Psychology Exam 4
awareness, arousal
2 parts to consciousness
higher-level, lower-level, altered states, subconscious, and no awareness
5 levels of consciousness
sexual attraction
According to Ellen Berscheid's research, ______ is the most important ingredient of romantic love.
assimilation
According to Piaget, ______ involves: interpreting new experiences in terms of one's current understanding.
concrete operational
According to Piaget, during the _____ _____stage, a child is still unlikely to demonstrate: the ability to think hypothetically.
activation-synthesis
According to the ______-______ theory, dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during sleep.
diminishes performance on difficult or new tasks
According to the social facilitation effect, the presence of others _____.
About 35 percent
Approximately what percentage of participants in Solomon Asch's study conformed to the group's pressure to select the incorrect line?
scaffolding
Benjamin loves putting together puzzles. He has recently mastered putting together a 10-piece Sesame Street puzzle. His mother claps at his accomplishment but wants to continue challenging Benjamin just beyond his current abilities. The next time they play, she gives Benjamin a 15-piece puzzle and offers some guidance on how to sort the pieces out. According to Vygotsky, Benjamin's mother is providing _____.
less vivid
Compared to REM dreams, non-REM dreams are MORE/LESS vivid?
self perception theory
Daryl Bem's theory on how behaviors influence attitudes, stating that individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior
Lower-level consciousness
Daydreaming would be considered an example of which of the levels of awareness?
frontal lobes
Deficits in the functioning of the ______ are associated with aggression.
socioemotional
Developmental psychologists study physical, cognitive, and ______ changes throughout the human life cycle.
helping behavior
Diffusion of responsibility is most likely to influence _____.
embryo
From 2 weeks through 2 months after conception, the human organism is known as a(n):
Low levels of androgens
In a female embryo, what allows for the development of female sex organs?
cellular clock theory
Leonard Hayflick's view that cells become less capable of dividing
concrete operational
Most children successfully acquire conservation skills during the _____ stage of cognitive development.
accommodation.
Nageeb thought all nurses were young females until a middle-aged male nurse took care of him. Nageeb's altered conception of a "nurse" illustrates the process of:
dopamine
Nicotine raises _____ levels in the brain.
non-REM
Night terrors typically occur during _____ sleep.
the self-fulfilling prophecy
Parents warn a new babysitter that their son, Dennis, is very aggressive and mischievous. As a result of this initial expectation, the babysitter starts calling Dennis "Dennis the Menace," and he behaves in ways that elicit aggressive and mischievous behaviors from Dennis. This example best demonstrates the phenomenon called ______.
sensorimotor stage
Piaget's 1st stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions
preoperational stage
Piaget's 2nd stage of cognitive development that lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age; more symbolic than sensorimotor thought
concrete operational stage
Piaget's 3rd stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7-11 years of age during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations
formal operational stage
Piaget's 4th stage of cognitive development, which begins at age 11-15 and continues through adulthood; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future
object permanence
Piaget's term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched
manifest
Shane, a straight-A student, remembers dreaming that he failed an important chemistry test. According to Freud, Shane's account represents the ________ content of his dream.
barbiturate
Sleeping pills are classified as a(n) ______.
Subconscious awareness
Sleeping would be considered which of the levels of awareness?
stage 3 and stage 4
Sleepwalking occurs during ______ of the sleep cycle.
stage 1 sleep
The brain waves associated with REM sleep are most similar to those of:
ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens
The brain's reward pathway is located in the ______ and ______
testosterone
The hormone that is typically implicated in aggressive behavior is _____.
90 minutes
The human sleep cycle repeats itself about every:
tolerance
The need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect that a lower dose used to bring is called ______.
the fundamental attribution error
The tendency for observers to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of inner dispositions upon another's behavior is called ______.
Cerebral cortex
What part of the brain is typically most involved in awareness?
dreaming
When you go to check on your sleeping child, you observe that his eyes are moving back and forth rapidly under his eyelids. It is likely that he is _____
Preoperational
Which of Piaget's stages of cognitive development is characterized by egocentric thought?
The basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex
Which of the following regions of the brain are involved in meditation?
life themes
____ ____ that involve activities, social relationships, and life goals
LSD
____ effects on the body can include dizziness, nausea, and tremors; acts primarily on the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, but can also affect dopamine
REM
____ sleep is an active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs
beta
____ waves reflect concentration and alertness; these waves are the highest in frequency and lowest in amplitude
social cognitive behavior
_____ _____ _____ view of hypnosis is the perspective that hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes that a hypnotized person should behave
Central route
_____ _____ persuasion involves engaging someone thoughtfully with a sound, logical argument
Lev Vygotsky
_____ believed that cognitive development is very much an interpersonal process that happens in a cultural context.
latent
_____ content is the dream's hidden content; its unconscious and true meaning
manifest
_____ content is the dream's surface content, which contains dream symbols that disguise the dream's true meaning
Jean Piaget
_____ did not believe that culture and education play important roles in children's cognitive development
gender
_____ is a complex variable that is influenced by both nature and nurture
normative
_____ social influence is based on a person's desire to be accepted by the group.
waking
_____ subconscious awareness is when we are awake, and processes are going on just below the surface of our awareness
alpha
_____ waves are associated with relaxation or drowsiness; low frequency, increase in amplitude, and synchrouous
theta
_____ waves are slower frequency and greater in amplitude than alpha waves; associated with stage 1 sleep
altered states
______ ______ consciousness can range from losing one's sense of self-consciousness to hallucinating; such states can be produced by drugs, trauma, fever, fatigue, sensory deprivation, meditation and possibly hypnosis
socioemotional
______ involve changes in an individual's relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality
habituation
______ is the decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to the same stimulus
romantic
______ love involves strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and is often predominant in the early part of a love relationship.
mindfulness
______ meditation is technique used to focus on pain, to isolate the pain from emotional response
physical
______ processes involve changes in an individual's biological nature
deindividuation
______ refers to the loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension. It occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad.
divided consciousness
_______ ________ view of hypnosis includes, Hilgard's view that hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into two separated components, one of which follows the hypnotist's commands and the other of which acts as a "hidden observer"
cognitive
_______ processes involve changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language
confederate
a _____ is purposely place in a study by the experimenter in order to manipulate the situation the participants must engage in
emergent property
a big entity (like a person) that is a consequence of the interaction of multiple lower-level factors
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
a cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy
nightmare
a frightening dream that awakens a dreamer form REM sleep
stereotype
a generalization about a group's characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another
gender schema
a mental framework for understanding what if means to be male or female in one's culture
puberty
a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence
resilience
a person's ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
explicit racism
a person's conscious and openly shared prejudicial attitudes
preferential looking
a research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at
night terror
a sudden arousal from sleep and deep fear
unconscious
according to Freud, _______ thought is a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts, that are beyond conscious awareness
shemas
according to Piaget, ______ are people's conceptual frameworks for understanding their experiences.
