SOC 102 Midterm

Merton: Anomie

"Anomie" as the disjuncture between cultural values/goals and structural opportunities (the greater the disjuncture the greater the frustration) Reconceptualization of Durkheim's concept A conflict between the cultural and social action systems. Parsons thought these systems should work together, when they don't, anomie results The cultural system instills certain goals in ones personality. If the social system prevents people from reaching these cultural goals / expectations, frustration results; a system of anomie Ex. our culture is very materialistic. Consumer goods equate to status, meaning money is what is needed to acquire status. Thus poor people suffer the most anomie in this society because they don't have the money to acquire these consumer goods. Ex. if a cultural values other non-material things, this can cause anomie as well. Examples include beauty, which cannot always be achieved or requires money. Education is also a value, which requires some degree of intelligence and/or money a) five responses or adaptations to anomie: conformity, ritualism, innovation, retreatism, rebellion Conformity: Refers to lower your expectations, if only temporarily. Bringing your reality more in line with your expectations Parents often instill this in their children. "You can't have it now but you can do chores to work for it" "save for today and you can have tomorrow" This is a somewhat middle class form of adaptation- making sacrifices now so you can have benefits in the future Education- suffer now for a better future Ritualism: Mode adopted by poor people Permanently lower their expectations, ritualize their poverty If you were born into poverty, you become accustomed to lower quality of life. There is no expectations of it getting better People have to psychologically adapt so that the frustration doesn't drive them crazy. These are coping mechanisms Innovation: A criminal coping mechanism You accept the cultural goals, but you are blocked from achieving them. People will use illegitimate means of achieving these legitimate cultural goals White collar crime- even rich people do this for status or success. Strange because their anomie doesn't come from not having money: they have achieved the cultural goal but still have anomie Poor people: ex. Drug dealers use illegitimate means to gain cultural values. Retreatism: Abandon cultural expectations while also giving up your effort to achieve them Give up both the ends and the means of achieving success Homeless population might be an example of this. Dropped out of society and don't care about the ends or the means Rebellion: Some people who suffer anomie who rebel against the system. They want to achieve the cultural values but rebel against the system to get it Social movements could be an example. Fight for jobs, opportunities, funding, etc. Without these coping mechanisms, the social order would be much less stable. More social unrest, more crime Anomie is relative: different in different cultures In a culture where everyone is poor, people will not suffer anomie because they don't know any better Anomie is worse in societies with a class structure because people can clearly see what they don't have A little bit of anomie is beneficial for the system because it motivates people to at least try to get up the ladder and improve 2. Reference groups, or groups that people identify with and want to belong to. Used to demonstrate the relativity of anomie Reference groups might be the ones you're in right now or the ones you aspire to in the future. You identify with these people The broadest reference group we have as Americans is the middle class. Everyone wants to identify with the middle class, people don't want to see poor or rich a. Most of our expectations are learned from reference groups, or groups in which we aspire to belong; these are groups with which we most closely identify, emulate, and idealize. b. Hence, the extent to which one suffers from anomie depends not on the ability to live up to society's values in general, but the ability to achieve the goals and values of your specific reference group (s). The problem is when membership in one's reference group is out of reach. For example, if you have "hoop dreams" and aspire to play in the NBA, that's a very elite group, and very few players can earn a spot on a pro team - many are called, few are chosen (a recipe for anomie).

The ideas of Erving Goffman and his contributions to Symbolic Interactionism

"Dramaturgy" is Goffman's general sociological perspective, which employs theatrical terms to understand social reality. a) Impression Management - situational acting that strives to impress others of your ideal self-concept (for that situation) As actors, we rehearse, we make entrances, follow scripts, take roles Involves strategies that people employ in an effort to achieve social acceptance of their self concept Refers to these acts of persuasion as impression management This is what we are doing all the time; managing impression, the aim of which is to convince other people that we are who we say we are. That we are who we claim to be. This effort is not always successful, can fail to successfully manage their impressions Always want to maintain your reputation by giving good impressions. Bad impressions require some remedial work to restore one's reputation Impression management is not limited to overt behavior. Can make impressions through fashion, body language, hygiene, other subtleties The signs that you "give" can be different than those that you "give off" "Give off" are more indicative of one's true state, body language can tell a lot about a persons message, especially the eyes (UNINTENTIONAL) Words or actions are what you "give" (INTENTIONAL) Impression management also involves managing the environment The car you drive sends an impression, as does where you live Different situations are going to set the bar higher or lower With friends, you can be more relaxed. In more demanding situations, more formality, more formal dress may be required to uphold an image MEAD VS GOFFMAN a) Life is a series of situations, or "stages" on which each of us seeks to project an ideal concept (image) of our self through various roles. The aim of these performers is "impression management" or trying to impress our self image on others. Compared to Mead's concept of role-taking, Goffman's concept of impression management presupposes an individual who is very self aware, deliberate, competitive, and self-interested. Goffman has been criticized for depicting the self as naturally manipulative, opportunistic, and narcissistic. This criticism is unfair, as Goffman insisted that individuals often sacrifice their self-interest to maintain group harmony. c) staging performances in "teams" c) Despite the conflict, most individuals most of the time cooperate with others in their performances. Impression management often involves dramaturgical teams, in which the members help each other maintain their impressions Most performances are done in teams, not usually acting alone Teams are used to help each actor project what they want to project. True friends will help you with impression management and prop up your self image Ex. friends covering for each other, lying for them For group life to be possible, people have to accept and respect the "face" of other members A lot of interaction is small talk, niceties that one may not even mean but will still perform so as to maintain their appearances b) specific strategies of impression management, or audience management: b) Managing impressions involves numerous strategies and competition, and is not always successful. As people move from one stage to the next, they have to change roles and adapt their impression management to the demands of the new situation. Individuals in groups are always struggling to control the "definition of the situation," or define the situation in ways that support their self concept. Strategies of impression management: i)concealment/deception; Hide things from others to maintain your face For some people, this is a lot of face work because they've done a lot of things in the past that would ruin their face if found out Ex. drug lords concealing the source of their wealth. Have to hide most of their work life from others. A lot of face work to hide criminality When making first impressions, a lot of concealment is used. Want to get off on a good foot, so you try to give off the best impression possible ii) flattery; (requires keeping different audiences separate) Kill em with kindness Can really win someone over by giving them lots of compliments. This allows people to sway people over to whatever they want to say Ex. asking someone for something, want to butter them up first Imitation is good tactic as well, the sincerest form of flattery Want to send the impression that these people are important and that you are doing things just for them Need to keep audiences separate to keep your face As a professional, need to keep a professional distance. Ex. a professor being to flatterous may raise red flags of favoritism iii) consistency; Audience expects consistency out of you in order to seem credible Always contradicting yourself will undermine credibility iv) mystification Imparts to the audience a sense of mystery and awe Do this by keeping enough social distance Ex. authority figures have to do this to maintain their authority Distance will deter the audience from questioning your performance v) defending your performances against disruptive intrusions (through defensive and protective measures).(remedial measures, damage control) Face work can be disrupted by others to undermine your efforts in impression management, hurt your face Defensive measures are when you are trying to preserve your own face Protective measures are when you try to protect other people's face Working consensus (ritual equilibrium) Not a true consensus, may not all be on the same page entirely. But we pretend that the group is in consensus. Why make waves, create disharmony? There are people that nitpick things and will disrupt the equilibrium, but these people are considered annoying These type of people could be said to lack social graces Over time these people will be avoided in order to save one's own face. May also avoid certain subjects that will set them off. Ex. politics often is avoided There seems to be a continuum in these situations Some people are tactful, conscientious, tolerant. These people will go to great lengths to save the face of others Can be criticized as enablers of bad behavior. Always smiling and agreeing, despite possibly being in disagreement Some are not tactful, impatient. These people are much less forgiving, will call someone out and humiliate them on the spot Can be criticized for their lack of compassion, for being petty and cruel. If this person fails to save someone elses face, they cannot expect to be saved in the future. What goes around comes around There are times when moods change, meaning people can move places on the continuum easily d) front stage v. back stage Back stage is where you can let your hair down, be more genuine Ex. can bad mouth customers that you have to treat with respect or shmooze on the front stage to maintain a performance of professionalism Front stage is where the performance takes place, where one puts on an act Have to maintain a divide between the front and back stage to avoid your back stage behavior harming your front stage impression 2. social stigmatizing, or labeling of individuals as deviants a) physically handicapped and the mentally ill mental illness as a "master status" and "role engulfment" The disabled have a hard time saving face. Especially hard for physically disabled to engage in impression management through concealment. More likely to be stigmatized Mental illness is more easily concealed, especially in casual encounters. However, over the long terms or in people off their meds it is more easily recognizable c) total institutions Mental institutions are "total institutions" that, by nature of one's membership, will completely resocialize members Other total institutions include the military (hard to return to civilian life after the military), the prison system (hard to reacclimate to the freedom of civilian life, anomic by nature) d) stigmatization and the formation of subcultures and counter cultures (embracing a stigma as positive). Stigma complicates impression management; your audience only sees your spoiled identity, or master status. People with disabilities are assigned stigma. They are treated differently based on this stigma People with physical disabilities are seen as helpless Today, we have made great strides to help disabled people overcome these stigmas. Ex. the ADA has made things much easier for the disabled to live a more average life Mental illness / physical disabilities are a master status in that they are what people perceive them as primarily Spoiled identity / stigmatized people require extra work to overcome it Such as plastic surgery

