Psychology Test 1 (chapters 1 & 2)
endorphins
"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
A theory will be useful if it:
(1) organizes observations and (2) implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications. (Does people's sleep predict their retention?) (3) stimulate further research that leads to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts.
positive correlation
(above 0 to +1.00) indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together. - For example, height and weight are positively correlated
negative correlation
(below 0 to −1.00) indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases. - ex: The weekly number of hours spent in TV watching and video gaming correlates negatively with grades. Negative correlations could go as low as −1.00, which means that, like people on opposite ends of a teeter-totter, one set of scores goes down precisely as the other goes up
case studies
(in-depth analyses of individuals or groups).
reticular formation
(netlike) a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
naturalistic observations
(recording individuals' behavior in their natural setting)
surveys and interviews
(self-reports in which people answer questions about their behavior or attitudes).
axon
- (passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands) - the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
The point to remember:
- A correlation coefficient helps us see the world more clearly by revealing the extent to which two things relate. - Correlation does not prove causation. Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such.
recap:
- A variable is anything that can vary - Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable, measure a dependent variable, and control confounding variables -An experiment has at least two different conditions: an experimental condition and a comparison or control condition - Random assignment works to minimize preexisting differences between the groups before any treatment effects occur. In this way, an experiment tests the effect of at least one independent variable (what we manipulate) on at least one dependent variable (the outcome we measure)
some neurotransmitters and their functions: (pg. 44)
- Acetylcholine (ACh) -Dopamine - Serotonin - Norepinephrine - GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid) - Glutamate -Endorphins
correlation
- Basic Purpose: To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another - How Conducted: Collect data on two or more variables; no manipulation - What Is Manipulated: Nothing - Weaknesses: Cannot specify cause and effect
descriptive
- Basic Purpose: To observe and record behavior - How Conducted: Do case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys - What Is Manipulated: Nothing - Weaknesses: No control of variables; single cases may be misleading
Figure 2.17 (brain structures and their functions) pg.57
- Corpus callosum: axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres -Thalamus: relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex - Hypothalamus: controls maintenance functions such as eating; helps govern endocrine system; linked to emotion and reward - Pituitary: master endocrine gland - Reticular formation: helps control arousal - Pons: helps coordinate movement and control sleep - Medulla: controls heartbeat and breathing - Medulla: controls heartbeat and breathing - Cerebellum: coordinates voluntary movement and balance and supports learning and memories of such - Amygdala: linked to emotion - Hippocampus: linked to conscious memory - Cerebral cortex: ultimate control and information-processing center
chapter 2
- Everything psychological is simultaneously biological - nurture works on what nature provides
Phrenology
- German physician Franz Gall proposed phrenology, studying bumps on the skull, would reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits - the "science" of phrenology remains known today as a reminder of our need for critical thinking and scientific analysis - Phrenology did succeed in focusing attention on the localization of function- the idea that various brain regions have particular functions
social-cultural perspective
- How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures - ex: developmental; social; clinical; counseling
psychodynamic perspective
- How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts - ex: Clinical; counseling; personality
behavior genetics perspective
- How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences - ex: personality; developmental; legal/forensic
nueroscience perspective
- How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences - ex: Biological; cognitive; clinical
evolutionary perspective
- How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes - ex: Biological; developmental; social
cognitive perspective
- How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information - ex: Cognitive neuroscience; clinical; counseling; industrial-organizational
Behavioral Perspective
- How we learn observable responses - ex: Clinical; counseling; industrial-organizational
Studying and Protecting Animals
- Many psychologists study nonhuman animals because they find them fascinating. They want to understand how different species learn, think, and behave. Psychologists also study animals to learn about people. -We humans are not like animals; we are animals, sharing a common biology.
distributing your time
- One of psychology's oldest findings is that spaced practice promotes better retention than does massed practice. You'll remember material better if you space your practice time over several study periods— perhaps one hour a day, six days a week—rather than cram it into one week-long (or all night) study blitz
psychological science is born
- PSYCHOLOGY'S FIRST LABORATORY - PSYCHOLOGY'S FIRST SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT - PSYCHOLOGY'S FIRST WOMEN
hypothalamus
- Some neural clusters in the hypothalamus influence hunger; others regulate thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior. Together, they help maintain a steady (homeostatic) internal state. -a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
action potential
- a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
dendrites
- a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body - receive messages from other cells dendrites listen. axons speak
experiment
- a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. - Experiments enable researchers to isolate the effects of one or more factors by (1) manipulating the factors of interest and (2) holding constant (controlling) other factors.
the neural impulse
- action potential -threshold - refractory period - all-or-none response
how drugs and other chemicals alter neurotransmission
- agonist - antagonists
random assignment
- assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
Psychology's Subfields
- basic research - applied research - Counseling psychologists - Clinical psychologists - psychiatrists - community psychologists
psychological science matures
- behaviorism - Freudian (Psychoanalytic) Psychology - humanistic psychology
Neural and Hormonal Systems
- biology, behavior, and mind - the power of plasticity - neural communication - nervous system -endocrine system
description
- case studies - naturalistic observations - surveys and interviews
splitting the brain pg.65
- corpus callosum - split brain
correlation
- correlation - correlation coefficient - positive correlation - negative correlation
cross-cultural and gender psychology
- culture *point to remember: even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary by gender or across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same.
