Psych Final Exam

(CHAP 1) 6. Evolutionary Theory

*Charles Darwin & Konrad Lorenz* Looks at ethology, or how our biology influences our behavior. For animals, reproduction is most important behavior as is survival of young since they perpetuate the survival of the species. -Similarly, as humans, we are thought to behave in similar ways. We feel pressure (though we don't realize it) to reproduce and to survive. We are jealous of boyfriends/girlfriends because someone might take away our mechanism for reproduction. We protect our children not because we love them, but because they represent our DNA and our DNA must survive after we are gone. Mommy's baby, daddy's maybe. How does this statement a reflection of the evolutionary perspective?

Continuous vs. discontinuous change (CHAP 1) Critical periods vs sensitive period Nature vs. nurture

*Continuous vs. discontinuous change* - continuous change is gradual and constant, such as growing slightly in height over a period of 6 moths. Discontinuous change occurs in stages or steps. Would be similar to growing in height all in one day, when you get to a certain stage. *Critical periods vs sensitive periods* - is a specific time during development when a an event has its greatest consequences. This can be seen in beliefs that language must be learned early in life, or it will not be learned. Sensitive time periods believe that organisms are more vulnerable at certain times to certain stimuli, but there is not finite time period where something must occur. *Nature vs. nurture* - an age old question, of asking whether nature (biology), or nurture (environmental influences) impact our development more.

(CHAP 8) Psychological Abuse

*Denial of emotional responsiveness (also called emotional neglect)* - refusing to comfort a child, moving away if child tries to hug or asks to be held .•*Degradation/humiliation*- calling the child names, such as "stupid" or "ugly." Shaming the child in front of friends. •*Rejection* - implying strong dislike for the child by saying things such as "I wish you were never born."• *Terrorization*- causing the child to fear for his life due to threats (I'll kill you) or allowing the child to witness the abuse of someone in the home (domestic violence). •*Isolation* - keeping the child away from family, friends, community. *•Exploitation* - taking advantage of a child's innocence, for example taking a photo of a naked child to sell as child pornography.

Drugs (CHAP 11)

*Depressants* These are drugs which slow down the central nervous system. In small amounts, they reduce anxiety and release inhibitions. In larger quantities they induce sleep. •They include alcohol, the class of benzodiazapines (Xanax, valium, atavan, and rohypnol often called the date rape drug). •Alcohol is the drug that is most likely to be abused by adolescents. Although overall drinking among adolescents has gone down, binge drinking has gone up. Three fourths of college students have consumed at least one alcoholic drink during the last 30 days and more than 40% have had five or more drinks within the past two weeks. About three fourths of high school students have had alcohol by senior year. *Stimulants* Stimulants are drugs that increase central nervous system activity. They make the heart beat faster, decrease appetite, make breathing more rapid, increase energy and reduce fatigue. •Examples of stimulants include ADHD drugs such as Ritalin, cocaine, caffeine, methamphetamine, and nicotine.•Ritalin is sometimes used recreationally to assist with study and work habits. •Nicotine is the most widely abused illegal drug (for adolescents) because it can be used daily without repercussions. In terms of overall numbers, less adolescents are smoking than decades before. However, girls are smoking in greater numbers than they used to. White adolescents and poor adolescents are more likely to smoke than wealthier adolescents and African American adolescents. *Opiates* Opiates are drugs designed to kill pain and to produce feelings of pleasure. Even when pain is non-existent, people on opiates have difficulty stopping them because they prefer the feeling that all is right with the world, which opiates provide. •Examples include hydrocodone, oxycodone, codeine, heroin.•About 3% of adolescents and 6% of young adults abuse opiates.•Opiates are strongly associated with accidental death by overdose. Nationwide, drug overdose death rates have more than doubled in the past decade among people ages 12 - 25. The artist, Prince, is an example of one such overdose. *Hallucinogens* Hallucinogenic drugs causes the individual to have difficulty in the perception of reality. They may have hallucinations. Dissociative drugs can similarly cause hallucinations and include amnesia, disorientation and memory loss. •Examples include psilocybin mushrooms, Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote cactus (mescaline) are all considered hallucinogens while PCP and ketamine are considered dissociative. *Other* This category includes designer drugs such as MDMA (Ecstasy) originally used as a psychotherapy drug to reduce inhibitions. MDMA in its original form acted as both a stimulant and a hallucinogen. Street Ecstasy however, can be mixed with a number of other drugs.•Cannabis (marijuana) is sometimes classified as a hallucinogen, sometimes as a depressant, and sometimes as other. Some states in the United States have legalized marijuana for both medicinal and recreational purposes.•Synthetic marijuana is not marijuana at all. It is not a member of the cannabis plant. It consists of a series of chemicals that are sprayed onto some plant. The plant is then dried out so that it can be smoked. But it is the chemicals that are the drug. Synthetic marijuana is associated with hallucinations that last well beyond the point of time that it was used. There are individuals currently in psychiatric units who cannot shake the lingering effects of synthetic marijuana. It is a very dangerous drug.

(CHAP 1) 1. Psychodynamic Theory

*FREUD* -- -Focus on inner person, unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior -Behavior motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts -Principles Personality has three aspects: id, ego, and superego -Psychosexual development involves series of stages-oral, anal, phallic, genital -Pleasure principle, reality principle, fixation *ERIKSON* -Focus on social interaction with others -Development occurs through changes in interactions with and understanding of others and in self knowledge and understanding of members of society -Psychosocial development involves eight distinct, fixed, universal stages.Each stage presents crisis/conflict to be resolved; growth and change are lifelong -trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role diffusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, ego-integrity vs. despair

(CHAP 8) Play

*Functional play* - these are simple repetitive behaviors that do not culminate in a goal or finished activity. For instance, rolling clay between your fingers without the goal of building something from the clay is functional play. It is performed for the sake of being active, and not for an end product. It is typical in 3 year olds. *Constructive play* - here children manipulate objects in order to produce or build something. So the clay from the above example would be manipulated to create a dish. •Both functional and constructive play are thought to be solitary and not social types of play. *Parallel play* - this is when there is more than one child playing, but they do not interact with one another. Instead, they may sit side by side, each playing separately, such as each building their own lego castle. This is normal behavior for young preschool children. *•Onlooker play*- rather than participate, a child will watch as others play a game. So a child may watch another child build a castle from legos. This might be a way to become familiar with a game before joining and onlooker play persists into adulthood. If it didn't, televised sports would not be so popular. *Associative play*- here two children will interact during their play experience, but not towards a common goal. Therefore, a child might ask another child if he likes his lego castle, or ask him to pass him the blue piece, but they are not building it together. They are each building their own separate castle with minimal interaction *.Cooperative play* - children actively interact for a common purpose or goal during their play. So a child may ask another child to help him build his lego castle.

