psych exam 4: personality
Five-Factor Model
(also called the Big Five) The Five-Factor Model is a widely accepted model of personality traits. Advocates of the model believe that much of the variability in people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can be summarized with five broad traits. These five traits are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
theory of personality
1. Id: source of all innate biological needs aggression, sex, eros, thanatos tries to satisfy needs as quickly/fully as possible pleasure principle 2. Superego: values, religion, restraints imposed by society, learned though socialization-interalizied, morality principle 3. Ego: mediate between Id and Superego tries to satisfy means w/o violating conceptions of right and wrong, reality principle enacts defense mechanisms *Freudian slip= what you really want to say
Conscientiousness
A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be careful, organized, hardworking, and to follow rules.
Agreeableness
A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, warm, and caring to others. People low in agreeableness tend to be rude, hostile, and to pursue their own interests over those of others.
Extraversion
A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be sociable, outgoing, active, and assertive.
Openness to Experience
A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to seek out and to appreciate new things, including thoughts, feelings, values, and experiences.
Neuroticism
A personality trait that reflects the tendency to be interpersonally sensitive and the tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety, fear, sadness, and anger.
Factor analysis
A statistical technique for grouping similar things together according to how highly they are associated.
Narrative identity
An internalized and evolving story of the self designed to provide life with some measure of temporal unity and purpose. Beginning in late adolescence, people craft self-defining stories that reconstruct the past and imagine the future to explain how the person came to be the person that he or she is becoming.
Facets
Broad personality traits can be broken down into narrower facets or aspects of the trait. For example, extraversion has several facets, such as sociability, dominance, risk-taking and so forth.
Continuous distributions
Characteristics can go from low to high, with all different intermediate values possible. One does not simply have the trait or not have it, but can possess varying amounts of it.
The Age 5-to-7 Shift
Cognitive and social changes that occur in the early elementary school years that result in the child's developing a more purposeful, planful, and goal- directed approach to life, setting the stage for the emergence of the self as a motivated agent.
Theory of mind
Emerging around the age of 4, the child's understanding that other people have minds in which are located desires and beliefs, and that desires and beliefs, thereby, motivate behavior.
Personality traits
Enduring dispositions in behavior that show differences across individuals, and which tend to characterize the person across varying types of situations.
Personality
Enduring predispositions that characterize a person, such as styles of thought, feelings and behavior.
Validity
Evidence related to the interpretation and use of test scores.
Redemptive narratives
Life stories that affirm the transformation from suffering to an enhanced status or state.
High-stakes testing
Settings in which test scores are used to make important decisions about individuals. For example, test scores may be used to determine which individuals are admitted into a college or graduate school, or who should be hired for a job. Tests also are used in forensic settings to help determine whether a person is competent to stand trial or fits the legal definition of sanity.
Ego
Sigmund Freud's conception of an executive self in the personality. Akin to this chapter's notion of "the I," Freud imagined the ego as observing outside reality, engaging in rational though, and coping with the competing demands of inner desires and moral standards.
Identity
Sometimes used synonymously with the term "self," identity means many different things in psychological science and in other fields (e.g., sociology)
HEXACO model
The HEXACO model is an alternative to the Five-Factor Model. The HEXACO model includes six traits, five of which are variants of the traits included in the Big Five (Emotionality [E], Extraversion [X], Agreeableness [A], Conscientiousness [C], and Openness [O]). The sixth factor, Honesty-Humility [H], is unique to this model.
Autobiographical reasoning
The ability, typically developed in adolescence, to derive substantive conclusions about the self from analyzing one's own personal experiences.
Reliablility
The consistency of test scores across repeated assessments. For example, test- retest reliability examines the extent to which scores change over time.
Self-esteem
The extent to which a person feels that he or she is worthy and good. The success or failure that the motivated agent experiences in pursuit of valued goals is a strong determinant of self-esteem.
Letter of recommendation effect
The general tendency for informants in personality studies to rate others in an unrealistically positive manner. This tendency is due a pervasive bias in personality assessment: In the large majority of published studies, informants are individuals who like the person they are rating (e.g., they often are friends or family members) and, therefore, are motivated to depict them in a socially desirable way. The term reflects a similar tendency for academic letters of recommendation to be overly positive and to present the referent in an unrealistically desirable manner.
Reflexivity
The idea that the self reflects back upon itself; that the I (the knower, the subject) encounters the Me (the known, the object). Reflexivity is a fundamental property of human selfhood.
Lexical hypothesis
The lexical hypothesis is the idea that the most important differences between people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people. Therefore, if we want to know which personality traits are most important, we can look to the language that people use to describe themselves and others.
Person-situation debate
The person-situation debate is a historical debate about the relative power of personality traits as compared to situational influences on behavior. The situationist critique, which started the person-situation debate, suggested that people overestimate the extent to which personality traits are consistent across situations.
The "I"
The self as knower, the sense of the self as a subject who encounters (knows, works on) itself (the Me).
The "Me"
The self as known, the sense of the self as the object or target of the I's knowledge and work.
