Psyche CH 7

During a research study, Delphine is asked to view a series of pictures. The experimenter also tells her that she will later be asked to categorize the pictures she has seen. What region of Delphine's brain is LESS likely to be active than another study participant who was NOT told about the grouping task?

Answer: medulla, other options: prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, hippocampus

Which pioneering learning researcher highlighted the antisocial effects of aggressive models on children's behavior?

Bandura

The _____ approach dominated the field of psychology from the 1930s to the 1950s.

Behavioral

Habituation

General process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

_____ proposed that the cognitive process of expectation occurred between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response.

Rescorla and Wagner

generalization

The CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition.

variable interval schedule (VI)

a behavior is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

successive approximation

a behavior that gets incrementally closer to the overall desired behavior

cognitive map

a mental representation of the physical features of an environment

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response response in an organism after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

biological preparedness

a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

The initial pairing of a CS and US in classical conditioning represents the _____ phase of learning.

acquisition

The _____ is the primary brain structure responsible for conditioning based on fearful or anxiety-inducing stimuli.

amygdala

punisher

any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it.

reinforcer

any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led it

primary reinforcers

because they help satisfy biological needs or desires.

operant behavior

behavior that an organism performs that has some impact on the environment

In the Brelands' research, pigs would not drop coins into a box, and, instead, pushed them along the ground with their snout, despite programmed reinforcement. This was evidence of:

biological predisposition

Which action would be acquired through observational learning?

brushing ones teeth

discriminations

capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

Watson and Raynor demonstrated that _____ was responsible for the fear responses in Little Albert

classical

Schedules of reinforcement are based on the finding that conditioned behaviors:

continue or are even strengthened by irregular reinforcement.

variable ratio schedule (VR)

delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses.

secondary reinforcer

derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning.

If a person watches someone to learn how to play the violin, and then serves as a model for another student, that person is part of a:

diffusion chain

A possible explanation for distributed practice being an effective learning strategy versus massed practice is that when we engage in massed practice, retrieving recently studied information is relatively _____, whereas during distributed practice, it is _____ to retrieve information that we studied.

easy: more difficult

Kristen, a 3-year-old, enjoys taking baths and is always willing to get into the bathtub. Kristen hates to have her fingernails clipped and will run and hide if she sees her mother or father with the nail clippers. Edward Thorndike would explain her behaviors using the law of:

effect

Research in cognitive psychology suggests that implicit learning may be _____ in autism and _____ in dyslexia.

enhanced and impaired

Conditioning alone cannot explain why some behaviors are easier to learn than others without taking _____ into account.

evolutionary theory

Essential to the process of learning is that it is based on:

experience

Individual differences are more commonly found in _____ tasks than in _____ ones.

explicit: implicit

Secondary reinforcers are powerful tools for shaping behavior because they have become associated with primary reinforcers. Which reward is NOT a secondary reinforcer?

food

Edana, a 4-year-old, was recently scratched by a neighbor's cat. When he was taken to a pet store he saw a cat and began to cry. MOST likely Edana is exhibiting:

generalization

Pavlov's dogs were conditioned to salivate to a 1000-hz tone due to its pairing with food. After this training, it was found that the dogs would salivate to a 900-hz tone but not to a 500-hz tone. Salivating to the 900-hz tone is an example of _____, and not salivating to a 500-hz tone is an example of _____.

generalization: discrimination

extinction

gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without unconditioned stimulus

What types of learning have been found in simple organisms like the sea slug Aplysia?

habituation and sensitization

In studies done on trustworthiness, when participants were told that their partner was trustworthy, they:

ignored the additional feedback they received, acting as if the partner was trustworthy.

operant conditioning

in which the consequences of an organisms behavior determine whether it will repeat that behavior in the future

A neuropsychological patient who experiences severe problems with explicit learning is MOST likely to have _____ implicit learning.

intact

Which schedule of reinforcement produces the slowest, most methodical response?