"superforecasters"
- defining feature is a lack of confidence - faced with a difficult prediction, a superforecaster gathers facts, balances clashing arguments, and settles on an answer and that is why they were able to do an excellent job predicting social behavior unlike most
research method
- descriptive - correlational - experimental
procedures and the placebo effect
- double-blind procedure - placebo effect
Psychology is a Science
- empirical approach
the endocrine system
- endocrine system - hormones - adrenal glands - pituitary glands
How Neurotransmitters Influence Us
- endorphins - how drugs and other chemicals alter neurotransmission
Contemporary Psychology
- evolutionary psychology and behavior genetics - cross-cultural and gender psychology - positive psychology - psychology's 3 main levels of analysis - psychology's sub-fields
Critical thinking
- examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. -thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
the case study
- examines one individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all. ex: 1. brain damage 2. children's minds 3. animal intelligence
experimental manipulation
- experiment - experimental group - control group - random assignment
research design
- experimental - correlational - case study - naturalistic observation - twin study - longitudinal - cross-sectional
experimentation
- experimental manipulation - procedures and the placebo effect - independent and dependent variables
structure of the cerebral cortex
- frontal lobes - parietal lobes - occipital lobes - temporal lobes
use psychology to become a stronger person- and a better student
- get a full night sleep - make space for exercise - set long-term goals, with daily aims - have a growth mindset - prioritize relationships -testing effect - SQ3R -distribute your study time - learn to think critically - process class information actively - overlearn
experimental group
- in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
- in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
studying and protecting humans
- informed consent - debrief
humanistic psychology
- led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, found both Freudian psychology and behaviorism too limiting - historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
the tools of discovery: having our head examined
- lesion - EEG - MEG -PET - MRI - fMRI
Psychology's Three Main Levels of Analysis
- levels of analysis - biopsychosocial approach - neuroscience perspective - evolutionary perspective - behavior genetics - psychodynamic perspective - behavioral perspective - cognitive perspective - social-cultural perspective
functions of the cortex
- motor functions - sensory functions - association areas
Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics
- nature- nurture issue - natural selection - evolutionary psychology - behavior genetics
neurons
- neurons - cell body - dendrite - axon - myelin sheath - glial cells
Neural Communication
- neurons - the neural impulse - how neurons communicate - how neurotransmitters influence us
Acetylcholine (ACh)
- one of the best-understood neurotransmitters - plays a role in learning and memory - also the messenger at every junction between motor neurons (which carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the body's tissues) and skeletal muscles. - when ACh is released to our muscle cell receptors, the muscle contracts. so if ACh is BLOCKED, as happens during some kinds of anesthesia and with some poisons, the muscle cannot contract and we are paralyzed
biology, behavior, and mind
- phrenology - biological psychologists
parietal lobes
- portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
frontal lobes
- portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
psychology's research ethics
- protecting research participants - values in psychology
central nervous system
- reflexes
the peripheral nervous system
- somatic nervous system - autonomic nervous system (ANS) -sympathetic nervous system - parasympathetic nervous system
sensory functions
- somatosensory cortex
Protecting Research Participants
- studying and protecting animals - studying and protecting humans
What does the acronym SQ3R stand for?
- survey - question - read -retrieve - review
older brain structures
- the brainstem - the thalamus - the reticular formation - the cerebellum
nervous system
- the peripheral nervous system - the central nervous system
Constructing Theories
- theory - hypotheses - operational definitions - replicate - meta-analysis
the survey
- wording effects - random sampling - population
endocrine system includes
--hypothalamus - thyroid gland - adrenal glands - testis - pituitary gland - parathyroids - pancreas - ovary
values in psychology
-Although psychology does have the power to deceive, its purpose is to enlighten. - Every day, psychologists explore ways to enhance learning, creativity, and compassion. - Psychology speaks to many of our world's great problems—war, overpopulation, prejudice, family crises, crime—all of which involve attitudes and behaviors. - Psychology also speaks to our deepest longings—for nourishment, for love, for happiness. - Psychology cannot address all of life's great questions, but it speaks to some mighty important ones.
