Psych Exam 4
Adapting Brain in Late Adulthood
*BUT older adults can generate new neurons (neurogenesis-mostly in hippocampus & olfactory bulb) & dendrites -Aging brain retains considerable plasticity & adaptiveness *Able to compensate for losses by shifting responsibilities to other region -Decrease in lateralization = improves cognitive functioning for older adults BUT less efficient than younger adults
Vision in Late Adulthood
*Declines in visual acuity, color vision, & depth perception -Visual acuity: speed, adjustment to light, reduced field d/t retina degeneration -Color vision: yellowing of lens reduces color differentiation Diseases of the eye: -Cataracts: thickening of lens of eye = vision to become cloudy, opaque, & distorted -Glaucoma: damage to optic nerve b/c of pressure created by buildup of fluid in eye -Macular degeneration: deterioration of macula of retina, which corresponds to focal center of visual field
Sleep in Late Adulthood
-50% of older adults complain of having difficulty sleeping = earlier death & linked to lower level of cognitive functioning -Sleep 7+ hours associated w/ longer telomeres & regular exercise helps
Older Adults & their adult children
-Adult daughters are more likely to be involved in the lives of aging parents -Adult children often coordinate & monitor services for aging disabled parents
Decisions regarding life, death, & health care
-Advanced care planning: preferences about end-of-life care -Choice in Dying = living will -Advance directive: states whether life-sustaining procedures should/should not be used -Euthanasia: passive (treatment withheld) vs active (deliberately induced death) -Hospice: program committed to making end of life as free from pain, anxiety, & depression as possible -Palliative care: reducing pain & suffering, helping individuals die with dignity
Policy Issues in an Aging Society
-Ageism: prejudice against others b/c of their age -Elders are not just consumers -Cure vs. care model means more doctor appointments -Home-based care -Eldercare: physical & emotional care-taking for older members of the family -Generational inequity: view that aging society is being unfair to its younger members by receiving large allocations of resources -Income: poverty linked to increase in physical & mental health problems -Living arrangements: older adults who can sustain themselves living alone often have good health & few disabilities -Technology: reduces likelihood of being depressed by one-third (communication outlet)
Aging Brain in Late Adulthood
-Brain loses weight & volume w/ age (shrinking & slowing) d/t shrinkage of neurons, lower # of synapses, & reduced length of axon *Primarily in PFC (sensory regions less vulnerable) -General slowing of function in CNS: begins in middle adulthood & increases in late adulthood = affects physical coordination & intellectual performance (diminished reflexes) .-Aging is linked to reduction in synaptic functioning, production of neurotransmitters, & demyelination
Attitudes toward death at diff points in life span
-Childhood: young children (3-5 years) believe dead can be brought back to life/dead passed b/c they were bad/child was bad (magical thinking) *Around 9 years of age, children view death as universal & irreversible -Adolescence: death regarded as remote & may be avoided, glossed over, or kidded about *Develop more abstract conceptions about death -Adulthood: middle-aged adults actually fear death more than young adults -Older adults forced to examine meanings of life & death more frequently
Health Problems in Late Adulthood
-Chronic diseases common in late adulthood -75-84 & 85+ age groups: cardiovascular disease = leading cause of death -Arthritis: inflammation of joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, & movement problems -Osteoporosis: extensive loss of bone tissue = older adults to walk w/ stoop d/t Ca, vitamin D, estrogen, & exercise deficiencies -Accidents: 9th leading cause of death in older adults (falls = leading cause of injury death)
Personality during Late Adulthood
-Conscientiousness & agreeableness increase -Conscientiousness predicts lower mortality risk from childhood through late adulthood -Low conscientiousness & high neuroticism predicts earlier death -Higher conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness were related to a lower risk of earlier death
Immune System in Late Adulthood
-Declines w/ age d/t extended duration of stress (potentially) & diminished restorative processes & malnutrition involving low levels of protein -Exercise improves immune system -Influenza vaccination is important
Language Development Late Adulthood
-Decrements in language may appear in late adulthood = Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon & difficulty understanding speech -Speech of older adults is lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, & less fluent -Reason for decline in language: slower info processing speed & decline in working memory (executive functioning) & declines in hearing
Kübler-Ross' stages of dying
-Denial & isolation -Anger: Dying person's denial gives way to anger, resentment, rage, and envy -Bargaining: Dying person develops the hope that death can somehow be postponed - Depression: withdrawal, crying, & grieving -Acceptance: Sense of peace comes *Not experimentally proven *Can be maladaptive depending on extent *Variability in death process: perceived control & spirituality
Ethnicity during Late Adulthood
-Elderly ethnic minority individuals face both ageism & racism -More likely to become ill but less likely to receive treatment -Coping mechanisms despite stress & discrimination: extended family networks; religion; community integration
5 Biological Theories of Aging
-Evolutionary theory: natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions & nonadaptive characteristics in older adults = benefits conferred by evolution decline w/ age b/c natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness -Cellular clock theory: cells can divide a max of about 75 to 80 time & as we age our cells become less capable of dividing *Telomeres are likely to be involved in explaining why cells lose their capacity to divide -Free-radical theory: people age b/c unstable O2 molecules (free radicals) are produced in cells & damage cellular structures -Mitochondrial theory: aging is d/t decay of mitochondria -Hormonal stress theory: aging in body's hormonal system can lower resilience to stress & increase likelihood of disease.
