Psych

More Than Meets the Eye(Aboud & Fenwick, 1999)

5th graders in Canada. 11-week curriculum unit strengthened fifth-graders skills in attending to internal attributes, within group differences, and between-group similarities. Post-test Increase in proportion of internal attributes associated with outgroup Decrease in prejudice among pre-test high prejudice children.

Bigler & Liben (1993) Experiment

75 Euro American children (aged 4 - 9) Asked to recall stories that were either consistent with or inconsistent with cultural racial stereotypes 6 trait stories with Euro American and an African American child. Negative trait is attributed to either the African American (stereotypic story) or the European American child (counterstereotypic story) Stereotyped stories remembered better than Counter stereotyped ones Effect accentuated for children with pretest scores that were highest for stereotyping and weakest for social cognitive skills.

Contemporary White Racism in U.S.

All suggest a conflict (ambivalence) conflicted Negative racial attitudes taught at home but egalitarian beliefs learned later Negative attitudes leak out in subtle ways

Ambivalent / Benevolent sexism

Amb - in which the individual has positive yet traditiona attitudes and negative hostile attitudes towards women. Bene -Sexism marked by positive attiudes and stereotypical beliefs toward women.

Aversive racisism

Anti african american prejudice in people who beliver they are egalitatian and also have negative feelings toward blacks. This is expressed as ingroup favoratism rather than outgroup derogation.

Blascovich Spencer, Quinn, and Steele (2001) Experiment

Anxiety. African American in the diagnostic condition showed higher blood pressure (physiological marker of anxiety) . No effect on self -reports of anxiety.

Old fashioned Racism Subtle

Blatant clear expression explicit Modern subtle , indirect means, implicit

Weakness of cognitive developmental approach to prejudice

Cannot address: 1. Individual differences in stereotyping among young children who exhibit roughly the same level of cognitive skill 2. Individual differences in stereotyping among older children who have attained

Perspective-Taking

Children place themselves in the shoes of outgroup members who are faced with discrimination (perspective taking), feel empathy, and thus are motivated to alleviate the others' distress as if it were their own

commited / consensual religiosity

Commited - wide range of categories where they can evluate world, open mind. Consensual - takes it literally

Consequences of sexual prejudice

Concealing one's homosexuality. Result in young experiencing less victimization, but increased sense of isolation, loneness , stress about hiding sexuality, and increase attempts at suicide.

Implicit Association Test

Considered useful measure bc responses are beyond intentional control and awareness *measures social knowledge

Bilingual Education

Contact between groups (peers) is crucial

Modern Racism directed toward african americans

Denial of continued discrimination

Stigma

Devaluated characteristics, application of negative stereotype. Visible stigmas require that people monitor interaction Concealable stigmas require that people monitor their thoughts

Normalize Privilege

E.g., heteronormativity - internalized set of expectations about gender and sexuality

Wolsko et al (2000) Findings- 3 experiments

Exp 1- Both color-blind and multicultural reduced racial ingroup bias and ethnocentrisms compared to control, and no difference between the two Exp 2- Multicultural less ethnocentrism than color-blind (no control) All 3 experiments- Multicultural increased stereotyping compared to color-blind

How have expression of prejudice and stereotypes changed over years?

Expressions of prejudice have changed a little (more subtle) Stereotypes haven't changed very much

Smart & Wegner (199) - Private Hell studies

Females college students with or without eating disorders (ED). Interviewee asked to role play someone with or without ED. Role play so psychological experience of concealed vs revealed without being forced to reveal told that interviewer wouldn't know. Conditions: 1. Concealed (females with ED, role played no ED) 2. Visible (females with ED, role played ED) 3. Control #1 (Females without ED, role played no ED) 4. Control #2 (females without ED, role played ED) Results Compared to other 3 conditions females with ED who role played not having ED Social Interaction Ratings Relative to the other 3 conditions, participants in Conceal condition did not appear to have more negative interpersonal interactions Conclusion People with concealable may appear at ease in situations involving stigma but affected cognitively in important ways.