social cognitive
according to ______ _______ behavior view of hypnosis: hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes that a hypnotized person should behave
external stimuli
all those things we see, hear, and respond to when we are awake and alert
hypnosis
an altered state of consciousness or a psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions
crystallized intelligence
an individual's accumulated information and verbal skills
accommodation
an individual's adjustment of his or her schemas to new information
consciousness
an individual's awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences
nature
an individual's biological inheritance, especially his or her genes
stereotype threat
an individual's fast-acting, self fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative stereotype about his or her group
assimilation
an individual's incorporation of new information into existing knowledge
cognitive dissonance
an individual's psychological discomfort caused by 2 inconsistent thoughts
prejudice
an unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual's membership in a group
discrimination
an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group
teratogen
any agent that causes a birth defect, and include chemical substances ingested by the mother
avoidant
attachment style that describes adults who are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and once in a relationship tend to distance themselves form their partner
anxious
attachment style that describes adults who demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive
secure
attachment style that describes adults who have positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned or stressed out about their romantic relationships
lower level
automatic processes and daydreaming are part of ______-______ consciousness
obedience
behavior that complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority
conservation
belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects despite superficial changes
embryonic period
by the end of the _____ period, the heart begins to beat, the arms and legs become more differentiated, the face starts to form, and the intestinal tract appears
conformity
change in a person's behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard
heuristics
cognitive shortcuts that allow us to make decisions rapidly
individualistic cultures
cultures that value individuals and individual accomplishments and emphasize difference and uniquieness
collectivistic cultures
cultures that value the group, emphasize group harmony, and believe that accomplishments depend on individuals carrying out their roles in the larger social network
circadian rhythms
daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temp, blood pressure, and blood sugar level
tranquilizers
depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation; Valium and Xanx
barbiturates
depressant drugs, such as Nembutal and Seconal, that decrease central nervous system activity; effects include impaired memory, sleep, and breathing difficulty
cohort effects
differences between individuals that stem not necessarily from their ages but from the historical and social time period in which they were born and developed
psychoactive drugs
drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception, and change moods
social loafing
each person's tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual effort
telomeres
each time a cell divides, the ____ protecting the ends of chromosomes shorten
addiction
either a physical or a psychological dependence or both, on a drug
self fulfilling prophecy
expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make the expectations come true
consensual validation
explains why people are attracted to others who are similar to them
positive illusions
favorable views of the self that are not necessarily rooted in reality
empathy
feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another perosn
somnambulism
formal term for sleepwalking is called _______, and occurs during the deepest stages of sleep (3 and 4)
phenylketonuria
genetic condition caused by 2 recessive genes, and results in an inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine
inoculation
giving people a weak version of a persuasive message and allowing them time to argue against it
egoism
giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self esteem; to present oneself as powerful, competent, or caring; or to avoid social and self censure for failing to live up to society's expectations
melatonin
hormone which is produced in the brain and is secreted to increase sleepiness
social exchange theory
idea of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits
social contagion
imitative behavior involving the spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas
groupthink
impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintaining group harmony
social facilitation
improvement in an individual's performance because of the presence of others
schemas
in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, human beings use _____ to make sense of thir experience
"fringe" of the stream of consciousness
in addition to the info we receive from the world, we have private experiences that surround that info; William James referred to the feelings that surround our experiences as the _______ of the stream of consciousness
two
in stage ___ sleep muscle activity decreases, and the person is no longer consciously aware of the environment; theta waves continue but are interspersed with a defining characteristic called sleep spindles
nurture
individual's environmental and social experience
theory of the mind
individuals' understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences
informational social influence
influence other people have on us because we want to be right
affectionate love
love that occurs when an individual has a deep, caring affection for another person and desires to have that person near
romantic love
love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and it often predominates in the early part of a love relationship
investment model
model of long term relationship that examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships
Lawrence Kohlberg
much research on moral reasoning and thinking has revolved around ______ ______'s theory of moral development and reactions to it
sleep
natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness
false consensus effect
observers overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way they do
effort justification
one type of dissonance reduction, means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something
opiates
opium and its derivatives; narcotic drugs that depress the central nervous system's activity and eliminate pain; morphine and heroin
attitudes
our feelings or opinions about people, objects, and ideas; how the person feels about the world