overlearn
-Spend less time on the input side and more time on the output side, such as summarizing what you have read from memory or getting together with friends and asking each other questions. Any activities that involve testing yourself—that is, activities that require you to retrieve or generate information, rather than just representing information to yourself—will make your learning both more durable and flexible. (Elizabeth Bjork and Robert Bjork)
right- left differences in the intact brain (pg. 67)
-When a person performs a perceptual task, for example, brain waves, bloodflow, and glucose consumption reveal increased activity in the right hemisphere. When the person speaks or calculates, activity usually increases in the left hemisphere. -left hemisphere is skilled at making quick, literal interpretations of language, the right hemisphere excels at making inferences. It also helps us modulate our speech to make meaning clear—as when we say "Let's eat, Grandpa" instead of "Let's eat Grandpa" (Heller, 1990). The right hemisphere also helps orchestrate our self-awareness.
meta-analysis
-a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusions - by combining the results of many studies, researchers avoid the problem of small samples and arrive at a bottom-line result.
SQ3R
-a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
theory
-an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. -explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize what we have observed.
In defending their experimental research with animals, psychologists have noted that
-animal research is subject to codes of ethics that ensure the animals' health, safety, and comfort -animal experimentation sometimes helps animals as well as humans. - advancing the well-being of humans justifies animal experimentation. (all of these statements are correct)
glial cells
-cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. - also called glue cells - by "chatting" with neurons they participate in information transmission and memory
testing effect
-repeated self-testing and rehearsal of previously studied material. - Memory researchers Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke (2006) call this phenomenon the testing effect. (It is also sometimes called the retrieval practice effect or test- enhanced learning.) They note that "testing is a powerful means of improving learning, not just assessing it." -enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
how neurons communicate?
-synapse - neurotransmitters - reuptake - synaptic gap (or synaptic cleft)
• From the 1920s through the 1960s, the two major forces in psychology were ____ and psychology _____
1. behaviorism 2. Freudian
the feedback system
1. brain 2. pituitary 3. other glands 4. hormones 5. body and brain
In what brain region would damage be most likely to (1) disrupt your ability to jump rope? (2) disrupt your ability to hear and taste? (3) perhaps leave you in a coma? (4) cut off the very breath and heartbeat of life?
1. cerebellum 2. thalamus 3. reticular formation 4. medulla
• In what brain region would damage be most likely to (1) disrupt your ability to skip rope? (2) disrupt your ability to hear and taste? (3) perhaps leave you in a coma? (4) cut off the very breath and heartbeat of life?
1. cerebellum 2. thalamus 3. reticular formation 4. medulla
• When a neuron fires an action potential, the information travels through the axon, the dendrites, and the cell body, but not in that order. Place these three structures in the correct order.
1. dendrites 2. cell body 3. axon
we can test our hypotheses and refine our theories using:
1. descriptive methods (which describe behaviors, often through case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys) 2. correlational methods (which associate different factors) 3. experimental methods (which manipulate factors to discover their effects). To think critically about popular psychology claims, we need to understand these methods and know what conclusions they allow.
William James would be considered a ____. Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener would be considered _____.
1. functionalist 2. structuralist
retrieve it: 1. motor neurons 2. sensory neurons 3. interneurons
1. motor neurons - carry outgoing messages from the CNS to muscles and glands 2. sensory neurons - carry incoming messages from sensory receptors to the CNS 3. interneurons - communication within the CNS and process information between incoming and outgoing messages
• The _____ -_______ perspective in psychology focuses on how behavior and thought differ from situation to situation and from culture to culture, while the ______ perspective emphasizes observation of how we respond to and learn in different situations.
1. social-culture 2. behavioral
• Our brain's __________ cortex registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. The __________cortex controls our voluntary movements
1. somatosensory 2. motor
• The school of _____ used introspection to define the mind's makeup; ______ focused on how mental processes enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
1. structuralism 2. functionalism
what are the 3 key structures of the limbic system, and what functions do they serve?
1. the amygdala- involved in aggression and fear response 2. hypothalamus- involved in bodily maintenance, pleasure rewards, and control of the hormonal systems 3. the hippocampus - processes memories of facts and events
Which area of the human brain is most similar to that of less complex animals? Which part of the human brain distinguishes us most from less complex animals?
1. the brainstem 2. cerebral cortex
• Try moving your right hand in a circular motion, as if cleaning a table. Then start your right foot doing the same motion, synchronized with your hand. Now reverse the right foot's motion, but not the hand's. Finally, try moving the left foot opposite to the right hand. 1. Why is reversing the right foot's motion so hard? 2. Why is it easier to move the left foot opposite to the right hand?
1. the right limbs' opposed activities interfere with each other because both are controlled by the same (left) side of your brain. 2. opposite sides of your brain control your left and right limbs, so the reversed motion causes less interference
• (1) If we flash a red light to the right hemisphere of a person with a split brain, and flash a green light to the left hemisphere, will each observe its own color? (2) Will the person be aware that the colors differ? (3) What will the person verbally report seeing?