Evolutionary approach to Prejudice

Fishbein (1996) argues that evolutionary processes that produce prejudice began in hunter gather tribes and were incorporated in human's epigenetic systems. - Inclusive fitness which leads children to give preferential treatment toward relatives - Authority bearing systems which encourage children to accept what they hear about out group members from in-group authority figures - Intertribal hostility which encourages protection of limited resources

What type of awareness comes first?

Gender awareness begins a lot younger, probably reflecting the use of gender labels from birth. Babies can distinguish men from women at about 9 months of age.

Tajfel et al., 1971 experiment

Had college student participants estimate # dots & assigned them to new INGROUP "over estimators" or "under estimators" R: participants allocated more resources to new ingroup

Protestant work ethic mentality

Hard work leads to success PWE was more strongly related to prejudice toward disadvantage groups (poor persons, social/ethnic minorities, sexual minorities and women)

The Modern Racist

Have anti-black attitude but believe racism is wrong Individualism & self-reliance values so trouble with anything perceived as special treatment Disgust for those "violating" individualism Don't see self as racist Empirical support for modern racism But "Modern Racism Scale" increasingly not distinct from old fashioned racism Modern and old fashioned ism are positive correlated maybe a continuum

Herek (2000) findings on Heterosexual individuals and their views on homophobia.

Heterosexual men tend to report more hostility toward gay men than toward lesbian women. Heterosexual women do not report differing beliefs More negative attitudes most likely from: Men, Older, Less educated, Attend religious services frequently, Endorse religious beliefs, Republican, Politically Conservative. Mothers more accepting than fathers and brothers of gay men perpetrate the most physical.

Implicit and Explicit attitude relation?

Implicit and explicit attitudes and stereotypes were generally positively related, but strength or relation varied across topics. Adults over 60 showed the strongest social preferences and stereotypes implicitly and explicitly Conservatives consistently showed stronger implicit and explicit social preferences and stereotypes for higher status groups

Guindon suggested what is the basis of racism, sexism, ect?

Intolerance.

Smart & Wegner (1999) Experiment

Ironic processes of Mental Control. 1. Intentional operating processes - Conscious and effortful; keeps unwanted thoughts out of mind by searching for distractors 2. Ironic monitoring process - Unconscious and requires little cognitive effort - Searches for unwanted thoughts that are under suppression making the unwanted thoughts accessible.

Modern Sexists

Modern sexists show resistance to policies like affirmative action

Conceivable stigma.

Not readily apparent to others Examples: mental illness, criminal records, disease, sexual orientation, marital status, religion, political affiliation

Intergroup Contact Theory

Notion that bringing two outgroups together in a situation will result in decreased prejudice and stereotyping. 4 Conditions: (1) Individualized contact (2) Equal status contact (3) Cooperation (4) Support of authorities.

Clark Anderson Clark, & Williams (1999) Biopsychosocial model

Perceived discrimination as a stressor that impacts health Discrimination →physiological responses (eg elevated blood pressure, heart rate, cortisol secretions) →health outcomes (e.g., coronary heart disease hypertension)

Pascoe & Richman (2009) Experiment

Perceived discrimination has a significant negative effect on mental and physical health- via heighted stress response

Strength/Weakness of Prespective Taking

+ Direct engagement in emotional experience of being target of prejudice Not passive recipient of anti-bias message - Cannot be used with very young children Could result in increased negativity toward outgroups if misinterpret emotional arousal, feel defensive, Feel threatened

B Levy, Slade, Kunkel & Kasl (2002) Experiment

- 660 individuals aged 50 and older who participated in a community based survey - People with more positive self-perceptions of aging measured up to objective perception of being 23 years earlier, lives 7.5 years longer - (even controlling for age, gender, socioeconomic status, loneliness, and functional health) - Effect is partially mediated by will to live. In Context - Physiological measures of low systolic blood pressure and cholesterol is associated with 4 years or less of longer life span. - Lower body mass index, no history of smoking, and a tendency to exercise, each between 1 snd 3 years of added lifespan

Age where children recognize race difference?