cerebral cortex
part of brain associated with awareness
development
pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs through out life, involving both growth and decline
adolescesnce
period beginning around ages 10 to 12 and spanning the transition from childhood to adulthood
childhood
period from infancy through childhood (birth to age 10)
adulthood
period that is generally separated in to early (20s to 30s) middle (40s to 50s) and late (age 60 and beyond)
biological rhythms
periodic physiological fluctuations in the body, such as rise and fall of hormones and accelerated and decelerated cycles of brain activity, that can influence behavior
foot in the door
persuasion approach that relies on the notion that in agreeing to the smaller offer, the customer has created a relationship with the seller, expressing some level of truest
door in the face
persuasion technique that involves making the biggest pitch a the the beginning, which will probably be rejected, then making a smaller concessionary demand
social comparison
process by which individuals evaluate their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to others
hallucinogens
psychoactive drugs that modify a person's perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real
depressants
psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity
stimulants
psychoactive drugs, including caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine, that increase the central nervous system's activity
implicit racism
racial attitudes that exist on a deeper, hidden level
deindividuation
reduction in personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsibility when one is part of a group
cognitive development
refers to how thought intelligence, and language processes change as people mater
cognition
refers to the operation of thinking and also to our cognitive skills and abilities
cross sectional design
research design in which a group of people are assessed on a psychological variable at one point in time
gender roles
roles that reflect the individual's expectations for how females and males should think, act, and feel
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change form day to night
aggression
social behavior whose objective is to harm someone, either physically or verbally
three, four
stage ___ and ___ are characterized by delta waves; these 2 stages are often referred to as delta sleep
one
stage ___ sleep is characterized by drowsy sleep; person may experience sudden muscle movements called myoclonic jerks
daydreaming
state of consciousness that involves low level of conscious effort is ________; it is like dreaming while awake
automatic processes
states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities
frustration-aggression hypothesis
states that frustration-the blocking of an individual's attempt sot reach a goal-always leads to aggression
sleep spindles
sudden increase in wave frequency
narcolepsy
sudden overpowering urge to sleep
Jean Piaget
swiss developmental psychologist _____ _____ traced cognitive development through childhood into adulthood
MDMA (ecstasy)
synthetic drug with both stimulant and hallucinogenic properties; users tend to feel warm bonds with others; it produces its effects by releasing serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine
fundamental attribution error
tendency to explain the behavior of others in terms of their personalities rather than aspects of the situation
stream of consciousness
term used by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts and feelings
awareness
the 1st part of consciousness is ______, and includes awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences
arousal
the 2nd part of consciousness is ______, it is the physiological state of being engaged with the environment
peripheral
the ______ route involves non-message factors such as the source's credibility and attractiveness or emotional appeals
central
the ______ route to persuasion works by engaging someone thoughtfully with a sound, logical argument
fluid intelligence
the ability to reason abstractly
normative social influence
the influence others have on us because we want them to like us
arousal
the medulla, brain stem, thalamus, and reticular activating system are all parts of the brain associated with the physiological state of _____
mere exposure effect
the more we encounter someone or something, the more likely we are to start liking the person
controlled processes
the most alert states of human consciousness during which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal
tolerance
the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect
physical dependence
the physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms such a s physical pain and craving for the drug when it is discontinued
gender
the social and psychological aspects of being male or female
group polarization effect
the solidification and further strengthening of an individual's position as a consequence of a group discussion or interaction
lateralization
the specialization of function in one hemisphere of the brain or the other
psychological dependence
the strong desire to repeat the use a drug for emotional reasons, such as a feeling of well-being and reduction of stress
social psychology
the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people
incubation
the subconscious processing that leads to a solution to a problem after a break from conscious thought about the problem; info is being processed even if we are unaware of that processing
hypothalamus
the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is located in the ________; it receives info from the retina about light, which is the external stimulus that synchronizes the SCN
risky shift
the tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members
bystander effect
the tendency for an individual who observes an emergency to help less when other people are present that when the observer is alone
ethnocentrism
the tendency to favor on'e own ethnic group over other groups
self-serving bias
the tendency to take credit for on'e own successes and to deny responsibility for on'e own failures
attribution theory
the view that people are motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior
social identity
the way individuals define themselves in terms of their group membership
elaboration likelihood model
theory identifying 2 ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route
cognitive theory of dreaming
theory proposing that we can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use in studying the waking mind
activation synthesis theory
theory that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower brain and that dreams result from the brain's attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep
metacognition
thoughts about our thoughts
altruism
unselfish interest in helping another person