1. yes 2. no 3. green
cerebral hemispheres
2 halves of the brain
Scientific Attitude
3 basic attitudes helped make modern science possible: 1. curiosity 2. skepticism 3. humility
correlation coefficient
A statistical measure (the correlation coefficient) indicates how closely two things vary together, and thus how well either one predicts the other. Knowing how much aptitude test scores correlate with school success tells us how well the scores predict school success. -a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00) 2 types of correlation coefficient: 1. positive correlation 2. negative correlation
Why are association areas important?
Association areas are involved in higher mental functions—interpreting, integrating, and acting on information processed in other areas.
experimental
Basic Purpose: To explore cause and effect How Conducted: Manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment What Is Manipulated: The independent variable(s) Weaknesses: Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables
• What advantage do we gain by using the biopsychosocial approach in studying psychological events?
By incorporating 3 different levels of analysis, the biopsychosocial approach can provide a more complete view than any one perspective could offer
Mary Whiton Calkins
Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman president of the American Psychological Association.
the cerebral cortex
Covering those hemispheres, like bark on a tree, is the cerebral cortex, a thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells. -the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Charles Darwin
Darwin argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies
Glutamate
Function: - A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory Examples of Malfunctions: - Oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food).
GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid)
Function: - A major inhibitory neurotransmitter Examples of Malfunctions: - Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
Norepinephrine
Function: - Helps control alertness and arousal Examples of Malfunctions: - Undersupply can depress mood.
Endorphins
Function: - Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure Examples of Malfunctions: - Oversupply with opiate drugs can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply.
Counseling psychology
Helps people cope with life challenges, such as issues at school, at work, or in relationships.
*point to remember
Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events often lead us to overestimate our intuition. But scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion.
William James and Mary Whiton Calkins
James was a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman president of the American Psychological Association.
children's minds
Jean Piaget taught us about children's thinking after carefully observing and questioning only a few children
in the early 20th century, _____ redefined psychology as "the science of observable behavior."
John B. Watson
Behaviorism
John B. Watson, and later B. F. Skinner, dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior." - became one of psychology's two major forces well into the 1960s. - the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies b ehavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
*point to remember
Like two-dimensional views of a three-dimensional object, each of psychology's perspectives is helpful. But each by itself fails to reveal the whole picture.
process class information actively
Listen for a lecture's main ideas and sub-ideas. Write them down. Ask questions during and after class
psychology's first women
Mary Whiton Calkins Margaret Floy Washburn
motor functions
Moreover, stimulating parts of this region in the left or right hemisphere caused movements of specific body parts on the opposite side of the body.
brain damage
Much of our early knowledge about the brain came from case studies of individuals who suffered a particular impairment after damage to a certain brain region
what happens in the synaptic gap?
Neurons send neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) across this tiny space between one neuron's terminal branch and the next neuron's dendrite or cell body.
point to remember:
Our mental experiences arise from coordinated brain activity
wording effects
People are much more approving of "aid to the needy" than of "welfare," of "affirmative action" than of "preferential treatment," - Because wording is such a delicate matter, critical thinkers will reflect on how the phrasing of a question might affect people's expressed opinions
response to damage
Some brain-damage effects described earlier can be traced to two hard facts: (1) Severed brain and spinal cord neurons, unlike cut skin, usually do not regenerate. (If your spinal cord were severed, you would probably be permanently paralyzed.) (2) some brain functions seem preassigned to specific areas.
animal intelligence
Studies of only a few chimpanzees revealed their capacity for understanding and language
Sigmund Freud
The controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity's self understanding
studying and protecting humans ethic codes
The ethics codes of the APA and the BPS urge researchers to (1) obtain human participants' informed consent before the experiment, (2) protect participants from greater-than-usual harm and discomfort, (3) keep information about individual participants confidential, and (4) fully debrief people (explain the research afterward). - Moreover, university ethics committees screen research proposals and safeguard participants' well-being.
Margaret Floy Washburn
The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., Washburn synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind (1908).
Freudian (Psychoanalytic) Psychology
The second major force was Freudian psychology - which emphasized the ways our unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior.
homeostasis
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work together to keep us in a steady internal state called
note:
These older brain functions all occur without any conscious effort. This illustrates another of our recurring themes: Our brain processes most information outside of our awareness. We are aware of the results of our brain's labor—say, our current visual experience—but not how we construct the visual image
B. F. Skinner
This leading behaviorist rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.
Psychology's first schools of thought
Two early schools were structuralism functionalism.
• Why is replication important?