Wisdom During Late Adulthood
-Expert knowledge about practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about imp matters *High levels of wisdom are rare -Late adolescence to early adulthood is the main age window for wisdom to emerge -Personality-related factors are better predictors of wisdom than cognitive factors such as intelligence
Memory during Late Adulthood
-Explicit memory: facts & experiences that individuals consciously know & can state *Declines as person ages -Implicit memory: w/out conscious recollection *Less likely to be adversely affected by aging -Non-cognitive factors: health, education, & socioeconomic status influence older adult's performance on memory tasks -Executive functioning: cognitive control & working memory decline
Culture during Late Adulthood
-Factors imp in living good life as older adult: health, security, & kinship/support -Factors that are likely to predict high status for older adults: *Valuable knowledge *Control key family/community resources *Engage in useful/valued functions as long as possible *Role continuity throughout the life span *Extended family *Respect for older adults
Cognitive Neuroscience Late Adulthood
-Findings: decline in the functioning of specific regions in prefrontal cortex in older adults & links b/t this decline & poorer performance on tasks involving complex: *Reasoning, working memory, and episodic memory
Substance Use & Abuse During Late Adulthood
-Frequency of binge drinking: highest among older adults (BUT smallest % of people report problems & have fewest drinks per binge) -Late-onset alcoholism: onset of alcoholism after age of 65 R/T loneliness, loss of spouse, or a disabling condition -Moderate drinking of red wine linked to better health & increased longevity d/t benefits of antioxidants
Dimensions of Grieving
-Grief: emotional numbness, disbelief, separation anxiety, despair, sadness, & loneliness that accompany the loss of someone we love (not simply state) *Typically diminishes over time -Grief is multidimensional & can be prolonged -Dual-process model: model of coping w/ bereavement that emphasizes oscillation b/t 2 dimensions: -Loss-oriented stressors: reappraisals -Restoration-oriented stressors: changing identity; mastering new skills
Altruism & Volunteering
-Imp for well-being, life satisfaction, longevity, stress management -Volunteering associated w/ # of positive outcomes: *Constructive activities & productive roles; social integration; enhanced meaningfulness
Hearing in Late Adulthood
-Impairments becomes an impediment *Hearing aids & cochlear implants minimize problems -Inability to hear below normal conversations -Poor nutrition & smoking increase onset of hearing problems
Circulatory System & Lungs in Late Adulthood
-Increase in cardiovascular disorders -High BP linked to illness, obesity, anxiety, stiffening of blood vessels, & lack of exercise -Lung capacity drops 40 % between the ages of 20 and 80
Benefits of Exercise During Late Adulthood
-Increases longevity -Prevention of chronic diseases -Enhances disease treatment -Improves cellular & immune system functioning -Reduces decline in motor skills -Reduces likelihood of developing mental health problems -Reduces negative effects of stress -Linked to improved brain, cognitive, & affective functioning *Aerobic exercise & weight lifting both recommended
Centenarians
-Individuals 100 years & older -Increasing each year in industrialized countries d/t diet (few are obese), low-stress lifestyle, caring community, activity, & spirituality -Older the age group of centenarians, the later the onset of disease (compression of morbidity)
Life Span vs. Life Expectancy
-Life span: max # of years an individual can live (120-125 years) -Life expectancy: # of years that average person born in particular year will probably live (78.7) *Differences in life expectancy across countries: -Factors = health conditions & medical care & ethnic difference
Mental Health Late Adulthood
-Major depression: (mood disorder) less common among older adults than younger adults *Common predictors: earlier depressive symptoms; poor health/disability; loss events; low social support -Dementia: neurological disorder = deterioration of mental functioning -Alzheimer disease: gradual deterioration of long-term memory, reasoning, language, & eventually, physical function (involves acetylcholine) deficiency *Women likely to develop b/c they live longer than men *Formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles *Progressive & irreversible disorder -Parkinson disease: chronic, progressive disease = muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis *Triggered by degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons
Self Control during Late Adulthood
-Majority of adults in their 70s & 80s reported being in control of their lives -Sense of control very imp & decline in perceived control = worse outcomes