STDS (CHAP 11)

*HPV* The vaccine Gardasil protects against some, but not all, of the strains of HPV that can turn into cervical cancer. Gardasil also protects against a strain of HPV which gives the person genital warts. It is now recommended that adolescent boys and girls get the vaccine as HPV has also been found in the throat due to oral sex.•HPV does not cause infertility. It does not travel into the fallopian tubes to cause scarring. Its largest danger is cervical cancer so increased pap smears are how it's usually handled. *Trichomoniasis*•The second most common STI, trichomoniasis, is caused by a protozoan parasite. Many people do not have symptoms but about 30% of people do. Both men and women will experience symptoms including painful urination, itching, burning, and discharge. Both men and women must be treated or they will pass the infection again to someone else. All sexual partners must be treated, even if they don't have symptoms.• Trichomoniasis must be treated by a specific medication, this being a certain antibiotic called metronidazole or tinidazole. Once treatment is complete the person is cured, They can get trichomoniasis again, but they would have to have sexual contact with an infected person for this to happen.•Untreated trichomoniasis can become PID. *Chlamydia* The third most common STI is chlamydia, caused by a bacteria. It is nearly always symptomless. Chlamydia often becomes PID when it is not treated and is considered to be the leading cause of ectopic pregnancy. This is when the pregnancy develops in the fallopian tube and not the uterus. It is due to the scarring of the fallopian tube, caused by PID, that the embryo cannot make its way to the uterus. Ectopic pregnancy is an emergency situation and the pregnancy must be terminated as neither the mother nor the fetus can survive it.•Treatment for Chlamydia is easy. The most commonly prescribed antibiotics are azithromycin and doxycycline for one week.•Chlamydia is completely curable. You can only get it again if you are reinfected. *Genital herpes*•The fourth most common STI is genital herpes. It is caused by a virus and like HPV, cannot be cured. The body must fight it on its own. It is characterized by blisters at the site where contact took place. These blisters will itch, ooze, crust over and then totally heal. The problem is, outbreaks tend to reoccur. With time, however, the length of time between outbreaks grows longer and longer. Many people no longer get herpes outbreaks even though they were once infected.•Herpes does not become PID. It does not affect a man or woman's fertility. The only danger in pregnancy would be if the woman was having an outbreak at the time of vaginal delivery. However there are tests to determine if this is happening and if so, a caesarean section would be scheduled. •However, if a woman contracts herpes for the first time while pregnant, it can be fatal to her fetus. However if the woman had herpes for years, her pregnancy will not be affected. Therefore it is important to avoid new herpetic infections while pregnant.

Development influences (CHAP 1)

*History graded influences* - biological and environmental influences associate with a particular historical moment/event. Example = Sept 11 *Age graded influences* - biological and environment influences to that are similar for all individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when and where they were raised. Eg., puberty, first day of school. *Sociocultural graded influences*- are social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual. Looks at how social class (middle, lower, wealthy)and culture influence development *Non-normative life event*- atypical events that occur off time, when a person is not expecting such an event, example could be death of a classmate.

Individualism vs Collectivism (CHAP 1) nature vs nurture ethnocentrism

*Individualism*: a viewpoint that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual. Most Western societies are individualistic *Collectivism* - a viewpoint that the welfare of the group is more important than that of the individual *nature v nurture*: an age old question, of asking whether nature (biology), or nurture (environmental influences) impact our development more. *ethnocentrism*: the belief of superiority of one's own ethnic, cultural, racial, or religious group's beliefs. -For instance, if we judge another culture as strange because they dress differently than we do, we are behaving in an ethnocentric manner.

(CHAP 1) 2. Behavioral Theory

*JOHN WATSON & PAVLOV-- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING* -Focus on observable behavior and outside environmental stimuli -Behavior is result of continuing exposure to specific environmental factors; developmental change is quantitative -Stimulus substitution; conditioned automatic response *PAVLOV* *Unconditioned stimulus*- the object or event that originally produces the reflexive / natural response *Unconditioned response*- the response to the unconditioned stimulus *Conditioned stimulus* - an originally neutral stimulus has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus *Conditioned response* - the response to the conditioned stimulus after the pairing *Little Albert* *B.F SKINNER-- OPERANT CONDITIONING* -Focus on observable behavior and outside environmental stimuli -Voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by association with negative or positive consequences -Deliberate actions on environment; behavior modification; reinforcement; punishment; extinguished behavior *ALBERT BANDURA-- SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING* -Focus on learning through imitation -Behavior is learned through observation -Social-cognitive learning occurs through four steps: attend/perceive, recall, accurately reproduce, motivated to carry out behavior -Model; reward; "Fearless Peter"

(CHAP 3) Orienting responses & habituation

*Orienting response* occurs when an infant is paying attention. Their behavior changes from moving, flailing, crying to quiet and attentive with a slowed heart rate. This change tells us that the infant has noticed something. If an infant has been looking at a series of men's faces on slides, one after another and is suddenly shown a female face, we can examine whether an orienting response occurred when the female face was presented. That would show that the infant noticed something and was paying attention. *habituation*: when the orienting response goes away. The heart rate and movements of the infant return to their previous state. It tells us that the infant has stopped paying attention or that they got bored. They have in essence habituated to the stimuli that initially caused an orienting response. -Example: scientists show newborn video of human faces. At first the infants show an orienting response, where his heart rate slows and his movements slow. This is telling us that he is paying attention, and that he is interested, but after many, many slides of human faces, the orienting response goes away, telling us that the infant stopped paying attention. His heart rate and movements increase. Now, the scientist slips a photo of a monkey into the repertoire of slides and the infant shows an orienting response again. This tells us that he noticed something different and can therefore tell the difference between human faces and monkey faces.

(CHAP 14) Theories of Love

*Passionate love*•Passionate love is the state on being "in love." It was also called romantic love, but this was somewhat of an error (more on this later). It is a powerful emotion that can feel overwhelming and obsessive. It is highly sexualized and physical, but also insecure. It is a state of total absorption into another person. This highly aroused state, of being "in love" and walking on a cloud with a constant smile on your face, physically cannot last. It is impossible. One problem many people might have is believing that their love is dead once the passionate love has died down. This has led some researchers to put forth that all passionate love turns into companionate love. *Companionate love* is a strong sense of affection for someone. You care deeply for them, and your life is highly intertwined with them. However companionate love is usually described as being not highly sexualized and being similar to the way we love our siblings or our parents. This idea that passionate love eventually turns into companionate love has been around for a long time, and is very upsetting to many who are embarking upon a new marriage or relationship. •Although there are marriages where love did change to a companionate type of love, there are also marriages where this did not happen. According to Sternberg, perfect love, or what he called Consummate Love, contained three ingredients. These are: •Intimacy - closeness, affection, connectedness, being able to talk and share your deepest secrets. •Passion - sex, physical closeness, romance, strong physical attraction •Decision/commitment- the awareness that one loves the other and a long term commitment to maintain that love Although Consummate love is thought to be the perfect love, there are other kinds of love too. These loves tend to lack one or more of the ingredients.• Romantic love - has passion and intimacy, but a long term commitment has not been made •Fatuous love - Has passion and long term commitment, but no intimacy. •Companionate love - Has intimacy and commitment, but no passion