When other investigators are able to replicate an experiment with the same (or better) results, scientists can confirm the result and become more confident of its reliability
Learn to think critically
Whether you are reading or in class, note people's assumptions and values. - What perspective or bias underlies an argument? - Evaluate evidence. Is it anecdotal? - Or is it based on informative experiments? - Assess conclusions. -Are there alternative explanations?
in 1879, in psychology's first experiment, _______ and his students measured the time lag between hearing a ball hit a platform and pressing a key
Wilhelm Wundt
What were some important milestones in psychology's early development?
Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in 1879 in Germany. 2 early schools of thought in psychology were structuralism and functionalism. Mary Whiton Calkins and Margaret Floy Washburn were 2 of the first women in the field
psychology's first laboratory
Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was seeking to measure "atoms of the mind"—the fastest and simplest mental processes
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
Working with Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior. He and Rayner showed that fear could be learned, in experiments on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."
Wilhelm Wundt
Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany.
knowing that 2 events are correlated provides:
a basis for prediction
MEG (magnetoencephalography)
a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
refractory period
a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's 2 hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them pg. 64
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
naturalistic observations
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might produce an effect. - in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
• What does a good theory do?
a good theory organizes observed facts and implies hypotheses that offer testable predictions and, sometimes, practical applications. it also often stimulates further research.
how does MEG work?
a head coil records magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical currents.
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
antagonistic
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action. it blocks production or release
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. - the excess neurotransmitters finally drift away, are broken down by enzymes, or are reabsorbed by the sending neuron
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
random sampling
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion *point to remember: - Before accepting survey findings, think critically. Consider the sample. The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample. You cannot compensate for an unrepresentative sample by simply adding more people.
reflexes
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
what can a strong stimulus do?
a strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often. but it does not affect the action potential's strength or speed. (squeezing a trigger harder won't make a bullet go faster).
fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. - MRI have also revealed enlarged ventricles- fluid-filled brain areas (in some patients who have schizophrenia, a disabling psychological disorder)
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
a. the more husbands viewed internet pornography, the worse their martial relationships _______ b. the less sexual content teens saw on TV, the less likely they were to have sex _________ c. the longer children were breast-fed, the greater their later academic achievement _____ d. the more income rose among a sample of poor families, the fewer psychiatric symptoms their children experienced _____
a. negative correlation b. positive correlation c. positive correlation d. negative correlation
the ______ _______ secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine, helping to arouse the body during times of stress
adrenal gland
epinephrine and norepinephrine is also called
adrenaline and noradrenaline
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)
A cat's ferocious response to electrical brain stimulation would lead you to suppose the electrode had touched the _______
amygdala
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. - discovered by Fritsch and Hitzig
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
what is an unrepresentative sample, and how do researchers avoid it?
an unrepresentative sample is a group that does not represent the population being studied - random sampling helps researchers form a representative sample, because each member of the population has an equal chance of being included.
As scientists, psychologists
are willing to ask questions and to reject claims that cannot be verified by research
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. -penfield identified the somatosensory cortex and that it specializes in receiving information from the skin senses, such as touch and temperature, and from movement of body parts
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking - association areas are found in ALL FOUR LOBES of the brain
The "uncommitted" areas that make up about three-fourths of the cerebral cortex are called _______
association areas
the sympathetic nervous system arouses us for action and the parasympathetic nervous system calms us down. together, the 2 systems make up the __________ nervous system
autonomic nervous system
the neuron fiber that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles and glands is the ________
axon
what are psychology's main subfields?
basic research, applied research, counseling psychologists, clinical psychologists, (psychiatrists), community psychologists
nature is to nurture as
biology is to experience
how are the neurons and endocrine systems alike, and how do they differ?
both of these communication systems produce chemical molecules that act on the body's receptors to influence our behavior and emotions. the endocrine system, which secretes hormones into the blood stream, delivers its messages much more slowly than the speedy nervous system, and the effects of those endocrine system's messages tend to linger much longer than those of the nervous system.
central nervous system (CNS)
brain and spinal cord - body's decision maker
the ______ is a crossover point where nerves from the left side of the brain are mostly linked to the right side of the body, and vice versa
brainstem
Psychiatry
branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders
nerves
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
We cannot assume that case studies always reveal general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?
case studies involve only one individual or group, so we can't know for sure whether the principles observed would apply to a larger population
the neurons of the spinal cord are part of the _______ nervous system
central nervous system
The part of the brain that coordinates voluntary movement and enables nonverbal learning and memory is the _________
cerebellum
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
a psychologist treating emotionally troubled adolescents at a local mental health agency is most likely to be a ____
clinical psychologist
• By using random assignment, researchers are able to control for _______ _______ , which are other factors besides the independent variable(s) that may influence research results.
confounding variables
retrieve it : double-blind procedure
controls for the placebo effect; neither researchers nor participants know who receives the real treatment
with a split brain, both hemispheres can comprehend and follow an instruction to copy _______
copy simultaneously - different figures with the left and right hands
which of the following is NOT one of the descriptive methods psychologists use to observe and describe behavior?
correlation research
Correlation does not prove causation
correlation suggests a possible cause-effect relationship but does not prove it.
why do correlations enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?
correlations enable predictions because they show how 2 factors are related- either positively or negatively. a correlation can indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove the direction of the influence, or whether an underlying third factor may explain the correlation.