- After age 7 children begin to recognize that there are physical origins of skin color - Not until about age 9 or 10 do children understand that ethnicity derives from family background Understanding that race is constant.

Intergroup Bias Measure

- Ambiguous picture cards: Two versions of identical cards in which race is the only dimension that varies - Moral transgression scenarios: 1) "Shoving", 2"Taking toys, 3 "Cheating in class", 4 "stealing money"

Walton & Cohen (2003) Experiment

- Meta- analysis of 43 stereotype threat studies to date - Found evidence for stereotype lift

PRAM

- Method: Asked who has positive and negative qualities - Assessment of prejudice: - Sum up # of positive and negative traits attributed to each group. - Forces choice - Assign to more than one group (both or all category) - None category Faces Measure Circle the number of the face that best fits how you feel about group X? or how much you want to sit next to members of group X?

Sexism and stress

- Women on average have higher rates of anxiety, depression, and somatic disorders - Women have greater genetic stress (e.g., lack of money, death of loved one) but only part of the explanation - But maybe greater gender-specific stress (e.g., sexism)

-Rechov Sumsum/Shara'a Simsim ("Sesame Street" in Hebrew and Arabic).

-Although some children had negative conceptions about adult Arabs and Jews, children, on the whole, did not use these stereotypes when evaluating peer conflict situations between Israeli and Palestinian children. -Increase in children's use of both prosocial justifications to resolve conflict and positive attributed to describe members of other groups. -Program countered negative stereotypes by building a peer-oriented context that introduces children to the everyday lives of people from different cultures.

Greater belief in Polyculturalism (Rosenthal & Levy 2012)

-Associated with positive intergroup attitudes among racially/ethnically diverse samples in U.S -E.g Greater support for social equality -Greater willingness for contact with people from different racial/ethnic backgrounds. -Greater comfort being around people from different backgrounds -More positive attitudes toward liberal social policies (Affirmative action and legalizing the status of currently undocumented immigrants)

Polyculturalism and Multiculturalism

-Both involve a focus on recognizing racial/ethnic/cultural backgrounds -Polyculturalism focuses more on the many connections among groups and less on celebrating the distinctions among groups

Richeson & Nussbaum (2004) Findings- 1 experiment

-Color-blind greater ingroup racial bias than multicultural -Color-blind greater implicit ingroup racial bias (Using IAT) than multicultural

Polyculturalism Measure

-Different cultural groups impact one another, even if members of those groups are not completely aware of the impact -There are many connections between different cultures

Criticisms of the Multicultural Approach

-Emphasizes differences, distinctions between groups -Creates separation between groups of people, can lead to bias/stereotyping -Allows use of cultural explanations to legitimize racial beliefs

Multiculturalism

-Give attention to race, ethnicity, and culture -Appreciate diversity, celebrate differences -Learn about others' cultures recognize race and ethnicity affect people's lives, and thus reduce prejudice and discrimination

Colorblindness

-Group membership don't matter -Don't judge a book by its cover or melting pot metaphor -Reduce preoccupations with race, ethnicity, and thus reduce prejudice

Criticisms of the Color-Blind Approach

-Ignores diversity glosses over histories and cultures of non-dominant groups -Assumes assimilation to dominant culture -Does not recognize that racism still exists

Polyculturalism

-Intergroup ideology focusing on interactions and connections among racial/ethnic group -First described by historians, Robin D. G Kelley and Vjay Prashad (2001;2003) -In "The People in Me", Kelly focused on the often unspoken ways that different racial and ethnic groups influence and borrow from each other -"All of us, and I mean ALL of us, are the inheritors of European, African, Native American, and even Asian pasts, even if we can't exactly trace our blood lines to all of these continents" (P 81) -Prashad traced how Kung Fu is the product of the mutual influences of Africans and Asians -Salsa music and dance derive from the influences African, European, and Indigenous American Cultures -Combined Zulu and Indian influences on health and medical practices are readily apparent in contemporary South Africa (See Flint, 2006)

Colorblind vs. Multicultural

-Mixed Results! -Some findings vary by race/ethnicity of participant, with numeric majority members preferring colorblindness and numeric minority members preferring multiculturalism

Sesame Street Race Relations Intervention (Graves, 1999)

1. Emphasize similarities among humans 2. Appreciate racial/cultural differences 3. People who look diff could be potential friends 4. Inclusion of child rejected for diff

Racial prejudice is apparent at what age?

