SFL 358 Midcourse Exam
How often do infants use media?
o 17% 1990s, 52$ 200s, 66% 2016 o Average amount of media time is around 1 hour o Average age of first viewing is between 4-6 months o 38% have used mobile device o 40% parents say TV is on all or most of the time
What does the Flourishing Fmailies study say about video game playing?
o 80% of YM (age 12-13) report playing every day (86% in Seattle) o 5% play more than 5 hours a day (7% in seattle) o 31% reported one of the 3 favorite games was M rated (77% was Halo) - How much is too much? o Flourishing Families - 5 of 9 criteria of addiction § 11.2% Seattle, 11.5% Provo § Gender · Boys 18% Seattle, 21% Provo · Seattle 4%, Provo 3%
How frequentyly do people play video games?
o Children/adolescents play just over 1 hour per day o Boys much more likely to play, 13 hour/week, girls 6 hours/week, 70% of teen boys play every single day o Emerging adults o Games played on mobile device more common than console
- Consequences of playing "too much" study
o Pathological gamers show § Higher impulsivity, aggression/victimization, HAB, ADHD, anxiety, social phobia, depression, lower social competence, emotion regulation, empathy, school performance, goal setting, worse parent/child relationship § LONG term effects § Longitudinal study o Not much research on treatment § Cognitive behavioral therapy § Family therapy § Video game detox centers
When it comes to responsibillity messages in alcohol ads, what helps kids pay attention?
§ Greatest change in attention was found when changing the message itself § Kids don't really pay attention to the message at all, but changing the message can
Does sex sell?
"Sexual appeals are attention getting, arousing, memorable" Sex in advertising is increasing Context matters - Appeals more to men, women tend to be turned off by it Does sex really sell? study - Brands evaluated less favorably. No effect on memory or buying intentions. Intensity of sexual ad increased, memory, attitudes and buying intentions decreased
What is "flow"?
"flow" term used to describe intense feelings of enjoyment that occur when balance between skill and challenge is attained in an activity that is intrinsically rewarding May enhance learning and make a person more susceptible to suggestion Lose sense of time, has sense of control, get rewarded Could impact how effects of game content carry over into real-world behavior
What are the 5 mental tasks involved in cognitive activities?
1. Select important info for processing 2. Sequence major events or actions into a story 3. Draw inferences from implicit cues in message 4. Draw on rich database of info that relates to media content 5. Evaluate message in some way
What are the phases of consumer behavior during childhood?
1: Feeling wants and preferences 2. Nagging and negotiating 3. Adventure and the first purchase 4. Conformity and fastidiousness
ADHD is ____% more common today than 20 years ago.
30
On average, Americans use media during ______% of their waking hours.
59%
What are the 5 dimensions of video games?
Amount Content Structure Context Mechanics
What is classical conditioning?
Pavlovs dogs Used in media by pairing a product with sex, so you relate it to physical arousal.
How does reading to an infant have an impact?
AAP start reading to babies around 6 months One of best predictors of language development Reading to infants related to positive cognitive development at 9 months old
Do kids still read?
Age 0-8 28 min/day Age 8-12: 29 min/day Age 13-18: 28 min/day Among "readers" this goes up to 1:37 a day Many tweens (42%) and teens (30) enjoy reading "a lot" Girls read more than boys Impact of television on reading Displacement hypothesis? · Not a lot of evidence for this Heavy and light viewers of other media have identical reading times
Do children understand ads?
Age 3 can label a commercial from program Age 4 think ads are for fun/entertainment Age 6-7 ads are there for assistive/persuasive reasons Age 8-10
What is the fourth phase of consumer behavior in childhood: conformity and fastidiousness?
Age 8-12 Critically evaluate info, compare products, appreciate selling intent of ads Become serious collectors of objects during this time Sensitive to norms and what older adolescents are doing
According to McQuail, what are 5 different types of motivations which influence our media usage according to the uses and gratifications theory?
Be informed/educated Identify with characters Entertainment Enhance social interaction Escape from stress
What are some effects of e-readesr?
Becoming popular 28% of 0-8 have read ebooks Only 12% of teen is done on ebooks Does this change the reading experience? NO difference in reading comprehension May increase motivation to read in adolescents Can negatively affect sleep, circadian timing, next morning alertness
What is the social learning theory?
Bobo doll hitting Vicarious learning
Can media have an impact on ADHD?
Content is important Noneducational media showed attention problems Educational media watchers showed less problems -Why? · Pacing · Inhibits play and imagination · Duplicates motherese · Self regulation Orchids vs. dandelion kids Metaanalysis · Media content is not a significant moderator · Stronger for boys
What are two main types of schedules of reinforcement?
Continuous - rewarded every single time a behavior occurs Partial
Can babies/infants learn from tablets?
Children CAN learn from them, but it's still not as good as learning from a live model. 2D-3D transfer still not as good as within condition
How frequently do people listen to music?
Children: about 30 minutes a day Develop musical taste around 5 Adolescents about 2 hours a day College students 2-3 hours a day Adults 1.5 hours/day
What is the third phase of consumer behavior in childhood: adventure and the first purchase?
Early elementary school, age 5-8 Consider more conceptual information Respond strongly to perceptual cues Make first solo purchase
What is excitation transfer theory?
Emotions transfer from one situation to the next Mislabel emotions Bridge study with attractive woman
What were some of the themes that Noctor uses in his Harry Potter group therapy?
Externalizes their problems so they're more comfortable talking about it Boggarts - what are their fears/anxieties, and how do you make them appear less threatening? Dementors - depression and PTSD Patronus - conjure up a positive memory Strength/depth of character needed to overcome things is real Harry feels alone and different, needs to dig deep in order to defeat his demons and enemies Pensieve - examine thought or memory without distraction of other thoughts Mirror of Erised - reveals desires/wishes of onlooker to name dreams, aspirations and goals Overall themes of loss, high expectations, scars, unusual characteristics Likening being like Voldemort to being like family members they don't like - it's not our genes or our past, but our choices Dreams Imaginary relationships between characters in the HP books, possible love interests, etc. Occulemency and Legimiency O - block intrusive thoughts from other people entering one's own mind L - tuning into other's affects and thoughts
What are the four types of partial schedules of reinforcement?
Fixed-ratio schedule - After a fixed number of responses you get a reward Variable-ratio schedule - You don't know how many responses you do it, but you will eventually get a reward (Gambling) Fixed-interval schedule - After a certain amount of time you get a reward Variable-interval schedule - You don't know how much time until you get a reward
What is the cultivation theory?
Focus on attitudes Tv has long-term cumulative effect on attitudes First order effects: General beliefs, Mean world syndrome - believing at the world as a whole is mean Second order effects: specific effects, Regarding law, order, personal safety (I'm less safe walking home, etc.) Resonance
What is catharsis, and does it work?
Greek meaning "Purification" "cleansing" Purging negative emotions Punching bag studies - people who punch punching bag are actually angrier and more aggressive Fuels the flame Most evidence doesn't support the theory of catharsis, even suggests it backfires
What does the chapter 2: Materialism and Value Orientation section talk about?
TV watching was positively correlated with buying products for social acceptance; associating possessions with money and happiness TV seems to have biggest impact on youth who were initially low in materialism
What is the first phase of consumer behavior in childhood: Feeling wants and preferences?
Infants and toddlers Distinct preferences for smells, colors, sounds, objects Still primarily reactive rather than goal directed, not capable of acting like true consumers
What did Radesky have to say about interactive media use in early childhood?
Kids under 30 months cannot learn from TV/videos like they do from real-life interactions Interactive media MAY allow for more retention Some research that learn-to-read apps and ebooks may help early literacy skills - but it can either engage or distract young children Can keep kids from developing behavior regulation Displaces interactions with caregivers Can help connect with people far away Depends on parenting style, SES, temperament, parent-child interaction
When it comes to infant learning, what is the video/transfer deficit?
Learn much less from a tv demonstration compared to a live demonstration Emerges around 1 year, peaks at 18, declines around age 2 Repetition decreases the video deficit
What is operant conditioning?
Learning Theory B.F. Skinner Rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur "Behavior is a function of it's consequences" Shaping: successive approximations Vicarious learning - watching someone else getting rewarded Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement
What are some effects found on prosocial media?
Mares and Woodard · Children more prosocial after watching prosocial behavior in media · Aggression/prosocial worst type · Peaks at age 7 Coyne, Padilla-walker · Increased prosocial behavior/empathy and decreased aggression · Effects stronger in childhood than adolescence · Effects strongest for strangers as target
In a study done, how often do children 0-8 use media?
Overall screen time around 2 hours a day 38% of kids under 2 has used a mobile device
What is the media practice model?
Mix of both effects and uses/gratifications Not used very frequently We seek out media for various reasons, but of course it has an effect on us We need more integrative theories
________ is more important than any other media type in managing mood/expressing identity
Music
According to Longsdale and North, why do we listen to music?
Negative mood enhancement Personal identity Surveillance Positive mood management Interpersonal relationships Diversion Background noise Musical participation (playing instrument, singing song, etc.) Reflect on the past
What are the steps of the information processing theory?
Observe model Encode (behavior into memory, you notice it) Rehearsal (by thinking about it, etc.) Cue (see a cue of the thing in real life) Activation of script Evaluation behavior
What does "amount" refer to in VG dimensions?
Overall amount most related to school performance · Displacement hypothesis? Idea that spending time playing VG displaces time spent on homework/studying related to health outcomes (sedentary) not the whole story - two types of "amounts · Distributed amount o For studying, study a little a day o Happens in VGs too · Massed practice o Cramming the day before an exam o Usually happens right when you first get a game
What are the 6 facets of advertising?
Perceptions facet - For an ad to be effective, it has to get noticed or at least register on some minimal level on our senses Emotional/Affective facet - "affective" describes something that stimulates wants, touches the emotions, elicits feelings Cognitive facet - Cognitive ad explains how a product works and what it can do for the consumer Association facet - Process of making symbolic connections between a brand and characteristics that represent the brand's image and personality Persuasion facet - Conscious intent on the part of the source to influence the receiver of a message to believe or do something Behavior facet - Action part of advertising
What are some developmental differences in processing the mass media in younger children vs. older children?
Perceptual boundedness - overreliance on perceptual info at expense of nonobvious info that may be more relevant. Focus a lot on looks of things, whereas older children focus more on story/behavior Centration to decentration - Focus on one striking feature to the exclusion of other, less striking features - called centration. Pouring water into a tall glass - focus on the different heights and cant tell that it's the same amount of water. Decenter attention - older children. They can look past the striking feature Perceived appearance to reality -Distinguish fantasy from reality. 2-3 year olds show little understanding of boundary between tv and real world. Concrete to inferential thinking - Thinking of the tangible things, like a red costume that gets more attention than actions. Have to learn to link scenes together
When it comes to video game addiction, the DSM 5 added an "internet gaming disorder" as an area of future study. What are the criteria listed for this?
Preoccupation (thinking about playing) Tolerance Withdrawal Persistence Escape Problems (with family, etc) Deception (Hidden time you spend on games from others) Displacement (lost interest in hobbies/other activities) Conflict (serious conflicts)
What is the second phase of consumer behavior in childhood: Nagging and negotiating?
Preschool years Difficulty distinguishing ads from programs Marketing has strong effects Gravitate toward products that are visibly striking Want what they see, will exhibit noncompliant/emotional behavior when told no
What did focus groups have to say about why they like to play video games?
Pure entertainment (children and young adults) Pride in game accomplishments primary motivator for children Relief from boredom/positive mood changes for adults Interacting with others both children and young adults Highly absorbed, both positive and negative Becoming deeply involved results in altered state of consciousness
What are some developmental differences in processing the mass media in older children vs. adolescents?
Real to plausible - Whether characters or events depicted in media are possible in real life Empirical to hypothetical reasoning -Understand abstract concepts, use formal logic, think hypothetically. Inductive and deductive reasoning. Suspend own beliefs to evaluate reasoning of someone else. Anticipate plot events and predict logical outcomes. Consider meaning behind message Metacognitive thinking - Understand and manipulate one's own thought processes (metacognition). Thinking "Its not real" when watching something scary. Regulatory competence - How they respond to risk - talking to strangers on internet Trends not specific to age groups -Increasing knowledge about social, physical, mediated world in which we live. Developing schemas. Increasing processing capacity. Certain situations and tasks are so demanding that they exceed a persons available cognitive resources. Holding things in working memory
What is the reduction hypothesis?
Reduction hypothesis: media stifle children's creative capacities by replacing more cognitively stimulating activities with passive viewing and mindless surfing
What are Brown's criteria for having a video game addiction?
Salience - activity dominates person's life, cognitively or behaviorally Euphoria or relief - provides a "high" or relief of unpleasant feelings Tolerance - grater amount of activity is needed to achieve the same "high" over time Withdrawal symptoms - person experiences unpleasant physical effects or negative emotions when unable to engage in activity Conflict - activity leads to conflict with other people, work, obligations, or the self Relapse and reinstatement - continue activity despite attempts to abstain from it
What is the differential susceptibility hypothesis?
That some people are more likely to become susceptible to addiction than others - has to do with SES, genes, family situation, personality, etc.
What are some case studies that have been done with educational media
Sesame Street · Viewing at age 5 had better grades in high school, read more books for pleasure, less aggressive attitudes · Meta-analysis - Better cognitive outcomes (literacy and numeracy), Learning about the world (health and safety knowledge), Social reasoning and attitudes toward out-groups Blues Clues · Preschoolers showed higher info acquisition, vocab, intelligence, problem solving and more prosocial skills 2 years later Super Why! · Increased language development · Phonemic awareness, letter knowledge two months later Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood · Higher levels of empathy, self efficacy, emotion regulation (especially when parents talk with them about media)
How does infant-oriented music affect babies?
Similar to motherese Music can influence infant behavior Preterm infants study Studies looked at emotion and music (infants can distinguish between happy and sad music)
What effects have been found in regards to media and language development in babies?
Some studies find positive effects, some find no effects, some find negative effects
What does "structure" refer to in VG dimensions?
Specific features of the game - how does it look? How realistic? First person or third? Game requires constant scanning of the screen = improved visual attention skills (first person shooter) Game requires use of 2D representations to provide 3D info and navigation - improved ability to use 2D for 3D study (LAPAROSCOPIC SURGEONS)
When it comes to media and make-believe, what is the main argument?
Stimulation hypothesis vs. reduction hypothesis. Not much evidence that media increases make-believe play, but there's not a lot of studies out there.
What is the stimulation hypothesis?
Stimulation hypothesis: media enrich the store of ideas from which children can draw when engaged in imaginative play or creative tasks
According to the Lonsdale and North article, what are the most important uses and gratifications of music?
Surveillance (need to find out what's going on in the world around us) Personal identity (need to find out who we are) Personal relationships (need to interact with others) Diversion (need for escapism, entertainment, relaxation) Mood management
What are the six ways that infants/babies learn?
Synchrony - dance between child and their caregiver (smiling at each other, laughing, etc.) Joint attention - when both parent and child's attention is on the same thing Repetition Simplicity - make things as simple as possible Prosodic features of language - motherese Segmentation (related to simplicity) - take a large concept like the ABCs and break it down into segments (learn A, then B, then C)
In a study done, how often do children 8-18 use media?
Tweens, 6 hours a day Teens 9 hours a day Multitasking is new normal 47% tweens 57% teens have a TV in their room (adds 4 hours media time) Foreground/background distinction
What was the main finding in the Gentile study?
There is a key difference between pathological use and high amount of playing
What are the effects of ads on child materialism?
Toys, cereal, candy/snacks, restaurants Kids represent · Primary purchasers · Future consumers · Purchase influencers Kids who watch more ads hold stronger materialistic values
Prosocial media is more than just altruism - it focuses on 3 other aspects. What are they?
Type (verbal/physical) Motivation (public, dire, altruistic, emotional, anon, compliant) Target (friend, family, stranger)
Almost all media studies focus on "____________" (being kind and helpful with no expectation of anything in return)
altruism
What is the uses and gratifications theory?
an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs.
What does "context" refer to in VG dimensions?
§ Parents (playing with parents) § Super mario brothers and sisters (playing with siblings) · Related to higher levels of sibling affection, lower levels of conflict § Cooperative vs. competitive games § Intergenerational studies - playing between grandparents/grandchildren can be beneficial § MMORPGs (role playing games online, WOW) - friendships, make more friendships meeting new people · This group reported getting less sleep, doing worse in school
What does "mechanics" refer to in VG dimensions?
§ The devices, closer the reality, greater the transfer § Remotes, wheels, controllers, guitar hero, etc.
What does "content" refer to in VG dimensions?
§ What's actually in the game § Prosocial games related to prosocial behavior § Math/reading games associated with math/reading scores § Sexual games - higher sexual activity, starting sex at a younger age, less likely to wear condom, etc. § Violence - LOTS of studies, associated with being more aggressive and angry, less prosocial behavior
What was Coyne's Adolescent Literature Study about?
· 40 best-selling adolescent novels from NY times best seller's list 3 groups (9-11, 12-13, 14+) Coded for multiple themes · Aggression in adolescent lit - Most acts were verbal and relational. Males more physical aggression. Most aggression is NOT justified. Most aggression showed no consequences. Physical aggression 5 times more likely in "younger books". Exposed to about 30.23 acts of aggression after reading one hour of novels. Exposed to 18.46 acts of aggression when watching hour of TV · Other findings o Substance use (most have none) o Sexual content (usually no consequences) o Profanity (majority had none) o Family (still to be analyzed)
In the study with VR and prosocial outcomes, what happened?
· Empathy and tolerance for others · People do VR as someone who doesn't look like them and then are assaulted · Chronic pain management - lifting legs higher in VR than in real life, shows less pain in children · Conservation - toilet paper quality, have to cut down a tree
What are predictors of reading achievement?
· Girls · Enjoyment of reading · SES higher · Friends SES · Number of books in home · Parental involvement in reading associated with enjoyment of reading
What is pester power?
· Pester power - strategies children use to get you to buy things Behavioral strategies (preschool) - Tantrums, whining, crying, kicking floor Bargaining (middle childhood) - If you buy this, we'll do this Complex influence strategies (adolescents) Link between watching ads and pestering
Do books influence behavior?
· Reading romance novels - negative attitudes toward condoms and reduced intent to use condoms in future sexual encounter · Increase aggression (both in experiments and correlational studies) · Who knows what else?
