Public Speaking Midterm

Internal Summary

A statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the speaker's preceding point(s). Rather than letting listeners know what is coming up next, internal summaries remind listeners of what they have just heard. Such summaries are often used when a speaker finishes a complicated or particularly important main point or set of main points. Internal summaries are an excellent way to clarify and reinforce ideas. Can be combined with transition.

Research Interview

An interview conducted to gather information for a speech. The principles of effective interviewing fall into three groups— what to do before the interview, what to do during the interview, and what to do after the interview.

Plagiarism

Presenting another person's language or ideas as one's own. To give the impression you have written or thought something yourself when you have actually taken it from someone else.

General Purpose

The broad goal of a speech. To inform (you act as a teacher or lecturer) or To persuade: (you act as an advocate or a partisan)

Listener

The person who receives the speaker's message. Everything a speaker says is filtered through a listener's frame of reference—the total of his or her knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes.

Situational Audience Analysis

Audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition (interest, attitude, knowledge) of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion.

Critical listening

Listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it. - as when we listen to the sales pitch of a car salesperson or the campaign speech of a political candidate.

Empathic listening

Listening to provide emotional support for a speaker. - as when a psychiatrist listens to a patient or when we lend a sympathetic ear to a friend in distress.

Body

The main section of a speech. Chronological Order: A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern. Topical Order: A method of speech organization in which the main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics.

Transition

A word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one thought and is moving on to another. Try to make your main points stand out by introducing each with this.

Brief vs. Extended Example

Brief Example (specific examples): A specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point. - Another way to use brief examples is to pile them one upon the other until you create the desired impression. Extended Example: A story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point.

Stereotyping

Creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike. Examples of stereotyping include the erroneous notions that all African Americans are athletic or that all Asians excel in science.

Incremental plagiarism

Failing to give credit for particular parts of a speech that are borrowed from other people. The most important of these increments are quotations and paraphrases. - Whenever you quote someone directly, you must attribute the words to that person.

Critical thinking

Focused, organized thinking about such things as the logical relationships among ideas, the soundness of evidence, and the differences between fact and opinion. it's a matter of logic—of being able to spot weaknesses in other people's arguments and to avoid them in your own. It also involves related skills such as distinguishing fact from opinion, judging the credibility of statements, and assessing the soundness of evidence. In the broadest sense, critical thinking is focused, organized thinking—the ability to see clearly the relationships among ideas.

Audience-Centeredness

Keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation. You need to keep several questions in mind when you work on your speeches: To whom am I speaking? What do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech? What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish that aim? Think in advance about your listeners' background and interests, about their level of knowledge regarding the speech topic, and about their attitudes regarding your stance on the topic. As you develop the speech, work on explaining your ideas so they will be clear, interesting, and persuasive to the audience.

Appreciative listening

Listening for pleasure or enjoyment. - as when we listen to music, to a comedy routine, or to an entertaining speech.

Comprehensive listening

Listening to understand the message of a speaker. - as when we attend a classroom lecture or listen to directions for finding a friend's house.

Extemporaneous speech

A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented from a brief set of notes. Your aim is to plan your major points and supporting material without trying to memorize the precise language you will use on the day of the speech. In fact, when you use this method properly, you become so familiar with the substance of your talk that you need only a few brief notes to remind you of the points you intend to cover. - words or phrases not complete sentences - index cards

Academic Database

A database that catalogues articles from scholarly journals. - Academic OneFile - JSTOR - Google Scholar

Preliminary Bibliography

A list compiled early in the research process of works that look as if they might contain helpful information about a speech topic. Of the 15 or 20 preliminary sources, only 7 or 8 are likely to be of much use. These final sources will be listed in a bibliography (either MLA or APA style)

Problem-Solution Order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem

Topical Order

A method of speech organization in which the main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics. Each of which becomes a main point in the speech.

Spatial Order

A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a directional pattern. That is, the main points proceed from top to bottom, left to right, front to back, inside to outside, east to west, or some other route.

Chronological Order

A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern. They may narrate a series of events in the sequence in which they happened.

Causal Order

A method of speech organization in which the main points show a cause-effect relationship. When you put your speech in causal order, you have two main points — one dealing with the causes of an event, the other dealing with its effects.

Central Idea

A one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a speech. Sums up your speech in a single sentence. Another way to think of the central idea is as your residual message—what you want your audience to remember after they have forgotten everything else in the speech. Most of the time the central idea will encapsulate the main points to be developed in the body of the speech. Example: Music therapy developed as a formal mode of treatment during the 20th century utilizes a number of methods, and is explained by several theories that account for its success.