Racial Prejudice is apparent at age 4 - English Canadians toward French Canadians - Euro Australians toward Aboriginal Australians - Jewish Israelis toward Arab Israelis - Europeans American towards African Americans

Cohen & Lotan (1995)

Raise status of low status kids. 1. Teachers were trained to be attentive to special abilities of low-status students •Provided specific, favorable, and public evaluations 2. Targeting the low status student. •Provide low-status students with a unique skill. "lower status" students participated more *high-status students' participation and performance did not suffer.

Symbolic Racist

Same as modern racist Against special treatment because SYMBOLICALLY goes against belief in individualism and self reliance (not self interest) Belief that african americans violate traditional american values

Penner et al (2009) Experiment

Some past work showing medical interactions between African American patients and European American physicians are less positive and productive. African American patients Non- African American physicians African American patients reported less positive reactions (less warmth less friendliness lower satisfaction) to medical interactions with physicians who fot profile of aversive racist

Social Dominance Orientation

Strong desire to promote intergroup hierarchies and for one in group to dominate Propose men higher SDO bec of evolutionary function (facilitates acquisition of power, status and goods) Gender differences found and may explain why men generally show greater intergroup bias SDO correlates positively with: no egalitarian political and social attitudes in many countries

Psychodynamic approach to prejudice

Suggest that parent's punishing responses to their children's "unconventional" behavior produced an inadequate ego, which relied on defense mechanisms (projection of anger toward outgroups)

Cognitive Developmental Approach to prejudice

Suggests that children's level of prejudice is related to their cognitive skill levels Multiple Classification? - This is the ability to classify objects(inc social objects i.e people) along more than one dimension. Decline due to ability to classify others on multiple dimensions, to perceive similarity across different groups, etc.

Illusory Correlation

Tendency to overestimate nonexistent or slight link between variables Overestimate the association between distinctive variables like minority groups and deviant acts. "occasionally occurring stereotypes we expect in a group are overestimated Minority groups are watched more closely because they are an exception Selective attention makes us notice stereotypes we hold

Social identity theory

The need for positive self esteem motivates people to precieve in terms of in and out groups. Can earn esteem by assiciating with higher class groups.

When does prejudice drop off in children?

They typically assign more positive and less negative attributes to in-group than out-groups, but show a decline in prejudice at around age 7 Race minority children show a bias against their in-group in preschool but after age 7, they tend to have more positive attitudes toward in-group

Negative Attitudes toward own aging Liang and Bollen (1983)

Things keep getting worse as I get older - I have as much pep as I did last year - As you get older you are less useful

Privilege

Unearned benefits afforded to powerful social groups within systems of oppression. Each form of privilege is "invisible package of unearned assets" People usually unaware of their privilege.Individuals with intersecting social identities that differentially privileged (e.g, gay and male) can draw on a subordinate social identity to recognize the privilege they hold in dominant one.

Scapegoat theory

When an individual gets thwarted from a goal they feel anger and the outgroup is blamed for the failure.

Relative depravation theory

When groups think they are at a disadvantage that group will feel resentment towards the other group.

Minimal group

a group formed on the basis of a trivial criteria, and is devoid of the normal aspects of group life.

old fashioned sexism

endorsment of traditional gender roles, differential treatment of women and men.

Belief in Just wordl mentality

get what they deserve and deserve what they get What goes around comes around "blame the victim" mentality Internal attributions are made for other's lesser outcomes BJW positively associated with: Negative affect toward victims of assault, robbery, discrimination Endorsement of negative stereotypes of poor persons Less evidence for racial/ethnic prejudice

Metastereotypes

beliefs regarding the sterotype tht outgroup members hold about their group.