How can critical thinking help you evaluate claims in the media, even if you're not a scientific expert on the issue?
critical thinking is smart thinking. when evaluating media claims look for empirical evidence
at the foundation of all science is a scientific attitude that combines:
curiosity, skepticism, and humility
psychology is united by a common quest:
describing and explaining behavior and the mind underlying it.
which of the following is true regarding gender differences and similarities?
despite some gender differences, the underlying processes of human behavior are the same
Curiosity
does it work? when put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?
how did behaviorism, and Freudian psychology, and humanistic psychology further the development of psychological science?
early researchers defined psychology as the "science of mental life." Under the influence of John B. Watson and the behaviorists, the field's focus changed to the "scientific study of observable behavior". Behaviorism became one of psychology's 2 major forces. the second force of Freud psychology along with the influence of humanistic psychology, revived interest in the study of mental processes.
functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and infl uenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, s urvive, and fl ourish.
structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
how does EEG work?
electrodes placed on the scalp measure electrical activity in neurons
describe what's involved in critical thinking
evaluating evidence, appraising the source, assessing conclusions, and examining our own assumptions are essential parts of critical thinking
frontal lobe damage can alter personality and remove a person's inhibition
ex: Phineas Gage lost a brain chunk from iron going through his head and he turned from nice to mean
biopsychosocial systems
ex: individuals, who turn is a part of a family, culture, and community
most neural signals are ______, somewhat like pushing a neuron's gas pedal
excitatory
To explain behaviors and clarify cause and effect, psychologists use _________
experiments
another name for folds
fissures
Judging and planning are enabled by the ___________ lobes.
frontal
serotonin
function: - Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal Examples of Malfunctions: - Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
dopamine
function: - Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion Examples of Malfunctions: - Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
function: - Enables muscle action, learning, and memory examples of malfunctions: - With Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate.
your memory, language, and attention results from:
functional connectivity- communication among distinct brain areas and neural networks
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
retrieve it : random assignment
helps minimize preexisting differences between experimental and control groups
retrieve it: random sampling
helps researchers generalize from a small set of survey responses to a larger population
________ ________ refers to our tendency to perceive events as obvious or inevitable after the fact.
hindsight bias
How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to a wrong conclusion?
hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate the weight of commonsense thinking. scientific inquiry can help us overcome such biases and shortcomings
Two parts of the limbic system are the amygdala and the
hippocampus
The initial reward center discovered by Olds and Milner was located in the _________
hypothalamus
The neural structure that most directly regulates eating, drinking, and body temperature is the
hypothalamus
the pituitary gland is controlled by the adjacent brain area called:
hypothalamus
theory- based predictions are called _____
hypothesis
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
prefrontal cortex
in the forward part of the frontal lobes enables judgment, planning, social interactions, and processing of new memories
A researcher wants to determine whether noise level affects workers' blood pressure. In one group, she varies the level of noise in the environment and records participants' blood pressure. In this experiment, the level of noise is the _________ _________
independent variable
some neural signals are _____, more like pushing its brake
inhibitory
the power of diffusion spectrum imaging:
is a type of MRI technology that maps long-distance brain fiber connections - such efforts have led to the creation of a new brain map with 100 neural centers not previously described.
• How did the cognitive revolution affect the field of psychology?
it recaptured the field's early interest in mental processes and made them legitimate topics for scientific study
Which of the following body regions has the greatest representation in the somatosensory cortex?
lips
Damage to the brain's right hemisphere is most likely to reduce a person's ability to :
make inferences
An experimenter fl ashes the word HERON across the visual field of a man whose corpus callosum has been severed. HER is transmitted to his right hemisphere and ON to his left hemisphere. When asked to indicate what he saw, the man says he saw ___________ but points to __________.
man says he saw- ON, but his left hand points to HER
is pituitary gland is considered a _____
master gland - whose own master is the hypothalamus - under the brain's influence, the pituitary triggers your sex glands to release sex hormones. these in turn influence your brain and behavior
how does fMRI work?
measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans
The part of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing is the
medulla
• Curare poisoning paralyzes its victims by blocking ACh receptors involved in muscle movements. Morphine mimics endorphin actions. Which is an agonist, and which is an antagonist?
morphine is an agonist; curare is an antagonist
If a neurosurgeon stimulated your right motor cortex, you would most likely :
move your LEFT leg
A study finds that the more childbirth training classes women attend, the less pain medication they require during childbirth. This finding can be stated as a ________________ (positive/negative) correlation.