(CHAP 13) Thoughts

*Postformal thought*: thinking that acknowledges that adult predicaments must sometimes be solved in relativistic terms.Adult thinking is more personal, practical, adaptable, and integrative than adolescent thinking.Greater tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty.Combines formal operations with subjectivity. *Dialectical Thought* : an interest in and appreciation for argument, counter-argument, and debate. •It accepts that issues are not always clear cut, and that answers to questions are not always absolutely right or wrong but must sometimes be negotiated.•Postformal thinkers can shift back and forth between an abstract, ideal solution and real-world constraints that might prevent the solution from being successfully implemented.•Postformal thought is marked by dialectical thinking which allows young adults to search for the best resolution by drawing on and integrating past experiences. *dualistic thinking*(dividing information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they) Older students showed *multiple thinking* (instead of thinking that experts know all the answers, they began to assume that their own thinking had validity if their position was well thought-out and rational). *relativistic thinking*(able to accept that different cultures, and individuals could have different standards and values , and all of them could be equally valid).

(CHAP 7) Piaget's Pre-opertational Stage

*Preconceptual thought -ages 2-4* •Can represent objects mentally that are not present in the environment, can draw scribbles to represent house, tree, etc. Pretend play continues to develop from sensorimotor stages. Does not understand concepts. A concept refers to a certain class of things which have certain features in common and can be grouped together on the basis of these common features, even though they may differ in other respects. The concept of "dog" refers to different kinds of dogs (poodles, Chihuahuas) which differ from one another in some ways (hair, size) but share commonalities (all bark, have 4 legs). •They will show animism and egocentrism. *Animism*- the belief that inanimate objects are real and possess a consciousness, such as their toys. *Egocentrism*- children see the world only through their own eyes. If they can see something, literally, then they assume you can see it too, even if your vision of that object is partially blocked. Piaget used the Three Mountain experiment to demonstrate egocentrism. Watch a film clip of it here: *Intuitive thought - ages 4 -7* •Children use primitive reasoning, not formal logic to solve problems. Will ask a lot of questions, such as "how" and "why." They think they understand how things work, but they actually do not. Child says "It's really froggy out, because he notices when they drive by ponds, the windows get froggy because frogs live in ponds." •Children in the intuitive stage also use centration in their understanding of the world. Centration is when one focuses all his/her attention on a single characteristic of an object, to the detriment of other characteristics. •Because they cannot use logic, they do not understand conservation, because conservation requires one to use logic to understand that the substance has not changed. Nothing was added, nothing was taken away.

(CHAP 3) Birth Complications

*Preterm infants*- also called premature. About 11% of all infants are born too early. An infant is considered premature if she is born prior to 38 weeks gestation. How much danger this infant is in depends upon the birth weight. Not all preterm infants are low birth weight. *Low Birth Weight (LBW)* - weigh less than 5 and a half pounds. About 7% of infant in the United States fall into the LBW category and they make up most of the cases of infant mortality. Most LBW are preterm. *Small for gestational age*- these babies are not born earlier, but weigh 90% less then the average weight of infants their age. Can be caused by inadequate nutrition during pregnancy.

(CHAP 13) Stages of Stress

*Primary appraisal* - we assess an event to determine whether its consequences are positive, negative or neutral. If we assess it as positive, then it is not a threat. But if we assess it as negative, we try to determine how much damage something like this caused us in the past, how threatening this particular event is likely to be, and how well we can resist this event successfully. *•Secondary appraisal* - we determine if we can handle this event. Do we have the resources to meet this challenge? How well do I cope? If we answer yes to these questions, then the stress is not as stressful.•Example- a young person realizes that their boyfriend/girlfriend is about to break up with him/her. In primary appraisal, the person will think about what their last break up was like and how much it messed them up. In secondary appraisal, the person will consider whether he/she has enough friends to weather this storm, enough support from family and friends to get through this break up. If he/she does, the stress will not be as significant. -----Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is the study of the relationship between the immune system, the brain and psychological factors. PNI has found that the psychological factor of stress produces significant biological outcomes, including rises in blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate, hormone production and sweating. This biological stress response is supposed to emerge as a result of an emergency life threatening situation (acute stressor), part of the sympathetic flight or fight response. However, this response is occurring due to long term continuous stress (chronic stressor) that is not life threatening and emergency in nature. This becomes taxing and exhaustive to the body resulting in a weakened immune system. The body remains in the flight or fight state, over-aroused and eventually depleted

(CHAP 11) Primary vs secondary sex characteristics

*Primary sex characteristic *are aspects of maleness or femaleness that are necessary for sexual reproduction. Therefore, in a woman, a primary sex characteristic would be a vagina and ovaries. In a man, primary sex characteristics consist of the penis and the tests. *Secondary sex characteristics* are features of the sexes that distinguish them as male or female, but which are not necessary for sexual reproduction. Breasts, for instance, are considered secondary sex characteristics as are beards and muscles.

(CHAP 13) Coping with Stress

*Problem focused coping* - an attempt to manage stress by changing the problem in some way. If you are having a problem with a teacher, a problem focused method of coping with that problem would be to talk to the teacher. This is a healthy coping method. *•Emotion focused coping* - an attempt to control our emotional response to a stressful situation. It might involve not getting upset about something that you cannot change or looking on the bright side. This is a healthy coping method. *•Defensive coping* - This is not a healthy coping method, but it may be a method used temporarily because the person is overwhelmed by the threat. It involves being in denial about the threat and it is unconsciously done. An example would be refusing to believe that a person has cancer, and that the doctors must be wrong .•Emotional insulation is a type of defensive coping that involves withdrawing from the world of emotions and becoming more passive about the world. This is again done unconsciously in an attempt to protect the self from hurt or disappointment. An example would be never seeking a sexual relationship because one is too afraid of possible rejection.

Influences (CHAP 1)

*Race* - no coherent, fixed definition exists, most commonly refers to patterns of features that associate an individual with coming from a certain part of the world, such as color of skin, shape of nose, texture of hair *Ethnicity*- refers to nationality, country of origin *Culture* - refers to attitudes or values that a group of individuals share *Socioeconomic status* - refers to income levels *Gender* - different from sex, which is biologically based. Gender refers to our identity *Cohort* - refers to a group of individuals who were born at or around the same time; is a generational difference.