Lifestyle Diversity during Late Adulthood
-Married older adults: marital satisfaction is greater in older adults than middle-aged adults *Older adults = married/partnered are usually happier & live longer than those who = single -Divorced & separated older adults: remarriage is increasing d/t rising divorce rates, increased longevity, & better health -Cohabiting Older adults: more for companionship than for love
Friends & Social Support during Late Adulthood
-More continuity than change in friendship for older adults *Friendships more imp than family in predicting mental health -Social support is linked w/ improved physical & mental health in older adults -Older adults often have fewer peripheral social ties but a strong motivation to spend time in relationships w/ close friends & family members
Health Treatment During Late Adulthood
-Need to expand disease management programs & geriatric nurses -Development of alternative home & community-based care: decrease % of older adults living in nursing homes -Factor related to health & survival in nursing home: patient's feelings of control & self-determination
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory Late Adulthood
-Older adults become more selective about their social networks -Spend more time w/ individuals w/ whom they have had rewarding relationships -Deliberately withdraw from peripheral contacts -Less time in life = more motivated to spend time pursuing emotional satisfaction -Classes of goals: Knowledge-related & Emotional *Older adults have fewer highs & lows, better emotion regulation, ignore negative info (react less to negatives), more positive overall*
Attachment during Late Adulthood
-Older adults have fewer attachment relationships than younger adults -W/ increasing age, attachment anxiety decreases -Insecure attachment is linked to more perceived (-) caregiver burden in caring for patients w/ Alzheimer disease
USE IT/LOSE IT & training cognitive skills Late Adulthood
-Older adults who engage in cognitive activities have higher cognitive functioning *May lower likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease -Training can improve cognitive skills & there is some loss in plasticity in late adulthood *Cognitive vitality improved through cognitive & physical fitness training
Gender during Late Adulthood
-Older men often become more feminine, but women do not necessarily become more masculine -Older adult females face ageism and sexism
Work & Retirement Late Adulthood
-Older workers have lower rates of absenteeism, fewer accidents, and higher job satisfaction than their younger counterparts (essentially more conscientious) -Life paths for individuals in their sixties are less clear = 7 million retired Americans return to work after they retire -Increasing # of adults rejecting early retirement option -Older adults who adjust best to retirement are: *Healthy & active *Have adequate income *Better educated *Have extended social networks and family *Satisfied with their lives before retiring
Communicating w/ Dying Person
-Open communication = very important -Mutual knowledge of death -Focus on strengths, preparation for remainder of life, & internal growth -Do not focus on mental problems/preparing for death
Sexuality in Late Adulthood
-Orgasm & ability to maintain erection becomes less frequent in males w/ age -Many are sexually active as long as they are healthy, but declines w/ age -Therapies have been effective in improving sexual functioning -Poor health primary barrier but having sex increases health
Facing one's own Death: 3 Areas of concern
-Privacy and autonomy in regard to their families -Inadequate information about physical changes and medication as death approached -Motivation to shorten their life
Religion & Spirituality Late Adulthood
-Religious interest increases in old age & r/t sense of well-being in the elderly -Older adults have higher levels of life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism
Cultural Diversity in Healthy Grieving
-Some cultures emphasize importance of breaking bonds w/ deceased & returning quickly to autonomous lifestyles -Non-Western cultures suggest that beliefs about continuing bonds w/ deceased vary extensively *There is no one right, ideal way to grieve
Education & Work Late Adulthood
-Successive generations in US have been better educated -Successive generations have had work experiences that include stronger emphasis on cognitively oriented labor = likely enhances individual's intellectual abilities
Self Esteem & Possible Selves during Late Adulthood
-Tends to decline significantly in seventies & eighties d/t: -Being widowed, institutionalized, or physically impaired -Having a low religious commitment -Declining health -Possible selves change during late adulthood & are linked to engagement in various activities & longevity *Acceptance of ideal & future selves decreases w/ age *Acceptance of past selves increases