negative
In a double-blind procedure,
neither the participants nor the researchers know who is the experimental group or control group
Hippocampus
neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. - seahorse-shaped brain structure
limbic system
neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. - limbus means border and is next to the pituitary gland (pg.55)
Although the brain often attempts self-repair by reorganizing existing tissue, it sometimes attempts to mend itself by producing new brain cells. This process, known as ___________
neurogenesis ( the formation of new neurons)
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (SAME)
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands (SAME)
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
in a sending neuron, when an action potential reaches an axon terminal, the impulse triggers the release of chemical messengers called :
neurotransmitters
• Serotonin, dopamine, and endorphins are all chemical messengers called _________
neurotransmitters
In other species, including dolphins and monkeys, researchers later discovered other limbic system reward centers, such as the _________ ________ in front of the hypothalamus
nucleus accumbens
a psychologist conducting basic research to expand psychology's knowledge base may ___
observe 3- and 6-year-olds solving puzzles and analyze differences in their abilities
the pituitary gland is a growth hormone that stimulates physical development, another hormone pituitary gland produces is:
oxytocin- which enables social bonding
endorphins are released in the brain in response to :
pain or vigorous exercise
how does MRI work?
people sit or lie down in a chamber that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure.
• Why did introspection fail as a method for understanding how the mind works
people's self-reports varied, depending on the experience and the person's intelligence and verbal ability
the most influential endocrine gland, known as the "master gland" is the :
pituitary gland
To test the effect of a new drug on depression, we randomly assign people to control and experimental groups. Those in the control group take a pill that contains no medication. This is a _________
placebo
placebo effect
placebo [pluh-SEE-bo; Latin for "I shall please"] effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
the power of plasticity
plasticity- the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
just above the medulla sits the ______, which helps coordinate movements and control sleep
pons
occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
Martin Seligman and other researchers who explore various aspects of human flourishing refer to their field of study as _______ _______
positive psychology
Studies of people with split brains and brain scans of those with undivided brains indicate that the left hemisphere excels in :
processing language
a mental health professional with a medical degree who can prescribe medication is a _____
psychiatrist
• What is contemporary psychology's position on the nature-nurture issue?
psychological events often stem from the interaction of nature and nurture, rather than from either of them acting alone
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
difference between random sampling AND random assignment:
random sampling- which creates a representative survey sample random assignment- which equalizes the experimental and control groups
Perceiving order in random events
random sequences often don't look random - for most people, a random, unpredictable world is unsettling. to relieve stress, ppl often make connections between random events. making sense of our world helps us stay calm and get on with daily living
neural networks
rather like individual pixels combining to form a picture, the brain's individual neurons cluster together to form- neural networks
The laboratory environment is designed to
re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions
Some neural tissue can _______ in response to damage. Under the surface of our awareness, the brain is constantly changing, building new pathways as it adjusts to little mishaps and new experiences.
reorganize - plasticity may also occur after serious damage, especially in young children
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
for your survey, you need to establish a group of people who represent the country's entire adult population. to do this, you will need to question a _______ sample of the population
representative
• What measures do researchers use to prevent the placebo effect from confusing their results?
research designed to prevent the placebo effect randomly assigns participants to an experimental group (which receives the real treatment) or to a control group (which receives a placebo). - a double-blind procedure prevents people's beliefs and hopes from affecting the results, because neither the participants nor those collecting the data know who receives the placebo. a comparison of the results will demonstrate whether the real treatment produces better results than belief in that treatment.
Humility
researchers must be willing to be surprised and follow new ideas. people and other animals don't always behave as our ideas and beliefs would predict.
why is the pituitary gland called the master gland?
responding to signals from the hypothalamus, the pituitary releases hormones that trigger other endocrine glands to secrete hormones, which in turn influence brain and behavior
This positive-outside/negative inside state is called the ____________________
resting potential
The lower brain structure that governs arousal is the
reticular formation
what is reuptake? what 2 other things can happen to excess neurotransmitters after a neuron reacts?
reuptake occurs when excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron. Neurotransmitters can also drift away or be broken down by enzymes.
People genetically predisposed to this ______ _____ ______ may crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings
reward deficiency syndrome
nerves from the left side of the brain are mostly linked to the ______ side of the body, and vice versa
right
• What event defined the start of scientific psychology?
scientific psychology began in Germany in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
we say the axon's surface is
selectively permeable
the autonomic nervous system controls internal functions, such as heart rate and glandular activity. the word autonomic means:
self-regulating
. The thalamus functions as a
sensory control center
What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain hemispheres?
split- brain research (experiments on people with a severed corpus callosum) has confirmed that in most people, the left hemisphere is the more verbal. the right hemisphere excels in visual perception and making inferences, and helps us modulate our speech and orchestrate our self-awareness. studies of healthy people with intact brains confirm that each hemisphere makes unique contributions to the integrated functioning of the whole brain.