American Two-Way Amigos Program

both groups Liked students and made friends from both ethnolinguistic groups Perceived similarities and differences between the groups

Vescio, Sechrist, & Paolucci (2003) Experiment

objective-focused cond - "take an objective perspective toward what is described" "try not to get caught up in how the person who is interviewed feels about his/her experiences" Listened to Jamal Johnson, African American student at PSU Discussed group related difficulties, e.g., 1. difficulty asking prof for help - felt that they talked down to him 2. academic insecurities - fears of confirming neg stereotypes 3. frustration and sadness about racist comments of some roommates RESULTS - Ps in other-focused cond reported greater empathy which lead to more favorable attitudes toward African Americans

Social roles theory

reason for gender differences in social behavior is not bio difference but the different social process for men and women that lead them to preform different roles in society.

benign ageism

subtle type of prejudice that arises out of ones concious and unconsious fears and anxiety of growing old

communal traits

traits associated with women

Group Awareness

Awareness doesn't mean prejudice, but prejudice cannot occur without an awareness. To be prejudiced, people must first notice differences in which to base their dislike.

glass ceiling

Atrificial barriers based on attitudes or organizational bias that prevent qualified individuals from advancing in their organization.

Glass Slipper Effect

"automatically association romantic partners with chivalry and heroism may curtail women's direct pursuit of power"

Stereotype Lift

- Performance boost caused by the awareness that an out-group is negatively stereotyped

Jean Kilbourne - Killing us softly film

- Print and tv ads promote gender stereotype reinforcing unrealistic and unhealthy perception of beauty perfection and sexuality and damaging women's self esteem well being, health etc.

Polyculturalism and Colorblindness

-both involve a focus on the interconnections among groups -Polyculturalism focuses more on connections among groups through their shared past and current exchanges and less so on cross-group similarities.

Authoritarianism Questionaire (Altermeyer, 1988)

1. Authoritarian submission: "Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn" 2. Authoritarian aggression: "the courts are right in being easy on drug offenders. Punishment would not do any good in cases like these" 3. Conventionalism: "it may be considered old-fashioned by some, but having a decent, respectable appearance is still the mark of a gentleman and, especially, a lady"

Old- Fashioned Racism Directed toward African Americans

1. Black people are generally not as smart as whites 2. I favor laws that permit Black persons to rent or purchases housing Denial of continued discrimination 1. Discrimination against Black is no longer a problem in the United States

social dominance orientation

Attitude towards intergroup relations where they should be a heirarchy and some groups are naturally higher in status than others. Seek to maintain the inequality among groups.

Cognitive approach to prejudice

As brain develops, prejudice evolves; when younger you tend to be more prejudice. Gender one of the first prejudices in children.

Demand characterisitcs

Aspects of experiment that lead participants to develop hypothesis about what experimenter wants them to do.

Steps to reduction of lying for socially desirable reasons

Assuming anonymity Allowing for maximum privacy Limiting face to face contact between subject and experimenter Bogus Pipeline

2 types of lay theories, attributional approach

Belief in a just world (BJW) Protestant work ethic (PWE) Attribution: How people explain the causes of behavior

A class divided Jane Elliot

Elliott divided her class by eye color — those with blue eyes and those with brown. On the first day, the blue-eyed children were told they were smarter, nicer, neater, and better than those with brown eyes. Throughout the day, Elliott praised them and allowed them privileges such as a taking a longer recess and being first in the lunch line. In contrast, the brown-eyed children had to wear collars around their necks and their behavior and performance were criticized and ridiculed by Elliott. On the second day, the roles were reversed and the blue-eyed children were made to feel inferior while the brown eyes were designated the dominant group. It is on Wednesday that we learn something disturbing: The children who are privileged because of their eye color do better on tests of their skills than the children who are being discriminated against. This is backed up later in the documentary when Elliott describes that from the 2nd year of the experiment onward, she gave tests two weeks prior, during and two weeks after the experience and found that the stress and issues related to being discriminated against interfered with the students' ability to perform. One of the shocking things is how quickly and easily the blue-eyed children slip into the roles of bully, informer and bigot. One child suggests that Elliott should keep the yardstick close by so that she can deal with unruly brown-eyed kids. Some children call others "brown eyes" in a way that one child explicitly compares to the use of the n-word against African Americans.

Extrinsic / Intrinsic religious orientation

Ex - Who uses religion for own purpose, attends church infrequently and is prejudice towards others. In - Internalized religious values, more egalitarian.

bipolar assumption Dualistic view

Individual can have characteristics associated with either males or females but not both. People can have both agentic and communal traits.

Contact hypothesis

Intergroup prejudice will diminish when 2 groups are brought into contact with one another.

Kleck & Streta (1980) Experiment

Participants in the facial scar condition, were more likely to report behavioral discrimination and negativity on the part of the confederate - Less eye contact - More tenseness - Less talking - More patronizing kind of responses

Professional ageism

Older patients receive poor quality treatment from professionals such as by doctors, social workers, nursing homes, etc.

Optimal distinctiveness theory

Our social motives are governed by an altering tension between our need to be our own unique person and our need to belong to a group.

Steele & Aronson (1995) Experiment

P: Told that standardized verbal test (GRE) was Cond 1: "Intellectual ability" (diagnosing) Cond 2: Laboratory problem solving task (non-diagnostic of intelligence) Cond 1: African American Ps did significantly worse than European American Ps Cond 2: Equal

Authoritarianism

Parents punitive responses to their child's "unconventional" behavior produced an ego Authoritarians: Support conventional issues (gender roles) Oppose non-traditional issues (abortion) Punitive to criminals Prejudiced toward a variety of groups Found in many countries

Realistic conflict theory

Prejudice and stereotypes between groups arise from the competition between groups for scarce and valued resources.

Lay Theories

Proverbs, Something we use in our everyday life Necessary for prediction and control May not be accurate

Rudman (2001) Romantic Fairytales Experiment

Ps: Female college students Completed IAT: Associated romantic fantasy words (prince charming) vs avg. male words (Joe) with good vs bad Results Implicit (but not explicit) romantic fantasies Less interest in personal power, including projected income, education goal, interest in high status jobs, and group leadership appeal. Study 2 Male participants given female fantasy associations (e.g, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty) Men's implicit romantic fantasies not correlated to their interest in personal power.

Attributional Ambiguity

Situation in which it is diffuclt for the preciever to ascertain whether targets behavior was influenced by the situation of the persons personality and attitudes.

Stereotype threat

Situation in which negative expectation due to sterotypes lead person to feel acxiety and had unfortunate effects on their preformance.

Avaliability heuristic

States our judgement about the probablility of the event will be affected by the availability or how fast that event comes to mind, of that event information.

Stereotype activation

Steele & Aronson (1995) If stereotype threat, then African or female participants in the diagnostic condition should show greater cognitive activation of stereotypes and ability related self-doubts

Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady (1999) Experiment

Stereotypes of women vs Asian American - Asian American women performed better on math test when their ethnic identity was activated, - But did worse when their gender identity was activated - Compared with a control group who had neither identity activated

Meta- analysis

Synthesize date from independent studies to obtain a quantitative estimate of the overall effect of an intervention or variable on an outcome

Canadian French Immersion Program

Taught entirely in French until Grade 2 by Monolingual French teacher. Immersion students perceived more similarity between French and English Canadians Themselves and French Canadians Attitudes toward French Canadians were more positive but became less positive by end of elementary school.

Agentic traits

Traits that have been assicated with males and that indivate task orientation, and a striving for achievement.

Klonoff, Landrine, & Campbell (2000) Experiment

Women who experienced frequent sexism had significantly more symptoms than men on all symptoms measures. Whereas women who experiences little sexism did not differ from men on any symptom measure

Social learning Approach to Prejudice

You learn by observing, imitating Children become gradually more prejudiced with age they try to imitate and please their parents