(CHAP 12) Sex Terms

*Sexual orientation*- who one is attracted to sexually, whether it be male, female, or both *•Sex-role behavior*- the behavior that one shows and how well it fits what society expects for typical male or typical female behavior *Gender identity* - the identity that one has regarding himself or herself in terms of gender. Gender identity does not necessarily have to match genetic sex, as is the case with transgendered individuals. •There is no connection between an adolescent's sexual orientation and his or her sex-role behavior. Even individuals with strong homosexual relationships have a range of masculine and feminine behaviors.

(CHAP 8) Origins of Child Abuse

*Sociological perspective*- as a society, we place a lot of emphasis on children being well behaved and how the use of spanking can contribute to a better behaved child. In addition, our country was built on premises such as "children should be seen and not heard' as well as 'spare the rod, spoil the child." Not having a definition of how physical abuse differs from corporal punishment such as spanking complicates matters further. We accept physical punishment as a normal way to parent. Nearly half of mothers with children under the age of 4 have spanked their child in the previous week. Even more frightening are the statistics that close to 20% of mothers believe it is appropriate to spank a child younger than the age of one. Spankings do work in that the behavior that is undesirable stops immediately, but the long term consequences are much more problematic. Children who were spanked regularly are more likely to be aggressive both in childhood and adulthood. They learn that violence is a good way to way to get what you want from someone. Other studies found that vocabulary is more limited in children who are spanked than those who are not. *Situational perspective*- according to this perspective, there is something about a particular child that causes the abuse. Many don't like this explanation because it places some "blame" on the child. However research has shown that disabled and fussy children are more likely to be maltreated. There may be other children in the household, but only that child experiences maltreatment *The cycle of violence, also called the transgenerational transmission of abuse*, states that abuse that children suffer through predisposes them to abusive behaviors as adults with their own children. Although the risk is higher that someone will abuse their own children if they were themselves abused, most adults who were abused as children do not abuse their own children. Statistics show that one third of people who were maltreated as children go on to become child abusers themselves. This of course leaves two thirds, or the majority, who do NOT go on to abuse their children even though they were considered at risk to do so. Although having a 33% risk is high, the odds are still in their favor.

( CHAP 9) Learning disabilities

*Special needs* •Prior to diagnosing any child with special needs, testing must occur. Initially it is important to perform both visual and auditory tests to determine if learning difficulties might be due to deficits in these areas. •Learning disabilities are not intellectual deficits. Learning disabilities are difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical ability. Learning disabilities are diagnosed when there is a gap between the child's academic performance (i.e. test scores) and their ability to learn. About 1 in every 10 U.S. school children is labeled as having a learning disability, •An example of a learning disability is dyslexia which mainly pertains to reading. Children with dyslexia may misinterpret letters, such as "b" and "d," and have difficulty discerning left and right. While it is normal for a child to have difficulty in these areas, children with dyslexia remain stuck while other children move on. *Dyslexia* *ADD* --Attention Deficit Disorder, with or without hyperactivity, is not a learning disability. It is a separate childhood (or adult) diagnosis. However, about 50% of children with ADHD also have a comorbid learning disability. The cause is unknown. About 10% of children are diagnosed with AD/HD. *ADHD*-- Whether a child has ADD or ADHD, this mental disorder makes it very difficult for the child to succeed in school. For instance, they cannot focus on the lesson being taught and will be distracted by the smallest noise in the room. •AD/HD also interferes with home functioning. Children will need multiple reminders to do things that other children remember to do quickly. Again, it is because the child is very easily distracted, not because the child is disobedient.

(CHAP 9) Theories of Intelligence

*Sternberg's triarchic theory* *Componential* - analytical intelligence, how effectively people process and analyze information *Experiential* - creative intelligence, adapting to new situations and solving new problems in novel ways, for example, finding alternative uses for an object for example *•Contextual* - practical intelligence, involves common sense or street smarts

(CHAP 12) Types of Delinquents

*Undersocialized delinquents*- had behavior problems such as aggression and violence early in life, before adolescence. They are at great risk for continuing criminal behavior in adulthood and are difficult, if not impossible, to rehabilitate. They are usually male from disorganized families (neglect, abuse) who did not teach child proper standards of self control. Often had exposure to harsh parenting before age 5. As a child he had problems with self-regulation, was more impulsive, less able to control anger. They are more likely to have been diagnosed with ADHD and tend to be below average intelligence. They are likely to have antisocial personality disorder as a diagnosis as adults. *Socialized delinquents*-begin antisocial behavior in adolescence, less likely to continue into adulthood, families are normal, perhaps do not monitor the teen well enough and are susceptible to peer pressure. They are less likely to lead a life of crime.

(CHAP 5) assimilation, accommodation, adaptation, scheme

*assimilation*: the process by which people understand an experience in terms of their current cognitive stage of development and way of thinking. Assimilation occurs when a stimulus is acted upon, perceived, and understood in accordance with existing patterns of thought •Example- if you give an exclusively breast fed infant a sippy cup and he tries sucking on it as he would the breast. He uses a scheme he already knows/has to try to get the milk inside the cup *accommodation*: occurs when there are changes in our existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. Accommodation is a modification of a scheme. •Example- you give an exclusively breast fed baby a sippy cup, and after many failed attempts using assimilation, the baby tries something new with his mouth in order to obtain some of the liquid therein. He has modified his scheme of "ways to get milk" and has now formed a new one. *adaptation*: occurs when the child builds new schemes through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. Adaptation represents learning *scheme*: The basic building blocks of the way one understands the world are mental structures Example-if you give a baby an object, he will touch it, mouth it, and possible drop it on the floor. Each of these activities represent a scheme; they are all ways that the infant attempts to understand the object. As that baby grows and ages, the way he interacts with that object will change, and as a result, he will develop additional schemes. Each scheme represent new knowledge obtained.

(CHAP 12) Autonomy

*autonomy.* Obtaining autonomy is very important in an individualistic society such as the United States. One type of autonomy that adolescents must develop is emotional autonomy. Emotional autonomy is when an adolescent develops independence from their parents. They may not tell their parents everything anymore, they may feel the need to solve their own problems without their parents' help. As the adolescent develops emotional autonomy, they begin to see their parents in a different light. For instance, they no longer idealize their parents and are more likely to see their parents as regular people.

(CHAP 9) models

*cultural assimilation model*, which was at one time, an important goal of education. The cultural assimilation model sought to use the classroom as a mechanism to "Americanize" all children. Therefore cultural practices and traditions as well as the speaking of one's native language were discouraged and American traditions and of course, English only, was substituted. Children from other countries were totally immersed in the English language. There were no ESL classes to assist with the transition. *pluralistic society model*. By definition, the pluralist model states that the American society is comprised of diverse coequal cultural groups. The pluralistic model emphasizes retaining one's cultural identity as well as language skills. Many advantages have been seen in using the pluralistic model, and these advantages include academic, emotional, and societal ones.