• How does our nervous system allow us to experience the difference between a slap and a tap on the back?
stronger stimuli (the slap) cause more neurons to fire and to fire more frequently than happens with weaker stimuli (the tap)
Clinical psychology
studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders but usually does not provide medical therapy
the tiny space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another is called the ______
synaptic gap
• The _______ _______describes the enhanced memory that results from repeated retrieval (as in self-testing) rather than from simple rereading of new information. A
testing effect
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
the need for psychological science
the 3 roadblocks to critical thinking: - hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events—illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense
tiny synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
the axon terminal of one neuron is in fact separated from the receiving neuron by the tiny synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. - a communication network that takes information from the world and the body's tissues, makes decisions, and sends back information and orders to the body's tissues
thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. - deals with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching (NOT SMELL)
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
pituitary gland
the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
"nurture works on what nature provides." describe what this means, using your own words.
the environment (nurture) has an influence on us, but that influence is constrained by our biology (nature). for example, people that are tall (nature) are unlikely to become Olympic gymnasts no matter how hard they work (nurture)
what do psychologists mean when they say the brain is "plastic"?
the human brain is uniquely designed to be flexible; it can reorganize after damage and it can build new pathways based on experience. this plasticity enables us to adapt to our changing world
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
Depolarization
the loss of the inside/outside charge difference, called depolarization, causes the next section of axon channels to open, and then the next.
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
natural selection
the principle that those chance inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
Modern definition of psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.
positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
The other part of the CNS, the spinal cord:
the spinal cord, is a two-way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain. Ascending neural fibers send up sensory information, and descending fibers send back motorcontrol information.
cognitive psychology
the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
hawaiians received a terrifying alert that there was a missile threat inbound to hawaii from north korea - how was the ANS involved in Hawaiians' terrified responses, and in calming their bodies once they realized it was a false alarm?
the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system would have directed arousal (accelerated heartbeat, inhibited digestion, etc.), and the parasympathetic division would have directed calming.
• Electrical stimulation of a cat's amygdala provokes angry reactions. Which autonomic nervous system division is activated by such stimulation?
the sympathetic nervous system
hindsight bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
How do different neural networks communicate with one another to let you respond when a friend greets you at a party?
the visual cortex is a neural network of sensory neurons connected via interneurons to other neural networks, including auditory networks. this allows you to integrate visual and auditory information to respond when a friend you recognize greets you at a party
An EAR for naturalistic observation Psychologists Matthias Mehl and James Pennebaker have used electronically activated recorders (EARs) to sample naturally occurring slices of daily life. • What are the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation, such as Mehl and Pennebaker used in this study?
these researchers were able to carefully observe and record naturally occurring behaviors outside the artificiality of a laboratory. however, outside the lab they were not able to control for all the factors that may have influenced the everyday interactions they were recording.
what do phrenology and biological psychology have in common?
they share a focus on the links between the brain and behavior. phrenology faded because it had no scientific basis- skull bumps don't reveal mental traits and abilities
• What is natural selection?
this is the processes by which nature selects from chance variations the traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment
lesion
tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
PET scans
tracks radioactive glucose to reveal brain activity
fMRI scans
tracks successive images of brain tissue to show brain function
how does PET work?
tracks where a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain of the person given it performs a task.
Amygdala
two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion - linked to aggression an fear
point to remember:
unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect
MRI scans
uses magnetic fields and radio waves to show brain anatomy
psychological science in a post-truth world
we can build a real-truth world by embracing critical thinking and a scientific mindset. by seeking information with curiosity, skepticism, and humility, we can usually know what is really so.
• Why, when testing a new drug to control blood pressure, would we learn more about its effectiveness from giving it to half of the participants in a group of 1000 than to all 1000 participants?
we learn more about the drug's effectiveness when we can compare the results of those who took the drug (the experimental group) with the results of those who did not (the control group). if we gave the drug to all 1000 participants, we would have no way of knowing whether the drug is serving as a placebo or is actually medically effective.
• Why, after friends start dating, do we often feel that we knew they were meant to be together?
we often suffer from hindsight bias- after we have learned a situation's outcome, that outcome seems familiar and therefore obvious
Skepticism
what do you mean? how do you know? - sifting reality from fantasy requires a healthy skepticism- an attitude that is not cynical (doubting everything), but also not gullible (believing everything)
Empirical Approach
when testing those claiming to see glowing auras around people's bodies
the mind is what the brain does
when you think about your brain, you are thinking with your brain
regarding a neuron's response to stimulation, the intensity of the stimulus determines:
whether or not an impulse is generated
the flexible brain's ability to respond to damage is especially evident in the brains of:
young children
the scientific method
—a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis
