Pysch Ch6

Stimulus generalization

Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

Vicarious learning

Learning the consequences of an action by watching other being rewarded or punished for performing the action. Type of observational learning. Not the same as modeling.

Identify the key elements of classical conditioning as demonstrated in Pavlov's classic experiment.

Pavlov accidentally discovered the phenomenon in which one stimulus can, through pairing with another stimulus, come to produce a similar response. He called this "classical conditioning."

What are the three types of learning?

There are three types of learning: Non-associative, Associative and Observational

Rescorla-Wagner model

This model states that an animal learns an expectation that some predictors (potential conditioned stimulus's) are better than others. According to this model, the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising. This difference between the expected and actual outcomes is termed prediction error.

Apply classical conditioning to examples of taste aversions

Conditioned taste aversions occur when an organism becomes nauseated some time after eating a certain food, which then becomes aversive to the organism.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

It begins as a neutral stimulus but when paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it eventually begins to elicit an involuntary, and automatic behaviour on its own. The response to the conditioned stimulus is called "conditioned response:, and both stimulus and response are learned

What was Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment?

It demonstrated that young children will imitate aggressive actions of a model even when there is no reinforcement for doing so.

Primary reinforcer

It is something such as food or water that satisfies a basic, natural device

Fixed ration schedule of reinforcement

A certain number of responses is required before reinforcement is given.

Operant conditioning

A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future.

Premack's Principle

A more-valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less-valued activity.

Spontaneous recovery

A process in which previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.

Learning

A relatively enduring change in behaviour resulting from experience.

Positive reinforcement

A response is followed by the presentation of a pleasurable stimulus

Punishment by removal

A response is followed by the removal of some pleasurable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy for misbehaviour

Behaviorism

A school of belief founded by John B. Watson, which stated that, the environment and its associated effects on animals were the sole determinant of learning. He built of the principle introduces by John Locke, tabula rasa- meaning blank slate or born knowing nothing.

Secondary reinforcer

It is something that becomes reinforcing only after being paired with a primary reinforce.

Classical conditioning

A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.

Variable ration schedule of reinforcement

A varying number of responses is required to obtain reinforcement.

Summarize how classical conditioning is dependent on the biology of organisms

Animals have a hard time learning behaviours that run counter to their evolutionary adaptation. For example, raccoons are hardwired to rub food between their paws, as this raccoon is doing. They have trouble learning not to rub objects.

What is the modern version of behaviour modification?

Applied behavior analysis makes use of functional analysis and behavioral techniques to change human behavior.

Classical and Operant conditioning are what type of learning process?

Associative

list the four elements of observational learning

Attention, Memory, Imitation, and Desire

Identify the contributions of Skinner to the concept of operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner named the learning of voluntary response "operant conditioning" because voluntary responses are what we use to operate in the world around us.

What does Siegal and his colleagues suggest leads to greatest drug tolerance?

Drug tolerance is greatest when the drug is taken in the same physical location as previous drug use. The body has learned to expect the drug in that location and then to compensate for the drug, such as by altering neurochemistry or physiology to metabolise it.

contiguity

From his research, Pavlov concluded that the critical element in the acquisition of a learned association is that the stimuli occur together in time

How did Kandel study the neural basis of nonassociative learning?

He used aplysia to study the neural basis of nonassociative learning. He showed that alterations in the functioning of the synapse lead to habituation and sensitization. A reduction in neurotransmitter release lead to habituation and an increase lead to sensitization.

Negative prediction error

If an expected event does not happen, this leads to a negative prediction error. This will weaken the relationship between the CS and the US

Behaviour modification

It is the use of operant conditioning to eliminate unwanted behaviours and replace them with desirable ones.

Mirror neurons

Mirror neurons are activated by watching others. Mirror neurons become activated when we observe others engaging in actions. In fact, the same neurons that become active when we observe another person engaging in a task become active when we perform the same task. Mirror neurons may be involved in learning about and predicting what others are thinking. They may also form the basis of empathy, the ability to understand the perspective of other people.

Summarize Mineka et al. (1984)'s findings with monkeys

Monkeys raised in laboratories do not fear snakes. Monkeys raised in the wild do. Neither fear flowers. Mineka et al. asked; can lab monkey learn to fear snakes or flowers by seeing other monkeys exhibit a fear response to these things? The found yes for the snakes and no for the flowers. It appears monkeys are biologically prepared to fear certain objects, like snakes, but not others, like flowers. This is generalizable to other animals, including humans.

Summarize what Bandura's classic Bobo doll studies teach us about learning

Observational learning can occur when we watch a model demonstrate a behaviour. Albert bandura's classic Bobo doll experiment showed that children readily imitate aggression when they see it modelled by adults. Studies suggest that children and adults may inclined to mimic aggressive behaviours seen in TV shows, movies, video games, and on the Internet. Observation of pro-social behaviours, on the other hand, can encourage kindness, generosity and other forms of behaviour that benefit others.

Observational learning

Observational learning is acquired by watching others perform or model certain actions.

what are some applications of Premack's Principle?

Parents use Premack 's Principle all the time. They tell their children, "Eat your spinach and then you'll get dessert."

How can punishment be made more effective?

Punishment can be made more effective by making it immediate and consistent and by pairing punishment of the undesirable behavior with reinforcement of the desirable one.

positive prediction error

Suppose that after a stimulus appears, something better than expected happened. This prediction error is considered positive. This will strengthen the association between the CS and the US.

Little Albert Experiment

The case study of Little Albert illustrated that the conditioned emotional response, an emotional reaction (fear in this case) is acquired via classical conditioning. When Little Albert heard a loud bang (US), he exhibited a fear response (UR). Through conditioned, the sight of a rat became paired with the loud noise and went from being a neutral stimulus to a CS. Little Albert's fear of the rat became the CR and generalized to stimuli that looked similar. This was done by John B. Watson.

What are the principles of classical conditioning?

The conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus must be paired several times and the conditioned stimulus must PRECEDE the unconditioned stimulus by only a few seconds.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

The law of effect was important to the study of operant condition, a type of learning in which people or animals come to associate their voluntary actions with consequences. The law of effect states that if a behavior is followed by a pleasurable outcome, that behavior is more likely to reoccur. Thorndike's cats learned that if they escaped the puzzle box, they would get to eat fish; this increased the speed with which they opened the puzzle box.

Identify the contributions of Thorndike to the concept of operant conditioning

Thorndike developed the law of effect: a response followed by pleasurable consequences will be repeated, but a response followed by an unpleasant consequence will not be repeated.

latent learning

Tolman found that rats that were allowed to wander in a maze but were not reinforced still showed evidence of having learned the maze once reinforcement became possible.

Skinner Box

Used to assess operant conditioning. It consists of a small chamber or cage. Inside, one lever or response key is connected to a food supply, and a second lever or response keys is connected to a water supply. The animal learns to press one lever or key to receive food and the other to receive water.

Apply classical conditioning to examples of phobias

Watson was able to demonstrate that an emotional disorder called a phobia could be learned through classical condition by exposing a baby to a white rat and a loud noise, producing conditioned fear of the rat in the baby.

The blocking effect

When a second CS is added to a conditioned trial with a previously learned CS. Say that a dog has learned that a metronome (CS1) is a good predictor of food (US). Now a flash of light (CS2) accompanies the metronome. There will be no prediction error, and the dog will not associate the light with the food because the light does not provide any additional information.

Shaping

a person observes the behaviours of animals, providing reinforcers when they perform a required level

Negative reinforcement

a response is followed by the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.

punishment by application

a response is followed the application or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus, such as spanking.

Token economies

are a type of behaviour modification in which secondary reinforcers, or tokens, are used.

fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

at least one correct response must be made within a set interval of time to obtain reinforcement.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

is the stimulus that is naturally occurring and produces the innate, or involuntary, unconditioned response. Both are called unconditioned because they are not learned

Neurofeedback

it is a modified version of biofeedback in which a person learns to modify the activity of his or her brain.

Punishment

it is any event or stimulus that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen.

Continuous reinforcement

it is generally more effective for establishing a behaviour. reinforcers can be delivered on a constant basis.

Partial reinforcement

learning through partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction and useful for maintaining behaviour.

Successive approximations

refers to the series of small steps leading to a desired behaviour

variable interval schedule of reinforcement

reinforcement follows the first correct response made after an interval of time that changes for each reinforcement opportunity.

Cognitive learning theory

states that learning requires cognition, or the influence of an organism's thought processes.

What are the important aspects of classical conditioning

stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and higher-order conditioning.