Rhetorical Question

A question that the audience answers mentally rather than aloud. Sometimes a single question will do. In other circumstances, you may want to pose a series of questions, each of which draws the audience deeper and deeper into the speech. When using this technique, be sure to pause for just a moment after each question. This adds dramatic impact and gives the question time to sink in. The audience, of course, will answer mentally—not aloud.

Specific Purpose

A single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech. ("to inform my audience about.. ."; "to persuade my audience to.. .") Example: To inform my audience about the benefits of music therapy for people with psychological or cognitive disabilities. - avoid figurative language - limit to one distinct idea - don't make it too general or vague

Internal Preview

A statement in the body of the speech that lets the audience know what the speaker is going to discuss next. - more detailed than a transition In effect, an internal preview works just like the preview statement in a speech introduction, except that it comes in the body of the speech—usually as the speaker is starting to discuss a main point. Often combined with transition Example: [Transition]: Now that we have seen how serious the problem of faulty credit reports is, let's look at some solutions. [Internal Preview]: I will focus on three solutions—instituting tighter government regulation of credit bureaus, holding credit bureaus financially responsible for their errors, and giving individuals easier access to their credit reports.

Preview Statement

A statement in the introduction of a speech that identifies the main points to be discussed in the body. Because they usually come at the very end of the introduction, they provide a smooth lead-in to the body of the speech. They signal that the body of the speech is about to begin.

Abstract

A summary of a magazine or journal article, written by someone other than the original author. You should never cite an article in your speech on the basis of the abstract alone. Always consult the full article.

Signpost

A very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech or that focuses attention on key ideas. - Frequently they are just numbers. - "The first cause is ... The second cause is ... The third cause is..." Another way to accomplish the same thing is to introduce your main points with a question. - "So how serious is the problem of decaying school buildings? Is it happening in just a few isolated districts, or is it widespread?" - "So how can we solve this problem? Is there a way to save our schools while remaining financially responsible?" Questions are particularly effective as signposts because they invite subliminal answers that get the audience more involved with the speech. - Besides using signposts to indicate where you are in the speech, you can use them to focus attention on key ideas. - "The most important thing to remember ... Be sure to keep in mind ..."

Connective

A word or phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationships among them. Without connectives, a speech is disjointed and uncoordinated —much as a person would be without ligaments and tendons to join the bones and hold the organs in place. Four types of speech connectives are transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts. Depending on the needs of your speech, you may want to use two, three, or even all four kinds of connectives in combination. Properly applied, connectives can make your speeches more unified and coherent.

Transition

A word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one thought and is moving on to another.

Hypothetical Example

An example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation. Usually such examples are brief stories that relate a general principle. The speaker creates a realistic scenario, relates it directly to her listeners, and gets them involved in the speech. Whenever you use a hypothetical example, it's a good idea to follow it with testimony or statistics to show that the example is not far-fetched.

Stage fright

Anxiety over the prospect of giving a speech in front of an audience. - For most students, the biggest part of stage fright is fear of the unknown. - One professional speech consultant estimates that proper preparation can reduce stage fright by up to 75 percent. - It affects everyone (including veterans) and typically lasts between 30-60 seconds.

Interference

Anything that impedes the communication of a message. Interference can be external or internal to listeners. Two kinds of interference: One, like the static or crossed wires in a phone conversation, is external to the audience. Many classrooms are subject to this kind of interference—from traffic outside the building, the clatter of a radiator, students conversing in the hall, a room that is stifling hot or freezing cold. Any of these can distract listeners from what you are saying. A second kind of interference is internal and comes from within your audience. Perhaps one of your listeners has a toothache. She may be so distracted by the pain that she doesn't pay attention to your speech. Another listener could be worrying about a test in the next class period. Yet another could be brooding about an argument with his girlfriend.

Demographic Audience Analysis

Audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age; religion; racial, ethnic, and cultural background; gender and sexual orientation; group membership; and the like. It consists of two steps: (1) identifying the general demographic features of your audience (2) gauging the importance of those features to a particular speaking situation. When analyzing demographic information about your audience, it is essential that you avoid stereotyping. Looking at demographic factors can provide important clues about your audience, but you must use those factors prudently and responsibly.

Positive nervousness

Controlled nervousness that helps energize a speaker for her or his presentation. "a zesty, enthusiastic, lively feeling with a slight edge to it.... It's still nervousness, but it feels different. You're no longer victimized by it; instead, you're vitalized by it. You're in control of it." It can help you get focused and energized.