(CHAP 11) metacognition adolescent egocentrism, the imaginary audience, and the personal fable

*metacognition*-- refers to the ability to think about one's thinking processes and to monitor their thoughts. Adolescents are greatly superior to children in metacognition as they realize, form instance, if their studying endeavors are fruitless. An adolescent will realize that the material she is trying to study is not sinking in. A child, however, will confidently state that they know everything, and then fail miserably on an exam. *Adolescent egocentrism*-- the adolescent, who is so preoccupied with his own thoughts about himself, wrongly assumes that others see how important his thoughts are too. He is self absorbed and views the world as revolving around him. He comes to believe that he is an expert on all things, even things that he has no experience in. He assumes his thoughts on these topics, which are extremely intricate, make him an expert. He may find fault with his parents, give them marriage advice and tell his teachers better techniques for teaching. *Imaginary Audience*-- Again, because the adolescent is thinking so much about himself (egocentrism) and his thoughts, and has such focus on himself, he again wrongly assumes that others are focused o him as well. He believes that people are paying attention to the smallest details of his life, such as the fact that he wore green socks last Wednesday or that his pen dropped during science lab. He will create elaborate scenarios of how everyone looked and whispered when his pen dropped, and may need to explain why his choice for sock color was green that day but in reality, this is not the case *Personal fable*-- Again, the adolescents egocentrism gets him into trouble. He believes that his experiences are unique and different from everyone else's. No one has ever felt as sad as he has in a break up, no one gets how hard school and sports schedules are, no one understands what he is going through. Similarly, because his experience is different from everyone else's, his use of drugs, or risky behavior will not result in injury like everyone else's will. He may say things like, "I can drink and drive, I'm not stupid like other people. I wouldn't have an accident."

(CHAP 2) monozygotic & dizygotic twins cephalocaudal, proximodistal trends genotype, phenotype, recessive, dominant heterozygous & homozygous

*monozygotic*: identical twins. With monozygotic twins there is one ova fertilized by one sperm. This results in a zygote.Then a cluster of cells from the zygote split off in the first two weeks following fertilization. This results in two genetically identical zygotes. About 30% of all twins born are monozygotic twins. We do not know what causes monozygotic or identical twins to occur. *dizygotic*: any other type of multiple birth, is fertility drugs. Fertility drugs force ovulation, and they do it so well that more than one ova is released. *cephalocaudal trend*: refers to the developmental trends that proceed in a top down fashion, meaning, starting with the head. When the head develops before the rest of the body, this is a cephalocaudal trend. We see evidence of this in prenatal life and in infancy. *proximodistal trend*: Development also follows an in-out trend, that is, from center of the body to outward. The center of the body contains the organs such as heart, lungs, stomach. The outer parts of the body contain the limbs, such as the arms and legs. We could live without arms and legs but not without a heart, lungs and stomach. Therefore the center organs develop before the outer extremities. *genotype*: the underlying combination of genetic material present, but outwardly invisible, in an individual. *phenotype*: the actual observable trait in the individual *dominant*: for each chromosomal pair, one gene is expressed (shown) *recessive*: other gene is not expressed *heterozygous*: When a person inherits two different alleles for a trait *homozygous*: When an individual has two of the same allele

(CHAP 12) self concept , self esteem

*self concept* the adolescent's own view of herself, independent of how others see her. So while her friends might see her as confident, an adolescent girl may have a self concept that is filled with insecurity. The self concept of adolescent differs greatly from the self concepts of children. In adolescence, self concept is complex including terms that can be contradictory (I'm shy, but not around my friends). Children's self concepts revolve around physical characteristics and personal preferences (I'm a girl and I like to play soccer.) *self esteem* Self esteem refers to the feeling of worth that one has about himself/herself. It is different from knowing who you are, It involves liking who you are. •Self esteem suffers in adolescence, especially for girls. Factors that play a role in adolescent female self-esteem include weight, socioeconomic status, and race. •Body dissatisfaction contributes to self esteem for both boys and girls, but more girls feel body dissatisfaction than boys.•For all adolescents (boys and girls), higher socioeconomic status is associated with greater self esteem. African American adolescents also have higher self esteem than Whites and Hispanics with Asian American adolescents having the lowest self esteem. African American females have higher self esteem than White, Hispanic and Asian American female adolescents.

(CHAP 13) Aging

*senescence* the natural aging process *primary aging*--effects of the "normal" aging process, daily functioning not affected significantly *secondary aging*While senescence is a natural aging process, totally unrelated to choices in life, secondary aging is due to lifestyle choices (such as smoking), environmental influences (such as being exposed to pollution), and cultural factors, such as gender (being male and being more likely to die from homicide than females) and race (being a black male and being the most likely to die from homicide).

(CHAP 8) Parenting Styles

1. *Authoritative*- parents have high demandingness and high responsiveness. By being high in demandingness, parents expect the children to behave appropriately and they set firm, clear and consistent limits on their children. Because they are also high in responsiveness, they are emotionally supportive and loving toward their children. These parents respect the child and will engage in a dialogue should the child feel a household rule is unfair. This dialogue does not ensure clemency for the child, but it does allow the child to feel heard and respected. As a result, children of authoritative parents tend to be the most well adjusted. They are independent, friendly, academically oriented and confident and have good control of their emotions (probably because they do not have to always suppress them until they bubble over). 2. *Authoritarian* - authoritarian parents are high in demandingness but low in responsiveness. They have firm rules in place but are not willing to engage in a dialogue to explain the rule or to hear the child's version of an occurrence. It is their way or the highway. They are usually described as strict, controlling, and cold. These parents are not cruel; they believe that this is what is best for their child. Their children can grow up to be passive since they never learned how to solve problems on their own (all decisions are made for them), dependent, rebellious, or depressed. 3. *Permissive* - Permissive parents are low in demandingness and high in responsiveness. These parents place little to no limits on their children. The children basically run their parents. These parents are very loving and warm to their children. Similar to Authoritarian parents, permissive parents believe this to be the best method for raising their children. And similar to Authoritarian children, permissive children are also passive and dependent because they received no guidance whatsoever in their lives and now find decision making difficult. They may also have difficulty controlling their emotions and fail to realize that behaviors have consequences m(simply because their parents never gave them any consequences for any of their behaviors). 4. *Uninvolved* - Uninvolved/indifferent parents are low in demandingness and low in responsiveness. They appear to have no interest in their children and are detached from them emotionally. They do not neglect their duty to feed, clothe, or provide shelter, and do not verbally or physically abuse the child. Therefore it is considered one of the "normal' parenting styles and not a form of abuse. Children of uninvolved parents have a difficult life and are often prone to delinquency. They feel unloved and suffer emotionally.

(CHAP 8) Gender Theory -- Biological perspectives Psychoanalytic perspectives •Social learning perspectives •Cognitive perspectives

1. *Biological Perspective*-- hormone differences between males and females are used to explain gender differences. When girls are exposed to high levels of androgens (male hormones) in the womb, they show more male typical behavior than girls not exposed to androgens. •Androgen exposed girls prefer males as playmates and are more likely to play with "male" toys than other girls (trucks and cars). Some research has also found that prenatal exposure to androgen may be related to homosexuality in girls. •It is thought that hormone exposure in the womb alters the brain in ways that may not be evident until later in life 2. *Psychoanalytic perspective*--Although this perspective still has its proponents, in general, it is not a scientifically valid theory. Freud believes that one's gender identity comes from the identification that takes place at the culmination of the Oedipal Complex. If a male child identifies with his father, he will internalize his father's male attributes and become male in gender himself. If instead he identified with his mother, he would internalize her female attributes and identify more strongly with feminine traits. This would also, according to Freud, make this child homosexual although no data has backed up this part of Freud's sexual orientation theory. •Freud also said that girls (and women) have penis envy, Thinking that they are missing a vital organ, females feel inadequate, passive and inferior. Again, no research has corroborated this notion. 3. *Social learning approach to gender*--Children learn gender behavior by watching and imitating the behaviors of people in their environment, such as teachers, parents, siblings. Theory tells us that we tend to imitate those who are more similar to us, so girls may look to mothers while boys may look to fathers for cues on what girls and boys are "supposed" to do. •Gender roles are also learning through the child's interactions with the media. Therefore, the ay that our favorite television shows depict males and females have far more influence than we realize. 4. *Cognitive theory*-- There are many cognitive theorists who have theories about gender roles. We will examine Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory and Sandra Bem's Gender Schema Theory.•Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental theory suggests that children begin to categorize themselves as males or females and feel rewarded, by society, when they behave in gender appropriate ways. Children's understanding of their gender grows developmentally as they grow. At about 2 years of age, they have a gender identity, or an understanding of whether they are male or female and they actively self label themselves as such. However, they don't yet have gender stability which they will attain at about the age of 4. Until then, they do not realize that their gender will be stable over time, that is, that if they are a boy now, they will also be a boy when they grow up. In addition their understanding of gender is limited by external features, such as clothing or toys. They believe that if they wear another gender's clothing, then they might be that gender. The understanding that gender is constant does not arrive until about 7 years of age.

(CHAP 8) Child Abuse

1. *Physical* - the easiest to spot, must be differentiated from physical punishment that is NOT abuse and this can be difficult to do• 2. *Sexual* - difficult to notice, especially since the perpetrator enters into secret relationship with the abused; is more common than previously thought and affects males and females. 3. *•Psychological* - is always present when another abuse is present. One cannot be physically or sexually abused without also being psychologically abuse. Psychological abuse can also occur by itself 4. *Neglect*- is harder to detect. Child neglect is the commonly reported form of maltreatment. May involve lack of food, clothing, personal hygiene, education or medical needs. Child protective Services may visit home to determine if there is food in the refrigerator. In some cases, normal parenting can be cited as neglect. For instance, if you do not take your child to the dentist, you are guilty of medical neglect.

(CHAP 1) 6 Major Perspectives/Theories

1. *Psychodynamic* -Psychoanalytic (Freud) -Psychosocial (Erikson) 2. *Behavioral* -Classical Conditioning (Watson, Pavlov) -Operant Conditioning (Skinner) -Social-Cognitive Learning (Bandura) 3. *Cognitive* •Information Processing •Cognitive Neuroscience 4. *Humanistic* (Maslow, Rogers) 5. *Contextual* Bioecological (Bronfrenbrenner) •Sociocultural 6. *Evolutionary*

(CHAP 6) Attachment styles (Ainsworth)

1. *Secure Attachment*-- the child uses the mother as a safe base for exploration. While the mother is present, she will go off and explore the room. They may or my not be upset when the mother leaves them with the stranger, but most importantly, they are happy to see their mother and actively seek her when she returns. 2. *Avoidant Attachment* -- child will also go off and explore the room when alone with mother. When she leaves, the child will not show any distress. Most importantly, when the mother returns she will avoid or be indifferent to her. They will act as though they prefer playing with the stranger 3. *Ambivalent attachment*-- This child will not go off and explore the room while the mother is present. In fact, they may cling to her. They will show great distress when she leaves, but most characteristically, will behave in an ambivalent manner when she returns. They may go to her, crying, but then will quickly decide that they want to be put down, only to beg to be picked up again 4. *Disorganized Attachment*-- Although not a part of Ainsworth's original research, another attachment style has emerged called disorganized attachment style. This style is most frequently found in children who are suffering from abuse. In the Strange Situation, their first reaction might be to run to their caretaker, but then they realize though their fear, that they should not. They might freeze up, switch courses, look away

(CHAP 6) Erikson's Theory (Stages)

1. *Trust vs mistrust* -- During this period in the first 18 months of life, infants learn to either trust or mistrust their world, depending upon her interactions with the world. Trust develops if the infants needs are well met. Trust helps the infants to feel that the world is a safe place and to not fear their surroundings. If their needs are not met or met inconsistently, they learn to see the world as harsh and unfriendly, and this may prevent them later in life from forming close bonds with others. 2. *Autonomy versus shame and doubt* -- This stage occurs from 18 months of age until 3 years. Here the child develops independence and autonomy if the parents encourage exploration within safe boundaries. If children are overly restricted, perhaps due to overly cautious parents, the child will develop a sense of shame and doubt of his own abilities. •Children in this stage will want to do things by themselves, such as pick out their own clothes or deciding what they want to eat. Allowing the child to make some choices, within reason, helps her to develop her sense of autonomy and confidence. 3. *Initiative-versus Guilt*-- In this stage, the child begins to attempt to assert control over his environment by taking the initiative by planning activities, accomplishing tasks, and facing his own challenges. 4. *Industry vs Inferiority* --, the challenge for middle aged children is the ability to feel competent to face the challenges brought to the child by school, family and friends. The child needs to feel as competent and his peers and will use comparison as a way of judging himself. If he feels he falls short of the successes for his peers, the child will feel inferior. •Placement into mainstreamed classes may prevent labeling and the self fulfilling prophecy, but they may also create a child who feels inferior when compared to his non learning disabled peers. This is a quandary that education struggles with every day 5. *Identity versus Identity Confusion* --According to Erikson, a psychologically healthy adolescent begins a search for his identity. This search involves the process of "trying on" different roles or choices to see if they fit the adolescent's view of himself. Adolescents try to learn who they are by narrowing down their choices about personal, occupational, sexual and political commitments For example, with regard to personal choices, an adolescent may try shaving his head, wearing a Mohawk, dressing in all black every day for a month. All of these are attempts to narrow down his choices. As he experiences these personal attempts at self definition, he gauges whether the bald head, or the Mohawk, or the all black attire suits his idea of who he is. If it does not, he moves on to another personal choice until he figures out what works for him. 6.*Intimacy versus isolation stage* - postadolescence into the early 30s. One's focus in this stage is to develop close intimate relationships with others. If one has difficulty in this stage, one will experience loneliness. Intimacy = For Erikson, intimacy is defined as 1. selflessness (sacrificing one's own needs for someone else), 2. sexuality (focusing on the partner's pleasure as well as one's own), and 3. devotion (efforts to fuse identity with that of a partner) Isolation = Feelings of loneliness and fearful of relationships 7. *Generativity versus stagnation* is the crisis for middle age. Erikson said people in middle age look at their life through a different lens than when they were younger. They now feel the need to be generative. •Generativity= looking beyond oneself to continuation of one's life through others. Being generative means you feel that you are making a contribution in some place in your life that will be helpful to future generations. You feel that you want to "leave your mark" in the world. Generativity may arise through family, community, work, or society. If you instead feel that your daily activities have no meaning and make no impact on anyone, you will feel stagnation. •Stagnation = focusing on the triviality of their life 8. *Ego-integrity-versus despair* -- Process of looking back over one's life, evaluating it, and coming to terms with it •Integrity-Comes when people feel they have realized and fulfilled the possibilities that have come their way •Despair -Occurs when people feel dissatisfied with their life, and experience gloom, unhappiness, depression, anger, or the feeling that they have failed