The ideas of Randall Collins and his contributions to Conflict Theory

1. A "micro" theory of stratification a) society is defined as the repetition of interaction patterns Does not society as a set of fixed, static structures (this goes against the parsonian view) Society and its institutions are made up of loose patterns of action that repeat themselves day after day Don't repeat in exactly the same way Good analogy is a river, moving and flowing river with currents. May look the same every day, but things about it change all the time (rocks, water, fish). Over time, the changes may be more dramatic and noticeable, such as a change in shape, direction, flow levels This reality, as structured as it is, is in a constant state of flux. Is fragile and precarious and conducive to change We'd like to think like Parsons, that all structures are fixed and strong. But in reality, the social order can change quite easily b) society is stratified into four fundamental domains or spheres of production over which groups struggle for control: (Collins' macro theory, similar to Weber). Society is characterized by unequal control of the means of (1) material production (e.g., Marx), (2) mental production (education), (3) emotional production (religion, culture), and (4) coercion (force). The first three forms of production ultimately rest on control of the means of coercion. (1) Control of material production (wealth), Struggle to improve our condition in the class order Akin to marxist thinking (2)Control of mental production (ideology), Some individuals have more power to control the ideas and culture in society than others This is like Marx's claim in The German Ideology, said that the wealthy bourgeoisie control the ideas of society Historically, religious leaders have been able to control the minds of those in society through religious doctrine, and ideology. Today, religious influence is weakening. (3) Control of emotional production, Society raises you to feel one way or another, as a member of certain groups, you are expected to have some sort of emotional reactions Ex. gender. Men are expected to have a masculine emotional disposition, women are expected to be feminine, soft, sentimental (4) Control of the means of coercion (force). Who controls the instruments of force When you cant control people through the other three struggles, have to struggle for force One's role in this macro system of stratification determines how one acts at the micro level; the rituals of daily life and social interaction symbolize the status roles we occupy in the larger social order. The rituals "dramatize" a person's high or low rank within the four spheres of production. People in authority are sticklers for pomp and circumstance, ceremony, protocol, procedures, etc. because these rituals dramatically reinforce their rank and remind subordinates who is in charge. Individuals within their groups are struggling to create impressions. Want to change, advance, or uphold their class struggles by making impressions on others The daily rituals we engage in are intended to validate and promote our social position in society Ex. those in positions of power have an interest in upholding rituals that uphold their dominance A specific example is the requirement of the use of titles when addressing superiors Modern society is moving away from the use of these titles to an extent Others we have preserved Have to call military officials by their rank. Also have to maintain one's uniform and behavior These examples all display hold hierarchies are upheld through dramatization and ritual. Ignoring these things can result in punishment from superiors Subordinates have to tolerate these things because they depend on them for their livelihood In modern society, "occupation" is the dominant authority structure, and the chief determinant of class and status in society. More than anything, your occupation determines your place and standing in society. Dictates your control over and relation to the four aspects of production In terms of material, your occupation provides income which is vital to control in this realm d. three-way model of occupational stratification: lower, middle, and upper class. The extent to which you give or take orders has powerful influence on one's self image, and one's attachment to the social order !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! (This three dimension conception of group hierarchy should be contrasted with Dahrendorf's two dimensional or binary conception of intra-group conflict). a) In contrast to Dahrendorf's two-class model of authority relations, Collins proposes a three class model: top, middle and bottom, all based on differing degrees of control. All organizations and institutional settings exhibit this structure. Dahrendorf: the middle class would devolve into either the superior or subordinate Collins sees a place for the middle class. What differs between the three strata is their level of control Top level only gives orders Accustomed to only receiving deference and respect This affects one's personality. Tend to be proud, self assured, domineering in their demeanor Future oriented Middle gives and receives orders Can be seen as an average guy Future oriented Lower only takes orders Gives rise to a distinctive working class culture Very cynical, present oriented. With little stake in the control structure, they have little emotional investment in the hierarchy. Their commitment to the authority structure is weak Even though their job relies on it, they do it because they have to make money. They find fulfillment elsewhere, such as in the family mostly, or religion Working class also value toughness, masculinity. Partly because these people often perform manual labor Present orientation leads these people to eat, drink, hedonistic when off e. status groups - ritualistic exhibition of equality and superiority Non-occupational associations are to a great extent governed by your occupation because your income level determines your life-style and the people with whom you associate outside of work As people move up the occupational ladder, their tastes change and become more expensive People from different class levels do not interact as much by virtue of them frequenting different occasions, being stratified by cost-based differences like expensive concert tickets some status groups have no relation to occupation; certain status characteristics can bring people together of different occupational backgrounds and income brackets, such as religion, race, gender, education, and political beliefs. These class stratification are not good for democracy. People use to live close together regardless of class in mixed-level neighborhoods. Today, the rich have separated themselves spatially into different neighborhoods, institutions, organizations