Physical Appearance & Movement in Late Adulthood
-Wrinkles & age spots -Shorter w/ aging d/t bone loss in vertebrae -Weight drops after 60 -Muscle loss -Move slowly: regular walking decreases onset of physical disability
The Young Old & Oldest Age
-Young-old: aged 65-74; more fit physically & mentally, higher well-being -Old-Old: age 75-84 -Oldest age: 85 or more; more losses in cognitive & physical abilities, more stress, more frailty, more loneliness
Prolonged Grief Disorder
Aka persistent complex bereavement disorder More than 12 months of: -Predominant feelings of emptiness & loss -Depressed thoughts solely r/t deceased/survivor's guilt -Loss of self-identity -Difficulty w/ (+) reminiscing -Desire to die (hopelessness) -Diminished ability to trust others -Impaired capacity to function
Issues in Determining Death
Brain death: when all electrical activity of the brain has ceased for a specified period of time -A flat EEG reading for a specified period of time is one criterion of brain death -Includes both the higher cortical functions and the lower brain-stem functions
Sensory Development in Late Adulthood
Decline related to cognitive/physical functional problems -Smell & taste: losses begin at about age 60 years *Greater decline in sense of smell -Touch & pain: detect touch less in LE *Decreased sensitivity to pain can help adults to cope w/ disease & injury BUT can mask injuries & illnesses that need to be treated & associated w/ decreased volume in pain regions of brain *Still experience chronic pain (back, neuropathy, joint) -Perceptual motor coupling: ex. driving a vehicle
Treatment for Alzheimer Disease
Early detection & drug treatment: -Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): transitional state b/t cognitive changes of normal aging & very early disease *fMRI shows smaller brain regions involved in memory for individuals w/ MCI -Drug treatment: Cholinerase inhibitors slow downward progression of the disease -Caring for those w/ disease: support is often emotionally & physically draining for the family -Respite care: services that provide temporary relief for those caring for individuals w/ disabilities/illnesses
Successful Aging
Factors linked w/ successful aging: -Proper diet -Active lifestyle -Mental stimulation and flexibility -Positive coping skills -Good social relationships and support -Absence of disease
Nutrition & Weight During Late Adulthood
Goals: -Get adequate nutrition -Avoiding overweight & obesity -Role of calorie restriction in improving health -Controversy over vitamins & aging: balanced diet needed for successful aging -Antioxidants: slow aging process & improve health; neutralize free-radical activity; reduce oxidative stress
Erikson's Theory: Late Adulthood
Integrity vs. despair -Involves reflecting on past & either piecing together (+) review or concluding that one's life has not been well spent (retrospective glances, satisfied or not) -Life review: looking back at one's life experiences, evaluating them, & interpreting them *Variable course *Creation/discovery of new meaning & coherence *Positives, regrets, meaning making of complexity of life
As a result of aging, which of the following is NOT likely to deteriorate?
Language comprehension
Activity Theory Late Adulthood
More active & involved older adults = more likely to be satisfied w/ their lives, age better, be happier -Combine effortful w/ restful activities -Continue middle age roles
Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults
Multidimensionality & multi-directionality -Cognitive mechanics (brain): more likely to decline than cognitive pragmatics (culture-based software of mind) -Speed of processing (perceptual speed): individual variation BUT typically decline w/ age -Attention: declines more on complex than simple tasks -Decision making: preserved rather well
Components of Death System
People, places/contexts, times, objects, & symbols
Selective Optimization w/ Compensation Theory (Late Adulthood)
Successful aging is related to: -Selection: older adults have reduced capacity & loss of functioning, which require reduction in performance in most life domains -Optimization: possible to maintain performance in some areas through continued practice & use of new tech -Compensation: older adults need to compensate when life tasks require higher level of capacity *Manage & adapt to losses & attain meaningful goals to make life satisfying
Considering the fact that many of the health problems of older adults are chronic rather than acute, which of the following is likely to be a concern about the medical system?
The medical system is still based on a "cure" rather than a "care" model