interval

Consider the two main types of conditioning. Classical conditioning is based on _____ responses; operant conditioning produces _____ behaviors.

involuntary:voluntary

An important part of learning involves assessing how well we know something and how much more time we need to devote to studying it. Recent research has shown that people's _____ play a critical role in guiding further study and learning

judgements of learning

shaping

learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

implicit learning

learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition

Dunlosky and colleagues (2013) evaluated the overall usefulness of popular study techniques: highlighting, rereading, summarizing, and keyword mnemonics. Which utility assessment rating did these techniques receive?

low

_____ MOST likely play(s) a critical role in the observational learning where organisms imitate the actions of others.

mirror neurons

Mariah is given practice tests with short-answer questions, which she finds not only improves her later performance on short-answer questions but also improves her performance on _____ questions.

multiple choice

Aubrey drinks coffee because it reduces her sleepiness. Aubrey's drinking coffee is being maintained by

negative reinforcement

Judgments of learning (JOLs) are ______ correlated to the time spent on subsequent study of the material.

negatively

Alisha suffers from claustrophobia, despite having never been stuck in an elevator or locked in a supply closet. The notion of diffusion chains suggests that Alisha may have acquired the phobia through:

observational learning

In which form of learning must the learner be consciously aware that their behavior is changing?

observational learning

The studies of observational learning in primates that use tools show that:

observational learning clearly results in better tool-skill acquisition in the monkeys.

discriminitive stimulus

one that indicates that a response will be enforced

intermittent reinforcement

only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

skinner box

operant conditioning chamber

Judgments of learning (JOLs) are often a result of _____ in our learning ability.

overconfidence

Acquisition

phase of classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented together

Positive reinforcement involves the presentation of a stimulus when a behavior occurs, and _____ involves the presentation of a stimulus when a behavior occurs.

positive punishment

Sensitization

presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to later stimulus

Positive punishment involves the _____ of a stimulus and decreases the likelihood of a behavior, and negative punishment involves the _____ of a stimulus and decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

presentation: removal

Positive and negative _____ decrease(s) the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.

punishment

conditioned response

reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

unconditioned response

reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

Observational learning challenges the behavioral explanation of learning because it involves no direct _____.

reinforcement

Positive and negative _____ increase(s) the likelihood of a behavior happening.

reinforcement

fixed ratio schedules (FR)

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses has been made

fixed interval schedule (FI)

reinforcers are presented at fixed times periods, provided that the appropriate response is made.

Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors leading to pleasant situations will be _____, and behaviors that result in unpleasant situations will be _____.

repeated: avoided

Janet is trying to teach her 3-year-old son how to dress himself. First, she has him put on his pants by himself, and she gives him some jelly beans. The next day, she has him put on his pants and his shirt, and she gives him some jelly beans. By the end of the week, her son is dressing himself completely. Janet used of the principle of:

shaping

Rescorla-Wagner model

showed that classical conditioning actually involved a cognitive aspect based on the organism's expectations.

Rhesus monkeys readily learn a fear of _____ through observational learning. This is probably due to a biological predisposition for this fear.

snakes

latent learning

something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

Unconditioned stimulus

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

Which behavior is LEAST likely to be studied by researchers using operant techniques?

startle response

Most people know when to be boisterous and when to be somber because learning:

takes place in contexts

intermittent reinforcement effect

the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement

spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

mirror neurons

type of cell found in primates, play role in mimicking of behavior, located in frontal and paretial lobes

second-order conditioning

type of learning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure

Slot machines use _____ schedules of reinforcement, which generally result in high, consistent rates of responding without pausing.

variable-ratio

Classical conditioning

when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

stimulus control

when a particular response occurs only when an appropriate discriminative stimulus is present

In B. F. Skinner's terminology, whether a stimulus is reinforcing or punishing depends on:

whether the stimulus increases or decreases a behavior.