The ideas of Ralf Dahrendorf and his contributions to Conflict Theory

1. Since authority and hierarchy are universal and inevitable, so is conflict. Conflict is inherent to the human condition, though its intensity can vary. Making a connection between conflict and authority. Where there are authority relations, hierarchy, there will be conflict. All hierarchies are vulnerable to conflict This is a very basic observation, an example of one general observation that is universally applicable that sociologists claim to be universally true a) Like Weber, Dahrendorf holds that authority is different from power; authority derives from the institutional roles that people occupy whereas power is the ability to get others to submit to your will by any means. Authority is "legitimate" domination and power is illegitimate domination. People give their willing consent to authority; they submit to power because of coercion or fear. Dahrendorf says that authority is not about the individual. People get their authority from the institution and the role they serve within it. Ex. the prof has no authority unless the UC has backed him up, and even then the prof still has limitations on this authority !!!!!!!!!!! Authority is different than power. Authority is consensual and has limitations. The institution will limit the authority of its actors. Some actors in the institutions will take advantage of their authority and abuse it. Power is the ability to get people to submit to ones will by any means. Weber refers to this as illegitimate domination. Coercion would fall within this category The problem with power is that is effective in the short term, but not the long term. The regime, whether family or nation, that is built on fear is inherently weak because if the only way to ensure conformity is through coercion, the people will not be strongly loyal. People will eventually rise up and defect or overthrow the regime if the system falters Presumably, authority is more long lasting. It is legitimate because the people who are ruled because they agree to be ruled This does not imply democracy. A monarchy can be legitimate if the people agree to it, however it can still falter and fall from power' Democracy seems to have the most stable legitimate authority because the people vote directly for who rules them Legitimacy of a hierarchy, ex. In the workplace, can alleviate some of the issues in certain ways The system is weakened if people are at the bottom always only receiving orders. Having a middle group who gives and receives orders can offer stability. Making it so those at the bottom can achieve mobility and move up also brings stability to the system Authority structures can also become crystalized and no movement occurs. When this happens, people in the same place in the structure will share common interests. Latent interests are those which people don't necessarily realize. Manifest interests are those which are expressed, shared, acted on outwardly 2. Authority is inherently dichotomous or polarized; in every group there are people with authority and people without authority: superiors and subordinates/haves and have-nots Authority is the source of conflict in society. !!!!!!!!!! Distinguishes between intensity and violence as measures of this conflict This conflict is binary, two sides in each conflict 2. critique of Marxism This has echoes of Marx In capitalism, there can be a middle class, but over time this will disappear and become only two classes Dahrendorf differs bc his hierarchy is not limited to the economic realm, this type of conflict characterizes all types of interaction Ex. war. There are no wars with three side, only two There is no middle ground. "You are either with us or against us" The prospect of mobility can reduce conflict to some extent. If you believe that you can move up, you are less likely to become engaged in conflict a) hence, in every group there are two sets of "interests" or two groups that have opposing interests - "interest groups." Interests are determined by one's "structural" location in a group - "structurally embedded interests." People at the top of the structure have different objective interests than those at the bottom. b) These different "structurally embedded interests" invariably result in conflict of some type and degree. If and when people organize with others around their shared objective interests, the interest group becomes a !!!!!!!!!!!!"conflict" group. !!!!!!!!!!!!!! c) People are not always aware of the "objective" interests that they share with others similarly located in the authority structure. Structural interests that are not consciously perceived are "latent interests"; when people are aware of their objective interests, they express "manifest interests." Latent interests: not aware of them, don't care, don't act on them Manifest interests: when one becomes aware of their interests, starts acting on them. These are manifest interests 7. quasi groups, interest groups, conflict groups 3. People that share the same "latent" interests belong to "quasi" groups; when and if those who belong to quasi groups become conscious of their common interests, they become an "interest" group. Under certain conditions, there can be collective empowerment, mobilization. A quasi group can become an interest group. Latent interests can become manifest interests Ex. in the 1960s student activism was common, widespread, almost militant different "structurally embedded interests" invariably result in conflict of some type and degree. If and when people organize with others around their shared objective interests, the interest group becomes a !!!!!!!!!!!!"conflict" group. 4. Conditions for the transformation of a quasi group into an interest group: technical conditions, political conditions, and social conditions. a) "technical" conditions: leadership and ideology must emerge There must be leaders, and those leaders must be articulating an ideology Ideologies are calls to action, they are ideas that inspire people to come together Must have charismatic leaders to organize these people and motivate them, expressing some sense of urgency and crisis b) "political" conditions: the extent to which the larger political system tolerates conflict and opposition If you are living in an oppressive, totalitarian society, there is very little tolerance for opposition. People who rise up are silenced through violence, which tends to quiet any subsequent signs of opposition c) "social" conditions: the degree and nature of communication and interaction among quasi group members Quasi groups whose members are dispersed and lack social ties are less likely to become interest groups Ex. students. On a campus with a small student population that lives on campus, this is a social condition that would increase solidarity among on-campus students. Those living off-campus increases dispersion and works against the student collective consciousness 9. The counteracting effects of social mobility on interest group formation The prospect of mobility can reduce conflict to some extent. If you believe that you can move up, you are less likely to become engaged in conflict