(CHAP 5) Jean Piaget's Stages

1. Sensorimotor Stage- birth to 2 years 2. Pre-operational Stage - 2-6 years 3. Concrete Operational Stage - 7 -12 years 4. Formal Operational Stage - 12 and up

Eating Disorders (CHAP 11)

Anorexia nervosa - about 1 in every 200 women suffers from anorexia nervosa. It is a severe eating disorder where individuals refuse to eat and will deny that their behavior or appearance is worrisome. Somewhere between 5 to 20% of individuals with this disorder will die from it. It is more common among women (although male incidences have been rising) and among the more wealthy. People with anorexia are very, very thin.• Bulimia nervosa - about 2 to 3 out of every 100 women have bulimia. Bulimia is characterized by bingeing (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting the food out of the body by vomiting of using laxatives. People with bulimia have average weights. Obesity is not formally considered an eating disorder by DSM V, probably because there are many individuals who are obese and not suffering psychologically. However, this does not negate that there are also many individuals who are suffering emotionally and their emotional health lead to their obesity. One in 5 adolescents is overweight and 1 in 20 is obese. •Obesity may be caused by psychological issues and also causes both psychological and physical consequences in adolescence. •Both lack of exercise and poor food choices are thought to be the blame. •Obesity among children and adolescents has increased over the past 20-30 years

(CHAP 9) Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage of Piaget occurs. This can happen anywhere between 7 - 12 years of age. •Concrete operational children are now able to:•Apply logic to their thinking (for example, with conservation of mass, the child would reason, with logic, that no matter was added and no matter was taken away, therefore it is the same amount) •Egocentrism reduces allowing the child to take multiple perspectives when considering problems, and as a result, decentering occurs as well as reversibility. •Can understand the relationship between time and speed, i.e. if one car must take a longer route than another car to get to the same location, it must travel at a greater speed.

(CHAP 1) 4. Humanism Theory

Contends that people have free will and choices and that their life circumstances depend greatly upon how they exercise these two options. Humanism grew out of a revolution towards Freud's ideas of determinism, ie, that unconscious processes ruled us, as well as out of revolt towards behaviorism (that we are the by products of our environmental upbringing) *Carl Rogers* who believed that the crux of most individuals' problems derived from a lack of unconditional positive regard. *Unconditional positive regard* is when one feels loved and cared about by those around us for who we really are. We feel we can be our true selves and therefore we gain the ability to become *self-actualized*, which is everyone's goal in life. To feel self-actualized is to feel that one has reached his or her potential. Too often, Rogers felt that conditions of worth held us back from becoming self-actualized. Conditions of worth cause us to feel that we re only love IF we follow a certain way of behaving. By creating a therapeutic situation allowing the patient to feel unconditional positive regard, Rogers allowed people to become self-actualized. *Maslow* -- physiology, safety, love/belonging, esteem --> self actualization

(CHAP 11) Timing of Puberty

Early maturing boys - the early maturing boy has high self esteem and receives the praise and adulation of his peers. Due to his early obtaining of muscles (in comparison to peers), his athletic performance briefly surpasses that of his peers. He has high self esteem but due to his older appearance, has the capacity to engage in high risk activities with an older crowd. •Early maturing girls - because girls in general mature before boys, the early maturing girl is the very first, out of anyone, to go through maturation. Maturational deviance hypothesis tells us that being off time and standing out, in comparison to peers, makes for a more difficult psychological adjustment. For her it is a mixed blessing. On one hand, she knows that she can now command the attention of men due to her womanly body, however she does not feel content with herself. She has low self esteem. She is more prone to high risk activities, like the early maturing boy, but she also bears the burden of being susceptible to depression, anxiety and poor body image. Her poor self esteem has been found to linger past her adolescence. Late maturing boy - because boys, in general, mature later than girls, the late maturing boy is the very last from his group to go through puberty. While the individuals around him look like men and women, he still looks, and sounds, like a child. As a result, his self esteem is low. The silver lining for this young man, however, is that he stays focused on school and learns how to engage girls in interesting conversation (unlike the early maturing boy, he cannot only rely upon his looks). As such, years later, when all have caught up to one another, he is a more interesting and humorous companion than the early maturing boy who saw no reason to develop his personality. Late maturing girl - although the late maturing girl wishes that she would mature and envies her early maturing peers, maturing late is psychologically more healthy for her. She stays focused on school and school activities and does not become at risk for deviant activities or sexual pressure. As an adult, she has higher self esteem than those girls who matured early as well as less risk for depression, anxiety and poor body image.

causes of Depression /treatment (CHAP 12)

Family dysregulation or dysfunction (death of loved one, growing up with depressed or alcoholic parents) •Unpopularity, lack of friends, experiencing social rejection, breakup of sexual relationship •Gender (not sure if this is due to hormonal differences, coping differences, of expectations from society, traditional gender roles). Drug - The most common treatment are the newer class of anti-depressant medications called the SSRIs and the SNRIs. Each of these alter brain chemistry to stabilize the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is important in mood. SSRIs and SNRIs take a few weeks before they work. • Therapy - the best treatment program is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or CBT. When CBT is administered as a program, participants show great improvement.

Alt Theories (CHAP 9)

Gardener's Theory of Multiple Intelligences - divides intelligence into 9 categories where people may have inborn differences, but within each, the environment can enhance or detract •Musical •Bodily kinesthetic •Logical mathematical •Linguistic •Spatial •Interpersonal •Interpersonal •Naturalist •Existentialistic (recently added)

Occupations

Ginzberg's Career Choice Theory •Fantasy period- this occurs in childhood where we dream about exotic occupations. This dream may have no relationship to our actual skills or abilities. • Tentative period- this stage occurs in adolescence where people begin to think about occupations in more practical ways, understanding how their own skills might fit into their career choice. •Realistic period - this stage occurs in early adulthood where we explore different career options through actual experience on a job or through specialized training.

