research ch 1-6
Correlational research
Used to describe relationships among variables, to predict a criterion variable, or to test a model of the interrelationships among variables used to predict a variable
simple research form of correlational
employs a statistic that yields a single number (called a correlation coefficient) that expresses the extent to which a pair of variables (two sets of numbers) are related.
facts
formal findings from studies
descriptive stats
function is to describe a given set of data
Internal validity is not concerned with..
generalization but with the integrity of the study itself
Internal Validity issues
have to do with whether the study has been designed to yield truthful results the techniques used be a researcher to collect data present some of the most common problems of internal validity
Predictive research form of correlational research
is used to improve our capacity to anticipate events. By examining the patterns of association between some set of variables and something that the investigator wishes to predict (usually called the criterion variable), it is possible to identify the best possible set of variables to use
Prediction research can be particularly valuable when
it is necessary to establish priorities for the distribution of scarce resources.
don't get stuck on the question, "is this good research?"
it takes many years to learn how to point out flaws in logic and imperfections of logic don't get hung up on it in the beginning. Look first at the integrity of the journal and the reviews. If you do spot an inconsistency, take a note and come back to it later.
How to read research reports
laying the foundations of good readership required hard work and persistence so you must prepare your attitude appropriately to be able to understand what you are researching and achieve the full benefits (reading research is personal)
don't get stuck on stats
look in the text and not the table when it comes to understanding statistical analysis! You can look up how to decipher stats in other texts or just skip over the stats and keep reading if you have tried all other options
Modeling research
maps in graphic form (often in the familiar format of boxes with connecting arrows) the relationships among a number of variables, displaying the degree to which any one of them can be used to predict one or more of the others.
What is the most common circumstance in which external validity becomes an issue
occurs when one group of people is examined in the study but the results and conclusions are applied to another group-what might be true for the participating sample of people in the study simply might not be valid for another group of people
Internal validity
one set of validity issues is internal to a study and concerns whether the research had been designed so that it truly deals with what is being
Qualitative and Quantitative research are shaped by different
paragigms
peer review
through peer review the manuscripts submitted to a journal are reviewed by established scholars in the topic area and screened for quality of both the research procedures employed in the study and the history provided in the report.
mean difference stats
to detect whether the differences between or among groups of data are more than meaningless accidents
Looking for the right read
until you have gained some skill and confidence, select studies dealing with topics about which you have some familiarity
Descriptive research
use to describe a sample on a specific variable -can also describe subsamples on the same variable -basically data on a table or something -like descriptive stats
Quasi-experimental/Experimental Research
used to test differences in group means for one of more independent variables. -
Data collection
varies forms including machines that use comp program to direct monitoring of a biological process, surveys, or door-to-door interviews.
trust
we need to have confidence in the quality of work described and the accuracy of the conclusions drawn
source of funding
when its funded by a prestigious government source than you can expect sound research etc. National institutes of health because of the hoops they go through to get approved for funding
What type of research is the best?
- your question must guide the selection and use of research methods
The limits of respect; healthy skepticism
-a little bit of skepticism is beneficial. Researchers do make mistakes; so don't always believe everything you read. -do simple checks-such as arithmetic calculations to see if your numbers match with the article -check for full citations on quotations, they should be there -does the author address and discuss all of the questions that they mention? -is the subject sample size consistent throughout the study -remember to consider questions such as these if you have any doubt about this article
Research reports: A middle-ground definition
-a research report gives the history of a study, including what the research wanted to find out and why it seemed worth discovering, how he or she gathered the information, and what he or she thought it all meant.
sampling
-a sample is selected to represent the true population -larger the sample the more likely it represents the general population -central problem in sampling is to be sure the sample group truly represents the population and isn't distorted in any way by the nature of selectivity -the objective for all studies is to create a sample in a manner that does not allow extraneous variables to influence findings -other variable to consider: age/gender -suing the results of a study to guide action in a setting that is different from that of a study is generalizing the results
sample
-a small number of the set
conflict of interest
-a warning signal appears when you discover someone doing, sponsoring or disseminating research that has a direct conflict of interest; finances, aspiratiosn -be wary when the results are released directly and solely by the sponsoring organization -lobbying groups rarely give an objective account -sometimes investigators have biases and you see these in inadequately controlled studies
research is a multistage process with formal rules that prescribe the general nature of each step
-begins with a carefully defined questions -designs systematic ways to collect information that might provide an answer
important factors regarding journal selectivity
-circulation -quality of editing -selectivity used to establish the journal reputation
methods for observing and recording
-collecting data
Problems with research (6 perceptions)
-complexity of results -conflicting results -trivial topics -impractical studies -absence of commitment and caring -conflict with other sources of truth
The reader as a consumer: burdens to be left behind
-disrespectful attitudes towards research authors not only violates human ethics but it also creates a handicap in your learning ability -don't just seek out flaws, try to understand the research first -don't get caught up ion the idea that the author is playing games with you trying to get you to understand their obscure research
4 ways to avoid getting hung up on what doesn't matter
-don't get stuck on understanding unfamiliar words -don't get stuck on what is not there -don't get stuck on statistics -don't get stuck on the question " is this good research?"
important factor in journal selection
-estimates the relative influence exerted by an average article in a journal over scholars working in related areas
Reading research cooperatively
-exchanging ideas about the research you are reading with other people is helpful in the report deciphering process -familiarize yourself with the content of the first chapter, the topics of the main text, and the appendices of a good reseach book that will aid in your reading reports. The glossary will aso help with unknown terminology -Textbook by Patten (2009) will aid in a basic understanding of quantitative and qualitative methods -part II of chapter 7 &8 provided tools to help you approach and understand research appropriately
2 problems in sampling
-getting a controlled sample -the generalizability of the results
lack of replication
-important in creating trust -when a study is replicated and similar results are found then trust grows
explication of the question and its origins
-in the intro paragraph the investigator reveals how he or she understands the research question; it also answers why the question is important, what already is known about the answer and how the scope of the question has been defined and limited for the purpose of the study.
information
-informal observations and ideas that turn up in study reports
Where do researchers do their work?
-institutions of higher educations -special laboratory settings -unspecialized settings or in a natural field locations (biology in a river)
ask these questions to determine the confidence in an article
-is the editorial board composed of names you recognize as leading scholars in the field served by the journal? -are the reviewers active researchers who are employed at university known for research in the field that interests you? -is it the judgment of others to whom you talk-porfessors, colleagues, librarians, graduate students-that the journal has a strong reputation for editorial standards and a modest degree of selectivity
Communication reports: 2 to tango
-it is not always your fault for not understanding: sometimes the writer did not explain their thoughts well enough for the reader to understand -reading research involves skills: practice, feedback and assistance you will get better at reading research if you apply these skills
other reports on the same topic
-look at the reference list attached at the end of the report -look for bibliographies -the discussion section in the report can also contain related research -
Who does research?
-most people who do research have completed a doctoral degree or studying for their Ph.D -students often help with research under a doctor to provide them with training in research-students often go from being responsible for a part of research to completing a research dissertation
Graphic Tools: Most Travelers need a map
-most profit from the process of making a map of events reported in a study. A rough flowchart displaying the major events of the study in temporal sequence. -you want to locate each operation within a study which helps you keep tack of what the author is describing. -you can write in connected items to your map as things unfold and you start to understand them
discussion of findings or development of conclusion
-moving from what was observed (findings) to how those observations should be understood (conclusions) is very difficult.
Analyzing of data concerning two or more variables of intelligence would require..
-multivariate
new terminology and possible key words for retrieval
-new words signal new constructs, acquiring more powerful conceptual tools allows you to think in more complex ways.
Carelessness warning signs
-number of subjects in the sample in one section do not match the number given in another section -columns of numbers don't add up on tables -when the data collection isn't the same for all subjects -citations in the report don't make the reference lists -paper is vague and its hard to understand aspects of the study
Reading research: When to consider using alternative sources
-one form of scholarly work is discovery -use of more generic research-based sources often is the most efficient and effective way to find what you need
Researchers tend to present their work in what form first?
-orally; at a meetings of academic peers then they get feedback and submit a revised version for a review and possible publication into a journal.
"other things"
-other reports on the same topic -new terminology and possible key words for retrieval -explication of the question and its origins -description of the context for the study -methods for observing and recording -interventions used -discussions of findings or development of conclusions -implications or recommendations for improved practice
Other random facts about research
-people who do research follow ethical and technical standards -a research project can involve a wider variety of personnel -military, government, industrial and philanthropic agencies do research as well as business entities -federal government supports sites for specialized research (NIH) -businesses conduct studies to further their own interests in their own laboratory -philanthropic foundations focus on narrow and specific purposes -heritage foundation and the brookings institution study social and political research related to their organizations od interest. *not always peer reviewed -some businesses do research together to benefit the industry -polling may be used to discover national trends -print and electronic news journalism should be regarded as unreliable sources because research information is often unreported
Researchers as works; the matter of respect
-read research as a resource and keep an attitude of basic respect for the person who wrote the work. -The researchers worked hard on their papers and then exposed their work to the public eye to be judged, so whether you like their style or not, show respect for their intentions. -remember that a majority of research is subject to the time and money so their may be shortcomings as a result -you have to invest some effort in reading these reports -if you read with the notion that researchers are honestly trying to inform you it is easier to get at the task of trying to understand what is written
The review process for journal publications
-refereed publications -reviewers are chosen because they are experts in the field and have experience in writing evaluations -the number of reivewers involved are usually 2 or 3 but depends on the provedures by the journals editorial board -the journals authors name is removed -journal provides directions for how to review -general and specific comments are required and attention is usually given to some factors such as significance of the research question, methodology, data analysis, quality of writing and organization of the manuscript -after the reviews are returned the editor makes a decision about he next step which is normally rejection, acceptance, acceptance contingent on specific revisions to be made by the author -rare for manuscripts to be accepted exactly as submitted -usually suggestions pertain to methods used, clarification of the research questions, revision in findings or conclusions -even after the author attempts the required changes it may cycle through many revisions or may not be published -peer review journals are a vital part of the self-regulation and quality control -the last step in quality control is forming your own judgment of what you read
association or correlational
-relations between or among sets of numerical data
Researchers as writers; style and substance
-remember that researchers who wrote the reports are people too and people have their own style of talking. Despite the rules required to actually write the paper, pieces of the author's personality remain in their writing. -you are reading research for facts and ideas not for entertainment
journals benefit from peer review in 2 ways
-reports are improved -identify and eliminate research that contains fundamental flaws -even when they do peer review mistakes still can occur
CH.2 Research when to believe what you read
-research is a multistage process with formal rules that prescribe the general nature of each step -hallmark of formal research its a public act -investigator must prepare a truthful written account of what he/she did -research must include a description of all aspects of design and method that support findings -must be published so it can be read by others, if not public then not considered research -peer review and public dissemination are related to credibility- degree to which you can invest your trust into what the report contains
The review process for presenting and publishing research
-researchers often present their research at a meeting of their peers at a symposium where they deliver their papers orally -they have poster presentations that have graphic displays and informal interactions with visitors *this allows them to get critical reactions from peers and those often aid in revisions before they submit it to a journal -researchers who want to present their work often submit an abstract 1 -3 pages in length that are then reviewed by a panel of other investigators working in the same field. -the reviewers make a recommendation on whether they study appears to be a quality study to take place in the conference program -the researcher presents for 10-15 min
In good research 3 operations must be related by an intrinsic logic
-shaping the question -selection of research design -selection of tools for managing and analyzing data
Journal selectivity
-some journals are more stringent on review procedures -the researcher needs to balance desire to publish in a prestigious journal and the need to get journal published -the journals that are more selective are more prestigious -selectivity of journals is related to the degree of trust that can be placed on the content in a journal -the source of the publication helps decide if you can trust it -you gain info on a journal's quality by looking at publications with statistics of individual jounrals standards of good writing, consistency of editorial style, attractiveness of the format and freedom from mechanical errors provide practical reasons to reach for some articles and not for others
errors and poor scholarship
-sometimes the researcher makes errors in interpretation or writing -poor scholarship: occurs when errors in the study or in the report of the study extends beyond what can be concluded from the results far beyond what the data supports
technical problems
-specific variables being studies -rationale for conducting the study -treatment for intervention -number and characteristics of the subjects -interactions of the investigator with the subjects -setting of the study for data collection -methods used to collect data -analysis used to determine results
Statistics in Quantitative Research
-statistical tools can be categorized by the purposes for which they are commonly employed
reasons to suspend trust in a research report
-technical aspects of method -sampling -replication -conflicts -carelessness -errors of interpretation
CH.5: Studies can differ from each other in several ways
-the initial assumptions they make about the nature of the world (producing paradigmatic differences, such as quantitative and qualitative research) -the organization of the study (producing design differences such as experimental and correlational research) -the procedures used to collect data (producing methodological differences, such as psychometric and interview research)
Problems with reports
-the supposed inaccessibility of reports -the impediments of reading research directly related to the document are *specialized jargon *perceived level of intellectual demand *lack of self-evident validation *difficult retrieval -people simply do not understand why reports cannot be written in plain English *reading becomes a problem of translation as well as one of comprehension -a related problem is the belief that one needs both specialized training in academic subject matter and exceptional cognitive skills to understand the information that the reports contain -these misunderstandings create a lack of self-confidence -nearly every novice comes to reading with two unspoken questions *is this good research? *how am I supposed to tell whether it is or not? -learning to operate modern retrieval systems to find studies on a particular subject requires time and some assistance
interventions used
-the targets for intervening (commonly called the treatment) are people -if data fails to provide a clear answer to the research question, it is possible to discover valuable facts, information and ideas in the report.
Publications
-there is an entire class of serial publications (periodicals) that are not a source of what we consider research reports -publications that use the word journal in their title are not research journals -research reports that appear in refereed research journals are the primary source for research in areas of professional or disciplinary scholarship. -publications that are not refereed do not provide the author with the services of peer review or the reader with the quality assurance produced by that process
Critical Characteristics: What has to be in a report
-they contain a clear statement of the question or problem -research reports situate the purpose of the study -investigator explains the set of theoretical assumptions with which the questions and data were framed (understood) and upon which the analysis and conclusion were based. -they described data collection procedures that were planned in advance -they offer detailed evidence that the observations and recording of data were executed with a concern for accuracy -they demonstrate that the quality of data was a central concern during the study *info about reliability and validity of measurement procedures -discuss how data was organized and specify the means of analysis -the results of data analysis explicitly related to the research question or problem -conclusions concerning the findings are reported as tentative and contingent upon further investigation -conclusions, assertions and recommendations are stated to make the limitations of the study clear -research reports are made available for review by competent peers who have experience and expertise in the area of the study
The foundations of believing what you read in research
-trust
Analyzing of data concerning the single variable factor of intelligence would require
-univariate statistic
Limiting yourself exclusively to interpretations of research by other people is..
-unnecessary you can read and understand original reports in many areas and draw your own conclusions
Reading Research: What can you find besides findings
-when cooperative learning is of interest both the facts and the information are of potential value -reliable facts -other things that people are looking for when they read research reports
Reading research as puzzle solving
-you have to study the report, not just read it -reading research is hard for everyone but some people except the challenge to "read smart" and work hard to understand what is being said
3 instances when published research presents characteristics that are associated with scholarship
1. reputation of the authors 2. source of funding 3. sponsorship
CH.4: Five assertions responses to the hypothesis previously offered for the neglect of research reports
1. specialized training in how to do research is not required to read reports in many fields 2.the media are saturated w/reference to findings (or alleged findings) from and journals crammed with reports are easy to find (even on the internet) 3. This is a culture in which many ppl revere the processes (and fruits) of science 4. practice in an enormous range of vocations and professions can be what is contained in research reports 5. limiting yourself to what other people tell you about research findings means giving up an important part of your independence- and responsibility.
paradigm
different assumptions about the nature of reality
Quantitative
distinctly different designs reflect different pragmatic purposes to create descriptions or to detect associations
meta-analysis
In recent years, new methods have been created that allow researchers to combine studies that have the same focus to derive a single result and that allows for conclusions with considerably more persuasive power than could be provided by any single study.
Single Subject
Researchers using single-subject designs (a number of alternatives are available) usually are interested in examining the contingencies that shape human behavior. Observations are made of a single subject or one subject at a time.
Research
a planned and systematic process for answering questions according to rules that are particular to the field of inquiry and a kind of research. -done by people with specific skills and knowledge
If scores change substantially (or are random) from first to second test
a reliability problem almost certainly exists
What is a research report?
a written document that gives the history of a research study from start to finish.
reputation of the authors
academic credential of the author (honors power influence) leads to trust of the author whether or not its quality research
the languages of research
aka-system languages add technical vocab and the conventions of scientific writing-this limits the access of non-specialists to the work of writing
sponsorship by a research organization or professional organization
association of a scholarly organizations name with a study usually can be taken as a hallmark of research oh particular significance and high quality
don't get stuck on understanding unfamiliar words
check to see if the author explains the term in the text, look it up in another resource or ask someone around you who may be able to explain it. You may have to skip over it and come back to it later, don't give up on it.
Research should
come as close to producing reliably valid results as human skill and effort can devise
external validity
concerns the external question of whether or not the results will remain truthful when subsequently applied to people, situations, or objects outside of the original investigation
when you think internal validity think
data collection
Validity
denotes the condition of being true -researchers use validity with regards to two aspects of their investigations.
journal
periodical devoted to research reports and articles about scholarship
Generic issues in research
planning research requires many decisions that ultimately will bear on the quality of data collected and the credibility of findings
proceedings
printed collection of reports often called papers that have been delivered orally by investigators at a meeting of scholars
replication
repeating a study in different settings or with different subjects
the audience for reports
researchers do not write in a common language that everyone understands because that can cause confusion and takes away from standardization and reliability but also researchers write to other researchers and people knowledgeable in that specific area(your intended audience) *you should be able to follow at least a broad outline of a study if you have a general familiarity with the concepts in that field. *sometimes learning new research terms is part of the learning process in reading research that you don't quite understand *studies that use less cryptic shorthand and symbols are easier to read because they more closely approximate common language. -Easing the difficulty in selecting studies (after you select those that you have academic credentials in) 1.look for studies of professional practice that employ research methods borrowed from social sciences (good for the novice reader) 2.applied studies dealing with practical problems are easier to decipher than those dealing with basic inquiry into the nature of things. 3. shorter reports make more sense for a beginner than do lengthy accounts -make use of published selections (which reprint selected research journals) -select reports that are appropriate for your level of preparations and experience
Qualitative
strategic variations in design serve different research intentions. ex. production of theory discovery of participants perpectives, or social empowerment of participants
When you think reliability think
test re-test
don't get stuck on what is not there
the author can't always include everything, so if you can't find something, make a note and return to it later. It may show up in article later.
the end result of research is..
the publication of a report in a journal or proceedings
Reliability
the test-retest procedure that often is used to establish the stability of results over time. The same test is given to the same people on 2 occasions. If the scores are relatively the same, the scores can be taken as evidence of the test's reliability
reliable facts
the truthful findings described in research reports-are the coins of academic commerce
discovery
the use of systematic investigation to explore the workings of our world and ourselves -commonly called research