B. Talcott Parson's Functionalist Theory

1. The "motivational problem" of social order: Individuals must be socialized to serve society; to carry out social roles; at the same time, society must meet the biological and psychological needs of its individuals. 1. The AGIL model of universal functional requirements; no social system can exist without meeting these requirements Includes four universal functional requirements that apply to all societies in all times. A VERY macro theory bc it applies to all societies and social systems from friendship cliques to nation states AGIL Model: Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, Latent Pattern Maintenance a) Adaptation (Implemented Through the Economic System): Refers to the need for a social system to adapt itself to the larger environment, both social and physical A very basic version of the theory of Evolution. Societies must adapt to new environments / circumstances As time goes by, society learns to adapt in new ways: through social institutions Ex. trade is a social adaptation, an institution. Allows people from one environment to rely on others in different conditions to compensate for the shortcomings of their own. Allows the to trade for goods and services which they cannot obtain in their immediate environment Ex. Saudi Arabia can trade oil for massive wealth and turn the desert into a habitable oasis This goal is implemented largely through the economic system b) Goal Attainment (Implemented Through the Political System): The need for social systems to have objectives or purposes. People are not going to be motivated to serve the group if there is no unifying goal. Have to be able to rally people around some purpose, to find a reason for existence This goal is implemented primarily through the political system We have founding documents in this country that establish who we are and what our purpose is as a nation Ex. the United States constitution promotes the goals of "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" A group can lose its solidarity and become fragmented without these goals c) Integration: Refers to the need for a social system to coordinate the relationship of its component parts (the left hand needs to know what the right hand is doing) All of these structures need to be working together in harmony The healthcare system, education, military, criminal justice, all have to be on the same page. Working towards the same goals with the same values Develop lots of institutions to integrate individuals into the larger fabric of society With more people, it becomes more difficult to unify people Ex. the super bowl is something that people can unite around Ex. holidays, ceremonies, the pledge of allegiance are supposed to renew your faith in society Ex. in the 20th century, the Cold War integrated us through fear. We came together to fight the communists. After the collapse of the soviet union, we have terrorism to unite us in fear d) latent pattern maintenance (latency): Involves a process of reinforcing individual commitment to the group, renewing your ties to group life Overlaps with integration Think of the family for this function. There may be latent behaviors the family follows to keep them together, such as the family dinner Religious institutions perform this function as well Renews people's faith in performing these rituals Can be a negative side to latency Sometimes performed by the legal system. Violating legal norms can result in arrest and prosecution If these four functions are not performed, the integrity of the group is weakened As ritzer points out, these functions are carried out in the real world by various institutions: 2. AGIL applied to society, or institutional structures/subsystems that fulfill these functions a) adaptation ---> economy b) goal attainment ---> political system c) integration ---> family, legal system, religion d) latent pattern maintenance ---> family, education, religion 3. Parsons' 4 Action Systems: Cultural, Social, Personality, Behavioral Claims that all actions, in some way, derive from one of these action systems Cultural system: values that we share, traditions, beliefs A lot of behavior is based on one's values Social system: like to think that it works together with the cultural system Sometimes the way one operates in the social system is dictated by their values. However, the requirements of the social system may force one to change their actions The hierarchy of rewards and punishments that motivate people to serve society Ideally the cultural system would not oppose or contradict the social system (rewards/motivation system) If everyone was rewarded equally(socialism), rather than having equal opportunity, the SF asserts that the system would collapse because people would have no rewards to motivate their participation Personality: Not that much weight on this system Personality is shaped by cultural values and the social system You obey and conform to the ideas of these two larger system, and this is how personality is formed There is some wiggle room to develop individual personality, however you cannot be too different from cultural / social system, which would result in ostracization or even incarceration Certain places have more freedom to develop personality idiosyncrasies US has a decent amount of freedom, other places can be more constricting, especially based on things like gender. Patriarchal societies limit development of personality Behavioral system: Nod to freud Natural instincts we are born with, carnal drives The social / cultural system also shape and channel these urges and drives some would argue they repress these drives Cannot get rid of impulses, but society can restrict them so as to limit their danger Ex. the sex drive is channeled, to a certain extent, by the institution of marriage Ex. inhibitions are developed to control certain drives Different societies will deal with these drives differently Some try to suppress them entirely, which can be dangerous for society. If you try to suppress completely, it can cause neurosis-Freud. Need to have some outlet Goal for the society is to reach some sort of equilibrium between these action systems. Can be difficult to achieve a) All human action is governed by these systems. Parson claims that the cultural system is the most influential action system under the supposition that cultural "values" are the primary determinant or motivator of action. Within structural-functionalism, there is some debate over the primacy of culture over the social system. In most stable societies, the needs of the social system are compatible with the values of the cultural system. But societies change and the needs of the social system can change, creating conflict between the social system and the cultural system. The question is, will social actors continue to follow their cultural beliefs and values, and fight to preserve them in the face of change, or will these actors change, compromise, and even give up their values to adapt to the changes in the social system (develop new values that "fit" the changing times)? A. The ideas of Talcott Parsons 1. Like all functionalists, Parsons is an advocate of equal opportunity because societies that discriminate on the basis of race, gender, or religion are weak societies. They are weak because they prevent many hard-working and intelligent people from performing important social roles. If a society denies many of its best and brightest from contributing to its welfare because of skin color or sex, then it is wasting talent. Has the U.S. reached a point where all of these invidious prejudices and barriers have been abolished so that individuals can rise to the level of their abilities and talents, regardless of their race and gender? Many functionalists, assume that we live in a post-racial and post-gender society, and that rewards are distributed fairly on the basis of individual merit. 4. Social change driven by occupational specialization. Positive effects: a) society must become more tolerant and inclusive in order to fill these roles with the most qualified individuals b) values become more diluted, generalized & relative. 2. Like Durkheim, Parsons held that society is becoming more specialized and diverse. As a result of these changes in the social system, the culture must adapt by becoming more tolerant and inclusive of diverse values. Complexity and diversity require that people be more "relativistic" or open minded in their personalities, and accepting of alternative beliefs and life-styles. Parson also thinks that the value system will become more abstract and general as a result of societies evolution toward specialization As the world naturally becomes more diverse, it becomes more difficult for a value system to encompass the entire society Ex. the US is moving away from the domination of white, anglo-saxon, protestant domination of the value system Thinks that the society of the future is a society based on differences, and that these differences will complement each other. Like durkheim's organic solidarity For this to happen, the society's value system will have to be loose and general so as not to alienate certain groups within society

Merton: Manifest vs Latent functions

2. Manifest (intended) v. Latent (unintended) functions - Merton Manifest: Intended function Latent: Unintended function Ex. raising the minimum wage Latent function: raising the minimum wage gives the working class people more money to contribute to the economy Latent function: others argue that raising wages would burden business owners, forcing them to raise prices, which would increase inflation. Employers may also stop hiring or replace workers with technology Merton examines the manifest/latent functions of individual behavior. Can also apply this model of examination to group decision making Ex. moving children to private schools Individuals seems to benefit, but if done on a mass scale, public schools suffer. White flight from inner city schools is especially catastrophic, causes public school defunding while leaving POC in these worse schools These group actions have negative effects on the overall system