Self as autobiographical author
The sense of the self as a storyteller who reconstructs the past and imagines the future in order to articulate an integrative narrative that provides life with some measure of temporal continuity and purpose.
Self as social actor
The sense of the self as an embodied actor whose social performances may be construed in terms of more or less consistent self-ascribed traits and social roles.
Self as motivated agent
The sense of the self as an intentional force that strives to achieve goals, plans, values, projects, and the like.
Honeymoon effect
The tendency for newly married individuals to rate their spouses in an unrealistically positive manner. This represents a specific manifestation of the letter of recommendation effect when applied to ratings made by current romantic partners. Moreover, it illustrates the very important role played by relationship satisfaction in ratings made by romantic partners: As marital satisfaction declines (i.e., when the "honeymoon is over"), this effect disappears.
Self-enhancement bias
The tendency for people to see and/or present themselves in an overly favorable way. This tendency can take two basic forms: defensiveness (when individuals actually believe they are better than they really are) and impression
Sibling contrast effect
The tendency of parents to use their perceptions of all of their children as a frame of reference for rating the characteristics of each of them.
Reference group effect
The tendency of people to base their self-concept on comparisons with others. For example, if your friends tend to be very smart and successful, you may come to see yourself as less intelligent and successful than you actually are. Informants also are prone to these types of effects. For instance, the sibling contrast effect refers to the tendency of parents to exaggerate the true extent of differences between their children.
Projective hypothesis
The theory that when people are confronted with ambiguous stimuli (that is, stimuli that can be interpreted in more than one way), their responses will be influenced by their unconscious thoughts, needs, wishes, and impulses. This, in turn, is based on the Freudian notion of projection, which is the idea that people attribute their own undesirable/unacceptable characteristics to other people or objects.
Social reputation
The traits and social roles that others attribute to an actor. Actors also have their own conceptions of what they imagine their respective social reputations indeed are in the eyes of others.
Implicit motives
These are goals that are important to a person, but that he/she cannot consciously express. Because the individual cannot verbalize these goals directly, they cannot be easily assessed via self-report. However, they can be measured using projective devices such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Independent
Two characteristics or traits are separate from one another-- a person can be high on one and low on the other, or vice-versa. Some correlated traits are relatively independent in that although there is a tendency for a person high on one to also be high on the other, this is not always the case.
thin slice of behavior
cannot determine personality -25% from genetics -75% from nurture -temperament: side before nurture
psychosexual stages
chief erogenous zone -oral stage(birth to age 2): eating, stimulation of the lips fixated come back to this stage during times of stress--comfortable -anal stage(2 to 4): expulsive: during times of stress/messy vs. retentive: organized toilet training -phallic stage(4 to 6): oedipal/electra attraction to opposite sex parent fixated complex, castration anxiety, penis envy -latent stage(6 to 12): little happens, solidification of earlier developed personality traits -genital stage(12 to ?): personal and sexual maturity, lasts until death
following freud
child psychiatry, play therapy--Anna Freud Alfred Adler: individual psychology (striving to be better) Carl Jong: analytic psychology--personal(your own) vs. collective(all born w info), unconscious Karen Horney:women want respect
defense mechanisms
conflict--anxiety--defense benefits= reduced anxiety costs= distort reality, prevent realistic elimination of conflict -suppression: try hard not to think about it but think about it more (ironic effects) denial= say it didnt happen -intellectualization: learn everything about the thing that gives you anxiety, think what you're learning will help you -object displacement: mad at one thing, but take it out on another -drive displacement: take your desire for one area and satisfy it by pursuing something else, but still have the same drive
freuds legacy
contributions: theory from applied clinical practice -what --> introspection: furthered implications of mental activity, knowledge of hidden causes of behavior, early childhood affects later development, physical problem may be psychological origin, may be treated by psychological methods -projective tests: indirect way to access the unknown of the unconscious--lack of validity
trait theories
differ on number of traits included characteristics of traits= internal dispositions that are stable over the time across situation conceived of in bipolar terms seen as additive and independent show broad individual differences in socio-emotional functioning
5 factor model
factor analysis O: openness C: conscientiousness E: extraversion/introversion A: agreeableness N: neuroticism can be high or low on traits
Psychoanalysis
freud: worked w patients w nervous disorders, physical symptoms w/o physical causes -Anna O w Josef Breuer hypnosis: altered state of consciousness catharsis: purging -free association (talking cure): just talk until you stop talking, pocket of resistance -studies of hysteria(uterus): believed all events have causes that could be identified by science
deterministic and pessimistic
other people made the choices for you, your unconscious mind and how you handle it -there is a conflict and its not up to you
personality residue theory
personality bleeds out into the things we do consistent elements that define you: -normally positive and unique -across time and place--anywhere, all the time -constant=the same all day, everyday--not personality
seduction hypothesis
sexual problems are they key to hysteria--specifically childhood sexual abuse causes hysteria -symptoms in adulthood not well received at the meeting of Vienna society REVISED -repressed sexuality could come from imagined rather than actual events
psychodynamic theory
the mind is active/changing -personality is created by our fight w society, how you deal w conflicts determines health and personality -thanatos: death theory, focus on the unconsious