Crescendo vs. Dissolve ending

Crescendo Ending: A conclusion in which the speech builds to a zenith of power and intensity. This does not mean simply getting louder and louder. It is a combination of many things, including vocal pitch, choice of words, dramatic content, gestures, pauses— and possibly loudness. Dissolve Ending: A conclusion that generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement. The final words fade like the spotlight, bringing the speech to an emotional close. Both the crescendo and dissolve endings must be worked out with great care. Practice until you get the words and the timing just right. The benefits will be well worth your time.

Direct Quotation vs. Paraphrase

Direct Quotations: Testimony that is presented word for word. Paraphrase: To restate or summarize an author's ideas in one's own words. When should you use a direct quotation as opposed to paraphrasing? The standard rule is that quotations are most effective when they are brief, when they convey your meaning better than you can, and when they are particularly eloquent, witty, or compelling. If you find a quotation that fits these criteria, then recite the quotation word for word. Paraphrasing is better than direct quotation in two situations: (1) when the wording of a quotation is obscure or cumbersome (2) when a quotation is longer than two or three sentences. Audiences often tune out partway through lengthy quotations, which tend to interrupt the flow of a speaker's ideas. Since the rest of the speech is in your own words, you should put longer quotations in your own words as well.

Eye Contact

Direct visual contact with the eyes of another person. Be sure to look to the left and right of the room, as well as to the center, and avoid the temptation to speak exclusively to one or two sympathetic individuals. If you are too nervous to look your classmates directly in the eye, try looking just to the side of each person, or just above his or her head.

Expert vs. Peer Testimony

Expert Testimony: Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields. - Citing the views of people who are experts is a good way to lend credibility to your speeches. - Even more important when a topic is controversial or when the audience is skeptical about a speaker's point of view. Peer Testimony: Testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic. - This kind of testimony is especially valuable because it gives a more personal viewpoint on issues than can be gained from expert testimony. - authentic and emotional impact.

Active listening

Giving undivided attention to a speaker in a genuine effort to understand the speaker's point of view. In conversation, they do not interrupt the speaker or finish his or her sentences. When listening to a speech, they do not allow themselves to be distracted by internal or external interference, and they do not prejudge the speaker. There are a number of steps you can take to improve your skills of active listening. They include resisting distractions, not allowing yourself to be diverted by a speaker's appearance or delivery, suspending judgment until you have heard the speaker out, focusing your listening, and developing note-taking skills.

Hearing vs. Listening

Hearing: The vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the brain. Listening: Paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear.

Visualization

Mental imaging in which speakers vividly picture themselves giving a successful presentation. - closely related to positive thinking. It is used by athletes, musicians, actors, speakers, and others to enhance their performance in stressful situations. It has also shown that visualization can help speakers control their stage fright. The key to visualization is creating a vivid mental blueprint in which you see yourself succeeding in your speech.

Gestures

Motions of a speaker's hands or arms during a speech. Don't try to plan all your gestures ahead of time. If you don't normally use your hands expressively during informal conversation, you shouldn't feel compelled to gesture a lot during your speech. Whatever gestures you do use should flow naturally from your feelings. Above all, don't let your gestures or bodily actions distract listeners from your message. - Do your best to avoid nervous mannerisms

Statistics

Numerical Data physicist, "When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it. But when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is... meager and unsatisfactory." Like brief examples, statistics are often cited in passing to clarify or strengthen a speaker's points. Can also be used in combination to show the magnitude or seriousness of an issue. The purpose of presenting a series of figures is to create an overall impact on listeners.

Strategic Organization

Putting a speech together in a particular way to achieve a particular result with a particular audience. When you work to organize your speeches, you gain practice in the general skill of establishing clear relationships among your ideas. The body is the longest and most important part. Also, you will usually prepare the body first. It is easier to create an effective introduction after you know exactly what you will say in the body. The process of organizing the body of a speech begins when you determine the main points.

Testimony

Quotations or paraphrases used to support a point. Audiences tend to respect the opinions of people who have special knowledge or experience on the topic at hand. By quoting or paraphrasing such people, you can give your ideas greater strength and impact. The two major kinds of testimony are expert testimony and peer testimony.

Global plagiarism

Stealing a speech entirely from a single source and passing it off as one's own. The most blatant—and unforgivable—kind of plagiarism, it is grossly unethical. The best way to avoid this, of course, is not to leave your speech until the last minute.

Patchwork plagiarism

Stealing ideas or language from two or three sources and passing them off as one's own. As with global plagiarism, one key to averting patchwork plagiarism is to start working on your speech as soon as possible. It is also vital to consult a large number of sources in your research. If you have only two or three sources, you are far more likely to fall into the trap of patchwork plagiarism than if you consult a wide range of research materials.

Credibility

The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. Your credibility need not be based on firsthand knowledge and experience. It can come from reading, from classes, from interviews, from friends, etc.

Goodwill

The audience's perception of whether the speaker has the best interests of the audience in mind. It is often crucial outside the classroom, where speakers have well-established reputations and may be identified with causes that arouse hostility among listeners. In such a situation, the speaker must try to defuse that hostility right at the start of the speech. Occasionally you may have to do the same thing in your classroom speeches. Suppose you advocate a potentially unpopular position. You will need to make a special effort to ensure that your classmates will consider your point of view.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures. Because of ethnocentrism, we identify with our group or culture and see its values, beliefs, and customs as "right" or "natural"— in comparison to the values, beliefs, and customs of other groups or cultures, which we tend to think of as "wrong" or "unnatural." If such speakers are to be successful, however, they must show respect for the cultures of the people they address. They need to adapt their messages to the values and expectations of their listeners.

Ethics

The branch of philosophy that deals with issues of right and wrong in human affairs. Questions of ethics arise whenever we ask whether a course of action is moral or immoral, fair or unfair, just or unjust, honest or dishonest. Sound ethical decisions involve weighing a potential course of action against a set of ethical standards or guidelines.

Conclusion

The final section of a speech. You need to accomplish two tasks in this part of the speech: let the audience know you are about to finish and reinforce your central idea.

Main Points

The major points developed in the body of a speech. Remember to limit the number of main points in the body of your speech. In a two-minute presentation, you won't have time to develop more than two or three main points.

Channel

The means by which a message is communicated. Public speakers may use one or more of several channels, each of which will affect the message received by the audience. A speech can be direct (hearing it firsthand) or indirect (through technology) Examples: - Television - Radio - Telephone

Feedback

The messages, usually nonverbal, sent from a listener to a speaker. One way communication vs Two way communication In public speaking there is plenty of feedback to let you know how your message is being received. Do your listeners lean forward in their seats, as if paying close attention? Do they have quizzical looks on their faces? Do they shuffle their feet and gaze at the clock? Like any kind of communication, feedback is affected by one's frame of reference.

Introduction

The opening section of a speech. Your first job in the introduction is to get the attention and interest of the audience. You can do this by posing a question, telling a story, making a startling statement, or opening with a quotation. The purpose of all these methods is to create a dramatic, colorful opening that will make your audience want to hear more. After this introduction, the audience was eager to hear more about the speaker's secret. In addition to gaining attention and interest, the introduction should orient your listeners toward the subject matter of your speech.

Speaker

The person who is presenting an oral message to a listener. Speech communication begins with a speaker. Your success as a speaker depends on you—on your personal credibility, your knowledge of the subject, your preparation of the speech, your manner of speaking, your sensitivity to the audience and the occasion. But successful speaking also requires enthusiasm.

Topic

The subject of a speech. The first step in speechmaking is choosing a topic. There are two broad categories of potential topics for your classroom speeches: (1) subjects you know a lot about (2) subjects you want to know more about. Can come up with ideas through: - personal inventory - clustering (9 columns: People, Places, Things, Events, Processes, Concepts, Natural Phenomena, Problems, and Plans and Policies) - internet search

Frame of reference

The sum of a person's knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes. No two people can have exactly the same frame of reference. Because people have different frames of reference, a public speaker must take great care to adapt the message to the particular audience being addressed. To be an effective speaker, you must be audience-centered. Everything a speaker says is filtered through a listener's frame of reference

Paraphrase

To restate or summarize an author's ideas in one's own words. You need to give credit— just as if you were repeating words verbatim. There are two ways to guard against incremental plagiarism: The first is to be careful when taking research notes to distinguish among direct quotations, paraphrased material, and your own comments. The second way to avoid incremental plagiarism is to err on the side of caution. In other words, when in doubt, cite your source.

Message

Whatever a speaker communicates to someone else. Your goal in public speaking is to have your intended message be the message that is actually communicated. Achieving this depends both on what you say (the verbal message) and on how you say it (the nonverbal message). Besides the message you send with words, you send a message with your tone of voice, appearance, gestures, facial expression, and eye contact.