Talcott Parson's Four Action Systems

3. Parsons' 4 Action Systems: Cultural, Social, Personality, Behavioral Claims that all actions, in some way, derive from one of these action systems Cultural system: values that we share, traditions, beliefs A lot of behavior is based on one's values Social system: like to think that it works together with the cultural system Sometimes the way one operates in the social system is dictated by their values. However, the requirements of the social system may force one to change their actions The hierarchy of rewards and punishments that motivate people to serve society Ideally the cultural system would not oppose or contradict the social system (rewards/motivation system) If everyone was rewarded equally(socialism), rather than having equal opportunity, the SF asserts that the system would collapse because people would have no rewards to motivate their participation Personality: Not that much weight on this system Personality is shaped by cultural values and the social system You obey and conform to the ideas of these two larger system, and this is how personality is formed There is some wiggle room to develop individual personality, however you cannot be too different from cultural / social system, which would result in ostracization or even incarceration Certain places have more freedom to develop personality idiosyncrasies US has a decent amount of freedom, other places can be more constricting, especially based on things like gender. Patriarchal societies limit development of personality Behavioral system: Nod to freud Natural instincts we are born with, carnal drives The social / cultural system also shape and channel these urges and drives some would argue they repress these drives Cannot get rid of impulses, but society can restrict them so as to limit their danger Ex. the sex drive is channeled, to a certain extent, by the institution of marriage Ex. inhibitions are developed to control certain drives Different societies will deal with these drives differently Some try to suppress them entirely, which can be dangerous for society. If you try to suppress completely, it can cause neurosis-Freud. Need to have some outlet Goal for the society is to reach some sort of equilibrium between these action systems. Can be difficult to achieve a) All human action is governed by these systems. Parson claims that the cultural system is the most influential action system under the supposition that cultural "values" are the primary determinant or motivator of action. Within structural-functionalism, there is some debate over the primacy of culture over the social system. In most stable societies, the needs of the social system are compatible with the values of the cultural system. But societies change and the needs of the social system can change, creating conflict between the social system and the cultural system. The question is, will social actors continue to follow their cultural beliefs and values, and fight to preserve them in the face of change, or will these actors change, compromise, and even give up their values to adapt to the changes in the social system (develop new values that "fit" the changing times)?

Structural Functionalism: Basic Assumptions

A. Basic Question: How is social order established and maintained? What is it about human society that prevents a war of all against all? How is order and conformity possible at such high levels? B. Basic Answer: Society and social order is founded on a consensus by the majority of its members. This is the foundation of every society 1. Cultural foundation of society: The consensus or agreement is over cultural/moral "values"; that is, the social glue holding people together is commonly held values; these shared values become the basis for social groups, organizations, institutions, and structures. a) values are also the basis of social tasks and roles performed by individuals. Some roles are valued more than others - valued as more important or "functional" to the welfare of society. The people that perform these valued roles are awarded greater wealth, status and power. 1. Society as a consensus on values a) social structures, institutions, organizations, and roles all embody these common values and serve to preserve them. A function is vital to the extent it supports the dominant value system. 2. Organicism - Society as a system a) Society is made up of parts that are inter-connected, interdependent, and purposeful. No matter how small, every unit exists to fulfill a positive function in the system; to contribute to the maintenance of the social order. B. The positive social functions of social inequality - Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore 1. Society must grant greater rewards to individuals who serve the most vital social roles in order to ensure these roles are occupied by the most qualified people. 2. Hence, structures and the roles within these structures are organized into hierarchies; the more important and necessary the structure/role, the higher in the hierarchy it is located, and the greater the rewards - wealthy, status, and power - assigned to it. 3. Contrast with a Marxist explanation of inequality Marx condemned this mechanism of stratification as unjust because people at the top are there because people at the top exploit those at the bottom Capitalists at the top do not benefit society, only benefit themselves at the expense of the majority In the functionalist view, top capitalists or CEOs are benefitting society by using their companies to create wealth. This wealth is reinvested back into the economy and creates job (trickle down economics). This function affords the CEO much rewards But is this reality? Not really, prof claims he sees more trickle up Marxists would see this structural functionalist perspective as propaganda. Think that corporations not being taxed and keeping wealth is not good, as SFs do. Do not reinvest money saved on taxes. They actually use it to buy back their own stock, which is a scam C. Achieving a value consensus through socialization processes: internalization, and social control - rewards and punishments 1. internalization - society motivates its members to want to fulfill its most vital functions. Teach them to believe that their society's values are just, moral, and universal. Proper internalization will make the needs of the individual congruent with the needs of society. 2. Rewards: People serve society because they expect to be rewarded with prestige. The most important or functional roles in society have the most prestige attached to them to make them the most desirable (i.e., the more prestigious a role, the more necessary a role). The conclusion is that the unequal distribution of fame, fortune and power is necessary because "society" rewards those roles that are most crucial to its maintenance and stability.

Conflict Theory

A. Opposing precepts of conflict theory and structural-functionalism 1. Structural-functionalism (Parsons, Merton, Coser) a) every society is a relatively persistent and stable structure of elements - society is orderly b) every society is a well-integrated structure of elements c) every element in society has a function, or contributes to the maintenance of the social order d) every functioning social order is based on a consensus of values among its members e) balance, equilibrium 2. Conflict theory Change as opposed to order. Conflict as opposed to harmony. Interests as opposed to values. Most fundamental concept to conflict theory is power, often exercised through coercion a) every society is always subject to processes of change; social change is every bit as natural and constant as social order b) every society always exhibits dissensus and and conflict. Conflict is an inherent part of society c) every element of society contributes to its change and disintegration; the parts are always at-risk of falling apart d) every society is based on coercion of the majority by a minority. Social conformity is not achieved through a value consensus, but through force and the threat of force.

Symbolic Interactionism (aka micro sociology, social psychology, or the sociology of everyday life)

A. Symbolic interactionism is a critical response to the static determinism of structural-functionalism. Symbolic interactionism seeks to "bring the individual back" into the analysis of society. Social reality (i.e., norm, roles, institutions, structures) is constructed and negotiated through everyday interaction in social situations; the "situation" (not "structures") is the main unit of analysis. Reality is not something given directly to our senses; instead, the mind "interprets" reality through meaningful symbols. For example, the American flag "symbolizes" different meanings to different individuals and groups. A. Basic principles: Social Reality is a fluid process (as opposed to a fixed structure) that is interpreted, negotiated, situational, and emergent. Like conflict theory, SI is a reaction against structural functionalism Sees reality as emergent.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Not a freeze frame, constantly emerging SF sees it a freeze frame SI sees it as a river, "can never put your foot in the same river twice" Society is also negotiated.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Roles are never straightjackets, they are not determinative, but negotiated Gender is negotiated, people negotiate their gender differently Race can also be negotiated. Cosmetics allow people to pass as white to receive the privileges Not just acting out roles on a rigid script, we are playing it by ear Negotiation implies that we make choices. We are rational actors that are making decisions Under SF, there is not much choice or freedom. Have to obey and conform Even in the most totalitarian societies with a dictator and a police state people are negotiating their society Ex. black market for unsupplied food in the Soviet Union Society is also interpreted.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! People can have different perceptions of the same thing. Bloomer reading. The crucial middle process between the structure and individual action Reality is also situational.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! We don't live in structures, we live in situations. Each day, people navigate numerous situations that impose different demands Can think of these as stages. Make entrances and exits into different roles that you are performing on daily We shape our behavior to adapt to certain situations we are in. the self changes depending on the different stage you are in SI assumes that we all have multiple personalities. Different personas for different stages (situations) 1. critical of structural functionalism for exaggerating the impact of structures on individual behavior and social interaction. S-F maintains an "over socialized" conception of the individual; real people don't live in structures, they live in situations that are fluid, dynamic, emergent, and often unpredictable (i.e., "situational" analysis). 2. Social reality is not simply imposed on individuals; individuals both interpret and negotiate social reality. Reality construction is a process of both interpretation and negotiation in which the individual is actively involved, and not simply a passive recipient. 3. Social structures are not permanent and static; they vary by time and place. All of this variation suggests that social reality is "emergent," or always in the process of coming into being, and being recreated in novel ways. Moreover, even the most enduring and deeply entrenched structures must be re-constructed every day by their members through social interaction. Structures are actually "processes" of social construction; or as Collins' put it, "the repetition of social patterns"

(Cooley) What does Cooley believe to be the characteristics of the "modern, American personality"? What are the factors that, according to Cooley, contribute to the emergence of these characteristics?

