
true or false Memory suggestibility and misinformation reflects failures in memory
false: Memory suggestibility and misinformation do not necessarily reflect failures in memory, but rather our memory's dynamic ability to be updated with newly acquired information.
Both forms of learning involve tangible consequences (e.g., specific rewards or punishments)
false: Operant conditioning requires tangible consequences to reinforce behavior, while observational learning occurs purely by watching a behavior in others.
true or false: all behavioral tendencies associated with emotion are specific, like smiling or frowning
false: Some of the behavioral tendencies associated with emotion are general, such as the tendency to approach or withdraw.
true or false: in only men did libido correlate to testosterone levels
false: both men and women
true or false: operant conditioning makes use of a model
false: only observational learning does; operant conditioning relies on consequences that may occur with or without the presence of others
true or false; both the pain matrix and pleasure are activated during both anticipating and receipt
false: only the pain matrix is activated during both
interference theory of forgetting
forgetting in long-term memory is related not to the passage of time but to interference created by integrating new and old info in the brain as time passes
what happens when memory consolidation is disrupted?
formation of long term memories may be impacted; newly learned info can be disrupted by info learned shortly afterwards
happiness set point (what determines it, how much does it determine happiness)
genetically determined, 50% of variation in happiness,
encoding failure, failure of retrieval, infantile amnesia, interference, motivated forgetting. Select the most likely cause of forgetting Recalling how you learned to speak for the first time
infantile amnesia
motor habits of newborns
infants like novelty infants like face-like objects infants imitate faces
spacing effect
information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning
short term memory compensates its limited space for
information retained reflecting content, meaning, and knowledge
episodic memory
involves the explicit recollection of personal experience that requires piecing together the elements of specific time and place
characteristics of working memory
limited capacity information can be maintained through rehearsal info is available for less than 30 seconds can manipulate several chunks of info at once
long term memory is characterized by
long duration and large capacity
memory consolidation involves strengthening of synaptic connections in a process called
long term potentiation
self-transcendence
meaning, purpose, and communion beyond the self
what two practices are preventative measures and increase brain size
meditation and exercise
infantile amnesia and amygdala
memories for traumatic events or major changes in life may be remembered from young ages due to the boosting of weak hippocampal activity by the amygdala which is more fully formed early in development
serial position curve
memory recall can be affected by the order in which a list of information was studied.
mental representation
mental "copy" of some phenomenon present in the world.
A ____ includes previously encountered problems and solutions and informs problem solving in similar situations.
mental set
heuristic
mental shortcuts that are quick, effortless, intuitive, and automatic
How does observational learning of motor skills depend on imitation by the motor cortex
mirror neurons → neurons that are active both when performing the action and when the same action is observed in others
misinformation effect
misinformation presented after a recent event alters the memory of the event
two kinds of observational learning
modeling and vicarious learning
cognitive change
modifying your thinking in order to change how you feel
types of encoding specificity
mood and state dependent retrieval
morpheme vs phoneme
morpheme = smallest units of language that carry meaning phoneme = individual speech sounds
encoding failure, failure of retrieval, infantile amnesia, interference, motivated forgetting. Select the most likely cause of forgetting Deliberately trying to forget a scary car accident
motivated forgetting
negative vs positive transfer
negative = detrimental effect of your past memories on how well you can learn and perform today positive = when old information facilitates the learning of new information
aspects of long-term potentiation
neural plasticity occurs, postsynaptic firing increases, synaptic connections strengthen
The developing brain is shaped by three important maturational processes:
neural proliferation = the creation of new synaptic connections synaptic pruning = connections that get used are maintained, and unused connections are eliminated myelination = process of insulating axons in myelin, which speeds their conductivity and allows and information to move more rapidly through the brain and body
During development, _____ migrate along _______. The initial neurons in a region become the _______ layer of the cortex.
neurons / glial cells / innermost
two types of cells in the brain
neurons and glial cells
generalization
organism's tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. so that learning is not too narrowly tied to specific stimuli
classical conditioning
passive form of associative learning where an involuntary response to a stimulus becomes associated with a new stimulus; the neutral stimulus elicits the same reflex as the motivational stimulus
encoding specificity
phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it
According to one common dimensional approach, all emotions can be defined by their position in a plane that includes ________ and ________ as its two axes.
pleasantness; activation
what are reference points
points dependent on where each person is in life that determines what their best and worst outcomes are. Framing effects work by changing these against which losses or gains are judged
_________ occurs when learned associations are inaccurate, leading to revision of previous learning. signals that the brain has to revise its predictions about how the world works
prediction error
retrieval cues
provide information related to stored memories that helps bring those memories to mind
cued recall and example
recall from memory is accompanied by retrieval cues or hints, yielding much more effective results than free recall ex. fill in the blank
tip of the tongue phenomenon is a failure of
retrieval
most effective learning strategy
retrieval/self testing
reconsolidation
retrieving a memory returns it to a transient, unstable state, rendering it vulnerable to change
language
shared system of symbols and the rules that govern how to use and combine those symbols to communicate.
short and long term effects of sexually explicit material on behavior
short term: exposure to titillating sexual material does increase the likelihood of engaging in sexual behavior long term: made participants less satisfied with their partner's appearance and sexual performance, etc; no convincing long term effect
5 basic types of emotion regulation
situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, response modulation
short term memory is characterized by
small storage, limited duration
infantile amnesia and storage failure
some brain regions including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are not fully developed in infants
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
stage theory of psychosocial development, lifespan consists of eight dilemmas that must be solved correctly in order to solve the next dilemma
when does neurogenesis start and stop
starts prenatally and continues past early development in specific brain regions
antecedent in operant conditioning
stimuli that precede the behavior and signal the consequence
memory
storage of information in the brain for later access that allows learning to persist and guide our future behavior
In sea slugs, these short-term vs enduring changes in behavior can be tracked to
strengthened connections at the synapse between sensory and motor neurons
Hebbian learning
strong stimulation of a presynaptic neuron A results in more enduring, enhanced postsynaptic activity in a connected neuron B; neurons that fire together wire together
hyperthymesia
superior memory of autobiographical events
concepts organized into hierarchies
superordinate, subordinate, basic level
what did non contingent reinforcement lead to
superstitious conditioning
pragmatics
the appropriate use of language in different contexts
when a researcher displays a light at the same time as a sound to condition a bird, what will happen? what does this illustrate?
the bird will respond to the sound and not the light, illustrating blocking
how does body weight set point work
the body compensates for the caloric loss by lowering its metabolic rate, or the rate at which it uses energy
what is the lipostatic theory?
the body tries to restore homeostasis when fat storage in the body moves away from target levels. Leptin is a hormone that is secreted by full fat cells into the bloodstream. It signals that it has a lot of fat in storage to receptors in the brain like the hypothalamus, signaling that there is no need for more.
Complete the following analogy with the appropriate term: Consequent is to operant conditioning as ________ is to classical conditioning. the unconditioned stimulus the conditioned stimulus the unconditioned response the conditioned response
the conditioned stimulus
why do we have a reminiscence bump?
the development of personhood happens during this period which makes these years especially memorable; vivid, meaningful, and positive compared to other age groups
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
self-control
the efforts we make to pursue our longer-term interests when they conflict with momentary impulses
positive operant conditioning
the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a reinforcing stimulus
conservation
the idea that the physical properties of an object, such as mass, volume, and number, remain the same despite changes in the object's shape or form
infantile amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3
imagination inflation
the increased confidence in a false memory of an event
what is memory
the nervous system's ability to acquire, retain, and retrieve information
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
rehearsal
the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it
memory storage
the process of maintaining information in memory over time
source monitoring
the process of making inferences about the origins of memories
learning
the process that leads to enduring changes in both behavior and the brain based on experience
Cognitive Psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
symbolic representation is/requires
the use of words, sounds, gestures, visual images, or objects to represent other things being able to think about an object (that is, a scale model) as two things at once.
why do children have issues with conservation
they cannot maintain two schemas at once; lack of operations; struggle with tasks that the ability to override impulses and automatic ways of thinking due to underdeveloped frontal lobe
obesity as a biological issue: thrifty gene hypothesis
thrifty gene hypothesis says that our ancestors lived when food supplies were unpredictable and food shortages were common, & when natural selection may have favored individuals who had efficient metabolisms and stored more fat Genes regulating fat storage might have been a selective advantage over evolutionary time
how did skinner think children learned language
through making associations (operant conditioning) and imitation
memory consolidation
time dependent biological process whereby memories are built; neurobiological process whereby memory storage is stabilized and strengthened
what did scientists propose was the reason we have motives
to maintain our internal environment from changing which depends on homeostasis
who is associated with latent learning
tolman
according to ____ we forget info we do not access
trace decay theory
Which of the following elements of conditioned learning is NOT strongly influenced by our genes? transmission of culture instinctive drift primary reinforcers prepared learning
transmission of culture
T or F? Children can use their understanding of grammar to identify whether a word was a noun or verb and singular or plural.
true
True or false: Because the pain matrix incorporates both the sensory and the emotional components of pain, pain can act as a general-purpose signal that all is not well.
true
True or false: The idea that pain motivates people to engage in behaviors that will relieve their pain, although plausible, must be only partly true, because people sometimes act in ways that increase rather than decrease pain.
true
true or false: When they first begin babbling, at about 6 to 7 months of age, infants appear to be "universal" listeners and producers of speech; they produce and can distinguish sounds that are not used in their language environment.
true
true or false: conditioning is handed down to us through our genes to make associations that are adaptive
true
true or false: environmental influences can affect how a given cell functions and changes by determining which genes in the cell get turned on and off
true
true or false: fear can be conditioned
true
true or false: religious practices may be seen as an example of cumulative cultural transmission
true
true or false: successful retrieval of one memory may require suppression of other memories to guard against interference
true
true or false: the learning of cognitive maps results in changes in the brain
true
true or false: human cultural evolution is theorized to have shaped our genetic evolution
true: dual inheritance theory
true or false: genes provide us with the ability to learn
true: genes come programmed with the ability to quickly adapt to and learn from new environments.
true or false: the encoding specificity principle can override depth processing
true: info that is shallowly encoded is better remembered when invoking the same shallow mental retrieval process that took place during encoding
best form of partial reinforcement and example
variable ratio -- gambling
4 partial reinforcement in order of effectiveness; most --> least
variable ratio --> variable interval --> fixed ratio --> fixed interval
Which schedule of reinforcement is most resistant to the extinction of learned responses?
variable schedule of reinforcement
Neural stem cells are believed to originate in the lining of the brain's _____ and _______.
ventricles; hippocampus
linguistic determinism
view that all thought is represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking
