research methodology mid term

Research

"creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge... and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications". A process of inquiry, that uses Methods to yield Data. The goal is to discover new truths, or verify existing hypotheses.

Statistics

A body of techniques and procedures dealing with the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of information that can be stated numerically. (Ideally, this would all be done in an objective way, but still they can be used to present biased arguments). They can be "descriptive" or "inferential".

Ontology

A branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature and relations of being A particular theory about the nature of being or the kinds of things that have existence Is a system of belief that reflects an interpretation of an individual about what constitutes a fact. In simple terms, it is associated with a central question of whether social entities need to be perceived as objective or subjective.

True Experiments

An effort is made to control all variables other than the one being tested. Each subject is selected (by random assignment) for either the experimental/treatment group (manipulated with a controlled independent variable) or the control group (with a baseline level of this variable, or with the variable withheld). The control group provides us with the basis to make comparisons. Not the subject, nor the researchers know which group a subject is in (double blind). A dependent variable is measured to determine if the independent variable has an effect.

Correlational Research

Attempts to establish whether or not two or more variables are correlated (examples: smoking and lung cancer, or high cholesterol and cardiovascular disease) Often involves the collection of empirical data May be observational (no variables are manipulated by the researchers) Does not establish causality Direction of causality is not established An unexamined variable may be the cause Example: low norepinephrine and serotonin are correlated with clinical depression. We don't know if low levels of these neurotransmitters cause depression, or if depression depletes the levels of these neurotransmitters, or if some other variable (such as the increased number of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron) causes both depression and the depletion of the neurotransmitter levels. Often conducted as exploratory or beginning research Can be followed up with research that seeks to establish causality

5 main ways of Sampling

Convenience (ex. Volunteers) Simple random sample (random selection) Systemic sample (ex. Alphabetic system) Stratified sample (representation of all relevant sub-groups are represented (male, female, other, or members of every major religious tradition, students from each class, etc.) Cluster sampling (ex. an entire subgroup)

Methods

Described in the methodology, define the means or modes of data collection or, sometimes, how a specific result is to be calculated. Encompass all the tools and techniques used to conduct research. These vary widely from within and across fields, but largely incorporate three categories - the collection of data, Statistical Techniques used to establish relationships (Analytical tools), verification of the accuracy of the results obtained (Analytical tools). Methods are the nuts and bolts; the specific techniques used to conduct research (collect, organize and analyze data). It is necessary to state how you have addressed the research questions and/or hypotheses. The methods should be described in enough detail for the study to be replicated,

Independent Variables

In the clinical trial is the level of the therapeutic agent. It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure.

Problem Statement

Is the description of an active challenge (i.e. problem) faced by researchers and/or practitioners that does not have adequate solutions available. It should address who, what, where, when, why, and how.

Constructivism

Is the recognition that reality is a product of human intelligence interacting with experience in the real world. As soon as you include human mental activity in the process of knowing reality, you have accepted it. A philosophy of science maintaining that natural science consists of mental constructs that are constructed with the aim of explaining sensory experience (or measurements) of the natural world. It maintains that knowledge is constructed by scientists and it opposes the idea that there is a single methodology to generate knowledge. It is also known as subjectivism.

Directional Hypothesis

It is more specific, in that the experimenter predicts, not only that a specific relationship will exist, but, further, the direction of that relationship.

What can go wrong in sampling

Missing Elements (ex: old list exclusion) Foreign elements (ex: old list inclusion) Duplicates (ex: double-counted)

qualitative research

Paradigm: Constructivist: Reality is constructed of individual experiences Process: Problem, Collection of data through observation and interaction Principles: Flexibility- freedom of responses, rather than yes/no, Depth rather than breadth (smaller samples, deeper exploration into their experiences)

quantitative research

Paradigm: Positivist: An objective reality exists and can be studied Process: Hypotheses, Sampling, Testing of Variables, Statistical Analysis, Mathematical Representation of Relationship (P Value) Principles: Objective - elimination of bias, Methodological - strict definitions, controlled procedures, Elimination of all confounding variables, Mainly Deductive, Top-down, general to specific

Observational Research

Phenomena are observed and recorded No variables are manipulated by the researchers Often Qualitative in nature Case studies, an important tool for learning Chinese Medicine, and an important form of evidence in its practice, fit into this category.

Quasi Experiments

Quasi-experiments are similar to True Experiments, but the groups studied are not randomly assigned, but are naturally occurring or otherwise predetermined. Examples are using different genders, nationalities, or age groups, to see how a certain factor affects each group. Causality can not be determined by quasi-experiments.

Inductive Reasoning

Refers to reasoning that takes specific information and makes a broader generalization that is considered probable, allowing for the fact that the conclusion may not be accurate. It is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. It is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior.

Research Design

Refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

Methodology

The general research strategy that outlines the way in which a research project is to be undertaken and, among other things, identifies the methods to be used in it. the way in which research is conducted. It is the context, and the overarching guide, for how individual methods will be used to obtain and make sense of data. Implies more than simply the methods you intend to use to collect data. It is often necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods.

Epistemology

The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope. It is the investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion."

Inferential statistics

Used to make inferences about a population by using data gathered from a sample. For example, you randomly select 1,000 bunches of grapes from the same vineyard, and use the data collected from these 1,000 bunches to infer characteristics of all the bunches of grapes from the vineyard.

Descriptive Statistics

Used to organize and summarize a set of measurements in order to describe a situation at a specific point in time. For example, you buy ten bunches of grapes, and count the number of grapes on each bunch. Now you know the total amount of grapes, and you can calculate the mean, median and mode for those ten bunches at that specific point in time.

Basic Research

also called pure research or fundamental research, is scientific research aimed to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena. Can be used to add to the general body of scientific knowledge.

Applied Research

can be used to answer specific questions or solve specific problems

Mixed Methods Research

is a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analysing and integrating quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews) research.

Deductive Reasoning

is a type of reasoning which goes from general to specific. It is based on premises and if the premises are true, then the reasoning will be valid. Ex: A=B and B=C so A must = C.

Dependent Variable

is some clinical outcome, which measured to determine the effect of the independent variable. It is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during the experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independent variable. It is called dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable.

Evidence

the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid. "the study finds little evidence of overt discrimination" synonyms: proof, confirmation, verification, substantiation, corroboration, affirmation, attestation