At least in this text, it appears that Cooley believes that there are two factors that characterize the "modern" personality. The first is a) superficiality, and the second is b) insecurity/unhappiness Superficiality: The notion of specialization, which you came across in 101 (Weber writes that modern people become "specialists without spirit, hedonists without heart.") Cooley seems to be arguing that as people's identities -- as it occurs in the modern world -- become increasingly centered around their professional specialty, people forget about other dimensions of life and lose all sense of depth/become superficial. People judge themselves strictly on their professional status, etc. - which also ties into the topic of stratification that we have been discussing in this class. Insecurity and Unhappiness Cooley seems to suggest that in the modern world, people lack a sense of meaning or a collective purpose. Many scholars have pointed out that modernity has ruptured many of the traditional orientations that once gave people a sense of meaning. The modern world appears to be in flux, and people's identities become, to some extent, fragile and experimental...

B. The Contributions of C. W. Mills to Conflict Theory: Power Elite model

Became a bitter rival to parsons. Disagreed with his ideas about societal consensus, harmony, and order Thought that the US, in fact, was structured very differently than Parsons presupposed President Eisenhower delivers a warning of the military industrial complex, a page straight out of Mills' work 1. The triangle of power - military, economic, and political segments of the Power Elite (aka Military Industrial Complex) (the Iron triangle) Most members of the Power Elite are not democratically elected. This lead mills to believe that our democracy had been hijacked by these elites who made most of the nations most important decisions behind the scenes undemocratically a) military segment is comprised of Pentagon brass or the "warlords" Highest ranking generals and joint teams of staff b) economic segment consists of CEOs of largest corporations Big business c) political segment consists of the President and the highest ranking officials in the executive branch Believed that the congress, senate, and house, had become marginal players. Saw development of an imperial presidency where the pres was gaining more power and checks and balances were being weakened Congress just approves whatever the president wants d) Hollywood (aka culture/celebrity) could be considered a quasi-fourth branch These people are always rubbing elbows / interacting with these wealthy, powerful people Ex. reagan, schwarzenegger, trump all had celebrity before power The idea here is that these three branches are all working together in a well coordinated manner. Maintained a revolving door in which generals would move to corporate america's defense industries. Govt officials will move to big business and be rewarded as well. Corporate execs and lawyers will become ranking members of the executive branch. These people all work together day to day in their jobs The power elite also share culture/social ties, aside from just working together Share a religious, racial, educational background Most are white, protestant, very WASP-y. Have a certain pedigree, derived partly from their location in New England and partly from their long family lineage in the United States. The family name becomes important and can open a lot of doors Today, the power elite has not really diversified to include other religions or races Education is an important source of socialization for the power elite. Kids of these people are sent to prestigious boarding schools. The quality of the education is not what is important. What they are learning is that they are special, important, and building group solidarity This is a very different version of american society to what parsons advances Parsons argues that the US is run by group consensus. Mills argues that a small group of elites actually pulls the strings from behind the scenes The power elite want to remain relatively invisible to the general public Mills also discusses the media in his work Media used to be thought of as a watchdog that keeps tabs on the three branches of the power elite Mills believes that the media has become more of a lap dog that serves the desires of the power elite Entertainment became a distraction from the ways in which democracy was being robbed from them by this elite society Believed that Americans were becoming a mass of "idiots" in the greek sense (people who retreat from society in pursuit of privacy) To illustrate this, Americans used to vote at about 80% in presidential elections. Now it's about 47%, illustrating the alleged withdrawal of Americans from civic life Today, about 6 companies control all of the media. This is dangerous for democracy when so few for-profit corporations control the entire flow of information Parsons is more in line with the well accepted view of power. The one that supposes checks and balances, the power of the constitution, etc. Mills would disagree with this view of how power operates Mills offers a model for the United States that is historically specific. It cannot be considered a broad theory that can be applied to other places What can be taken away from it is the importance of conflict vs consensus. He argues that the dominant feature of society is conflict. Secondly, change as opposed to order 5. Mills' critique of Parsons' structural functionalism a) Parson's emphasis on values neglects the role of "interests." b) Parson's focus on the functions of social patterns and structures is both teleological and tautological. Teleological because structures are assumed to have a purpose or to perform a necessary function in society simply because they exist; the presumption of functionality ignores the possibility that a structure could be harmful or unjust (slavery, for instance). Tautological because the logic of the theory is circular: structures are assumed to have a purpose because they exist; they exist because they are assumed to have a purpose. The theory becomes a simple justification for the way things are because it defends the status quo as functional, necessary, and beneficial. Mills' indictment of the Power Elite obviously rejects this logic. 5. The power elite is not inevitable. Mills diverges from classical elite theory that claims that such entrenched hierarchy is necessary and beneficial to society. The classical school claims that elites should be trusted to run society because they have the knowledge and skills to do what's best for the unenlightened masses. Under classical elite theory, the people can not be trusted to rule themselves. a) For Mills, the power elite in the USA is a historical creation that gained and consolidated power after each war, and most rapidly after WWII. As a historical construction, the power elite can therefore be challenged and resisted by the forces of democracy. That was one of his goals of writing the book The Power Elite: To warn the American people that their democracy has been hijacked by this small unelected group of elites

(Merton) What is the distinction between "conduct" and "behavior"? (p. 895). Is purposive action always rational action? (p.896)

Behavior Spontaneous and impulsive Conduct "Purposive action" or action with a motive preceded by a choice (among alternative choices) Planned, deliberate, and intentional Less likely to yield unanticipated consequences NOT instinctual, reflexive, or subconscious It is "Rational" to the extent that it is carried out with a means-end rationale The failure of rational conduct to achieve its purpose/desired end does not make it irrational The rationality of an act is not contingent on its consequences Just bc an act had a negative consequence, doesn't mean it's necessarily irrational "Above all, it must not be inferred that purposive action implies "rationality" of human action (that persons always use the objectively most adequate means for the attainment of their end. In fact, part of the present analysis is devoted to the determination of those elements which account for concrete deviations from rationality of action. Moreover, rationality and irrationality are not to be identified with the success and failure of action, respectively. For in a situation where the number of possible actions for attaining a given end is severely limited, one acts rationally by selecting the means which, on the basis of the available evidence, has the greatest probability of attaining this goal and yet the goal may actually not be attained. Contrariwise, an end may be attained by action which, on the basis of the knowledge available to the actor, is irrational (as in the case of "hunches")"