Occupation theory

Holland's Personality Type Theory - Holland felt that our career choice was affected by our personality style. •Realistic - realistic people are down to earth, practical, physically strong, but not socially adept. They do well as farmers, laborers, truck drivers .•Intellectual - Intellectual types prefer theories and abstract concepts. They may not be good with people but are suited for careers in science and math. Social - these individuals have good verbal and interpersonal skills. They are good working with people as salespeople, teachers, and counselors. •Conventional - these individuals prefer structured tasks and are therefore good as clerks and bank tellers. •Enterprising - these individuals are risk takers and enjoy taking charge of situations. They make good leaders, managers or politicians. •Artistic - this groups likes to express themselves and prefer the world of art over the world of people and thusly are best suited to work in art.

Attachment theories

Infant attachment style (Ainsworth's work) is reflected in adult romantic relationships (Shaver's work). This first relationship created an internal working model or foundation for future relationships. •Secure - secure babies become secure adults and are not jealous, clingy or phobic of commitment. •Avoidant - avoidant babies become adults who shy away from commitment and may break up a relationship to avoid making a commitment• Anxious-ambivalent - anxious ambivalent babies, who couldn't decide if they wanted their mothers to pick them up or put them down, become adults who are sometimes smothering with their love of their partner and other times dramatic in breaking up, then crying to get back to together. It is sort of like saying, "I love you" today, "I hate you" tomorrow, and "why didn't you fight for me?" the next day.

(CHAP 9) Kohlberg theory

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) is most famous for his work on moral development as a professor at Harvard University. He became interested in studying morality as a result of witnessing various acts of bravery while in the Merchant Marines as part of WWII. He developed a series of stories, or dilemma as he called them, which he presented to test subjects. The original test subjects were all males residing in a wealthy preparatory school. Their answers to these open ended dilemmas helped Kohlberg form his theory of moral reasoning. •Kohlberg was criticized on many areas of his work, but mostly that his work failed to include females and cultural minorities in the original testing, used to formulate the stages of the theory. While doing cross cultural research in Belize to address these criticisms, Kohlberg contracted a parasitic infection that caused him relentless pain. As a result, he took his own life in 1987. Level I -Pre conventional •Stage 1 •Stage 2 •Level II - Conventional Stage 3• Stage 4 •Level III - Post conventional Stage 5 •Stage 6

(CHAP 3) Infant Reflexes

Moro (startle) Plantar (grasp) Babinski Stepping Swimming Tonic neck

(CHAP 8) Piaget's Theory on Abuse

Piaget, a discontinuous stage theorist, believed that moral development proceeded in stages similar to cognitive development. •The stages of moral development in children are:• Heteronomous morality - ages 4-7, children see rules as unchangeable and will follow them rigidly. If a sign says to take one free sample and you take two, your child will be fearful that immanent justice will occur. That means he assumes that your transgression will be punished immediately, whether anyone saw you take the extra free sample or not. In this stage, children also judge behaviors regardless of intent. If I dropped three glass by accident and another person threw one glass down in a fit of rage, the person dropping 3 glasses would be seen as more 'bad" because they broke more and because the child fails to take the intention into consideration. •Incipient cooperation- children still follow rules rigidly but become more competitive in their games and in their understanding of the rules. They are each now trying to win. •Autonomous cooperation - At age 10 children become aware that rules can be changed in a game if all participants agree. They do not have to be followed to the letter as previously thought. They now also realize that immanent justice will not occur if no one sees the transgression and more easily understand intent.

(CHAP 13) Sexism

Sexism can take two forms, hostile or benevolent. These examples can also apply to race. •*Hostile* sexism is overt and open. It is not disguised as something else. It would be a professor telling a student that he doesn't' feel men should nurses because they are not nurturing enough. •*Benevolent* sexism is more hidden. You may not realize that you have been subjected to it. It is when you have been stereotyped and not taken seriously. The person doing it will defend himself/herself by saying he/she was just trying to help or was being nice. If a professor thinks, because a student is a mother and has a child at home, that she needs an easier assignment, this is benevolent sexism. Or it could be that a professor does not expect an athlete to be able to handle an upper level mathematics course and talks him out of registering.

1. Sensorimotor Stage- birth to 2 years

Substage 1: Simple reflexes Substage 2: First habits and primary circular reactions Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions Substage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reactions• Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions Substage 6: Beginnings of thought

(CHAP 11) Secular Trend

The reasons for the secular trend among girls is unknown. There are many theories but no hard scientific proof for most of the theories. Some theories include: better sanitation and hygiene resulting in optimal development better nutrition obesity hormones in food (milk and meat) father absence theory

(CHAP 1) 5. Contextual Theory/ Bronfrenbrenner's Approach

This perspective considers many aspects of the environment all impacting our development. The environment can include cultural, societal, personality, physical and emotional influences. *Uri Bronfenbrenner* created what is known as the bioecological approach. *Microsystem*: first, closest to the developing person. The microsystem contains those aspects of the environment that are immediate and always present in the individual's life. They include parents, teacher, homes, and friends. *Mesosystem*: One layer removed from the microsystem. The mesosystem is defined as relationships between microsystems. For instance, two microsystems might be 1). the child and her school and 2). the child and her mother. If the mother(from one microsystem) is involved in the child's school (another microsystem), though volunteering, the child will be affected in some way. *Exosystem*: represents aspects of the child's life that affects him, even though he has no direct contact with it. It is an indirect influence. Can be changes in parents' work schedules, quality of schools in your community, new housing that is being built. It includes mass media, social welfare services, and legal services. *Macrosystem*: This is the most abstract part of the theory; it consists of cultural values of the group to which the child belongs, such as how much a child's particular culture values education or whether it enforces the use of physical punishment. Even if a law is passed (exosystem) that says children are entitled to lunch in school, if that child's family's cultural values are such that this is shameful, the child may not get free lunch. The Macrosystem is the personal set of values that forms within the child; it is the lens through which the child sees things through. The macrosystem is determined not only by culture, but also by cohort. If you and I have different perceptions about whether something Donald Trump said is offensive or not, this difference could be due to our macrosystems.

(CHAP 1) 3. Cognitive Theory

This perspective focuses on the processes that people use to know, understand, and think about the world *Jean Piaget (1896-1980)*- studied how people think and know. He was a believer in the discontinuous mechanism of change, although in later years, closer to the end of his life, he began to reconsider this notion. His theory led to many advances in what we know about how children think and reason and his ideas continue to influence the field of child development today. -Cognitive neuroscience is a new addition to the perspective of cognitive psychology and looks specifically at cognition and how it relates to the brain structure and function.