(Merton) What are the two "methodological pitfalls" that sociologists often fall into when trying to understand purposive action? (p.897)

Causal imputation The problem of ascertaining the extent to which 'consequences' may justifiably be attributed to certain actions" (p.897) Impossible to understand the degree to which your action contributed to the result that was seen You can observe a result but you'll never know the true causality of anything "I am responsible for that outcome!" even when you're not Ascertaining the actual purposes of a given action "There is the difficulty, for instance, of discriminating between rationalization and truth in those cases where apparently unintended consequences are post facto declared to have been intended" (p.897) Its difficult to understand the motive behind any action, we reconstruct purpose A lot of motives are given post facto, rationalizations are common "I meant to do that!" even when you didn't intend to

(Mead) What is the difference between consciousness and self-consciousness? What does Mead mean when he writes that the self is an "object to itself"?

Consciousness: Does not involve a self An organism's sensitivity to its environment The way that animals act, instinctually ex). Knowing not to put your hand in a fire less social, less personable, less affective, can't be self-aware Self-consciousness: Objectification of the self An ability to reflect on oneself which animals cannot do! A process in which the individual takes the attitudes of others toward herself, she attempts to view herself from the standpoint of others Your own understanding of yourself Taking the role of the other Developed through role-playing Mead - Reflexivity or "Being an Object of Oneself" **The self arises when the individual becomes an object to themselves "Getting outside of yourself experimentally" AKA having a sense of self, self-awareness, being active and creative The self takes on the roles of others, considers these roles, and then responds ex). If I tell a joke and no one laughs, I can't say I'm a funny girl We become a self only because we operate in a community that treats us as such We are objects first to other people, and secondarily we become objects to ourselves by taking the perspective of other people Language enables us to talk about ourselves in the same way as we talk about other people, and thus through language we become other to ourselves Humans learn to see themselves from the standpoint of their co-actors Without this - we can't act intelligently or rationally

(Cooley) Cooley writes that "the social self is simply any idea, or system of ideas, drawn from the communicative life, that the mind cherishes as its own." What conceptualization of the self is Cooley proposing? How does this compare or differ from Mead?

Cooley is proposing that every person interprets [the mind cherishes as its own] things differently. These ideas are drawn from society but are experienced and interpreted differently. Cooley's analysis of the "self" connects with Mead's theory of the self because both sociologists theorize that the self is developed through interaction and society. "self is something which has a development..arises in the process of social experience and activity, that develops in the given individual as a result of his relations to that process as a whole and to other individuals within that process." We interpret ideas differently. We take ideas from our environment but internalize them and interpret them differently. It connects with Mead because they both talk about society being a factor in developing the self Your experience in the world affects your own personal impression of yourself.

(Goffman) How does "the presentation of self in everyday life" address the question of how social order is possible?

First impressions, people who act out of line with what society expects, in terms of acceptable reactions and actions, will face repercussions such as guilt or shame or ostracism If people were always working towards their id, society would break down

The ideas of Robert Merton and his contributions to Structural Functionalism

Greatest contribution to SF was bringing the concept down to earth and subjecting the ideas to empirical analysis Believed that SF needs to be tested, cannot just say that the family is functional at all times, must study different institutions and their role in society at different times more specifically Ex. globalization, who does it benefit/harm and then establish whether or not it is a net beneficial or bad system 1. differences from Parsons a) society is not as integrated or coordinated as Parsons presumed; Merton views society as more loosely arranged Society does not operate so much like an organism. Society is very messy, the parts don't always work together and are not always well integrated Introduced the idea of conflict into sociology. Parsons all but ignored the role of conflict and change b) not all social structures and patterns serve functions; some are non-functional and some are dysfunctional, and some structures can be functional to one group, level, or part of society, and dysfunctional or harmful to another. Also, some structures may be functional in the short term, but dysfunctional in the long-term, and vice versa Ex. some may say labor unions are unnecessary. (Prof and I don't agree) Ex. some would say marriage. Cultural tradition that society theoretically could function without Long term cohabitation is a big trend in recent years Ex. drug laws. It is a private behavior that theoretically does not need to be influenced by government intervention Recreational marijuana is trending in this direction Ex. alpha males. Machines do most of the heavy lifting, the big strong masculine people are not as necessary Harmful, or dysfunctional, social patterns also exist in society Ex. slavery served functions in the plantation system, it increasingly became dysfunctional for industrial development. South was underdeveloped compared to industrial north bc of this essentially feudal system !!!!!!! Important idea from Merton: What's functional for some groups can be dysfunctional to other groups Ex. whites benefit from slavery, even some northern companies, but slave were not benefitting and society's progress generally was also hindered Ex. war. Govt argues that war is necessary to preserve our cultural and social system to everyone's benefit. However, the brunt of the harm is faced by the working people who actually do most of the fighting. Meanwhile, defence industries will make lots of money off of these endeavors !!!!!!!!! Some patterns can be functional for a certain amount of time but can change over time, becoming less functional or even dysfunctional b. short-term v. long term dysfunctions; the latter eventually become defined as social problems and are combated by government policy and programs, which, in some cases, backfire, or become dysfunctional (i.e., the cure is worse than the sickness) Ex. industrialization: functional for a time and benefited most, but today we see the dysfunctional aspects such as climate change and disease from pollution, which suggests that the dysfunctions outweighs the benefits c) functionality or utility cannot merely be assumed, it must be tested and empirically demonstrated through research. Who benefits from these patterns, and who suffers? d) Merton also differed from Parsons by distinguishing between the requirements of a social system from the motives of individuals. Most of the actions of people are not intended to serve the social system. The outcome of behavior is not always what the individual intended, do not typically act to serve society primarily Ex. society needs the next generation of individuals. Most individuals have fewer children than is needed to repopulate the US. immigration is the only thing keeping the population up This idea is highlighted in the distinction between manifest and latent functions 2. Manifest (intended) v. Latent (unintended) functions - Merton Manifest: Intended function Latent: Unintended function Ex. raising the minimum wage Latent function: raising the minimum wage gives the working class people more money to contribute to the economy Latent function: others argue that raising wages would burden business owners, forcing them to raise prices, which would increase inflation. Employers may also stop hiring or replace workers with technology Merton examines the manifest/latent functions of individual behavior. Can also apply this model of examination to group decision making Ex. moving children to private schools Individuals seems to benefit, but if done on a mass scale, public schools suffer. White flight from inner city schools is especially catastrophic, causes public school defunding while leaving POC in these worse schools These group actions have negative effects on the overall system "Anomie" as the disjuncture between cultural values/goals and structural opportunities (the greater the disjuncture the greater the frustration) Reconceptualization of Durkheim's concept A conflict between the cultural and social action systems. Parsons thought these systems should work together, when they don't, anomie results The cultural system instills certain goals in ones personality. If the social system prevents people from reaching these cultural goals / expectations, frustration results; a system of anomie Ex. our culture is very materialistic. Consumer goods equate to status, meaning money is what is needed to acquire status. Thus poor people suffer the most anomie in this society because they don't have the money to acquire these consumer goods. Ex. if a cultural values other non-material things, this can cause anomie as well. Examples include beauty, which cannot always be achieved or requires money. Education is also a value, which requires some degree of intelligence and/or money a) five responses or adaptations to anomie: conformity, ritualism, innovation, retreatism, rebellion Conformity: Refers to lower your expectations, if only temporarily. Bringing your reality more in line with your expectations Parents often instill this in their children. "You can't have it now but you can do chores to work for it" "save for today and you can have tomorrow" This is a somewhat middle class form of adaptation- making sacrifices now so you can have benefits in the future Education- suffer now for a better future Ritualism: Mode adopted by poor people Permanently lower their expectations, ritualize their poverty If you were born into poverty, you become accustomed to lower quality of life. There is no expectations of it getting better People have to psychologically adapt so that the frustration doesn't drive them crazy. These are coping mechanisms Innovation: A criminal coping mechanism You accept the cultural goals, but you are blocked from achieving them. People will use illegitimate means of achieving these legitimate cultural goals White collar crime- even rich people do this for status or success. Strange because their anomie doesn't come from not having money: they have achieved the cultural goal but still have anomie Poor people: ex. Drug dealers use illegitimate means to gain cultural values. Retreatism: Abandon cultural expectations while also giving up your effort to achieve them Give up both the ends and the means of achieving success Homeless population might be an example of this. Dropped out of society and don't care about the ends or the means Rebellion: Some people who suffer anomie who rebel against the system. They want to achieve the cultural values but rebel against the system to get it Social movements could be an example. Fight for jobs, opportunities, funding, etc. Without these coping mechanisms, the social order would be much less stable. More social unrest, more crime Anomie is relative: different in different cultures In a culture where everyone is poor, people will not suffer anomie because they don't know any better Anomie is worse in societies with a class structure because people can clearly see what they don't have A little bit of anomie is beneficial for the system because it motivates people to at least try to get up the ladder and improve 2. Reference groups, or groups that people identify with and want to belong to. Used to demonstrate the relativity of anomie Reference groups might be the ones you're in right now or the ones you aspire to in the future. You identify with these people The broadest reference group we have as Americans is the middle class. Everyone wants to identify with the middle class, people don't want to see poor or rich a. Most of our expectations are learned from reference groups, or groups in which we aspire to belong; these are groups with which we most closely identify, emulate, and idealize. b. Hence, the extent to which one suffers from anomie depends not on the ability to live up to society's values in general, but the ability to achieve the goals and values of your specific reference group (s). The problem is when membership in one's reference group is out of reach. For example, if you have "hoop dreams" and aspire to play in the NBA, that's a very elite group, and very few players can earn a spot on a pro team - many are called, few are chosen (a recipe for anomie).

(Coser) According to Coser, what is the function of conflict? Under what circumstances does it become either functional or dysfunctional? Provide some examples.

He focuses in this essay on the functions of conflict not only in reinforcing group solidarity but in serving as a safety-valve, channeling tensions in constructive ways rather letting them build up to such a point that when conflict is unleashed, it is unleashed with destructive force What factors determine whether social conflict is beneficial or not? 1). The types of issues being fought over Positive: Involve goals, values, or interests that do not contradict the basic assumptions upon which the relationship are founded Negative: Involve contending parties that no longer share the basic values, where the structure is being threatened 2). The type of social structure in which it occurs Rigid or flexible? Institutionalization and tolerance of conflict Differing in how much expression to antagonistic claims is allowed Rigid, closely knit groups High frequency of interaction The more frequent the interaction, the more occasions for hostility High personality involvement of the members (intimate social relations) The more deeply involved, the greater affective investment Tendency to suppress conflict Acting out on feelings is sensed as a danger to intimate relationships (they want that group to continue) leading people to suppress feelings rather than to express hostility Feelings of hostility accumulate and intensify In danger of catastrophic breakdown **People bottle up emotions until they explode If conflict breaks out it'll be intense Because the conflict does not aim at resolving an issue and will involve an accumulation of grievances that were previously denied expression Because as people participate with their total personality, conflict will threaten the root of the relationship Flexible, segmental groups Conflict is less likely to be disruptive and intense More prone to a multiplicity of conflicts The energies of group members are mobilized in many directions rather than allowing one conflict to cut through the group Multiple group affiliations of individuals means their total personalities are not involved as they are participating in various group conflicts If in a loosely structured group and open society Allows for immediate and direct expression of rival claims, leading to a readjustment of structures by eliminating sources of dissociation Re-establishes unity by allowing for confrontation rather than suppression Encourages the modification of norms, readjustment Etc. Beneficial functions of conflict Re-establishes unity (works as a stabilizing mechanism) Allows for confrontation Revitalizes norms or contributes to the emergence of new norms Adjusting norms to new conditions Modifies the terms of power relations, guarantees a balance of power As conflict calls for a rejection of a previous accommodation between powers, a new equilibrium can be established Produces associations or coalitions with others Creates a shared bond, reduces social isolation, enforces unity between members, brings diverse people together Maintains boundary lines Helps structure the larger social environment by assigning positions to subgroups, helping define power relations

(Merton) Why is it difficult to accurately predict the consequences of purposive action? (p. 898). Merton gives a number of reasons for the cause of these unforeseen consequences. Name at least three.

Ignorance: Lack of adequate knowledge It's impossible to anticipate everything We can't know every outcome for certain There's only so much you could research "I really didn't know that outcome would happen!" Error: Incomplete analysis of the problem, or following habits that worked in the past but may not apply to the current situation "People make mistakes!" Imperious immediacy of interest: Your own major interest may override long-term interests You care primarily about one outcome and therefore fail to take into account any other detrimental outcomes that could happen as a result "I'm gonna do what I want and not think about the consequences!" "I'm gonna do what I want and maybe there will be consequences but my need outweighs the consequences!" Basic values: Similar to immediacy of interest No consideration of further consequences because of the felt necessity of certain action held by certain values They may require or prohibit certain actions, even if the long-term result may be unfavorable Making decisions based on morals, religion, basic values Self-defeating prophecy: Fear of some consequence drives people to find solutions before the problem occurs, thus the non-occurrence of the problem is unanticipated Public predictions of future social developments followed by actions to stop the event from beginning (ex stop trying to make fetch happen, its not going to happen)

(Goffman) What is impression management? What is the difference between the expression that one gives and the expression that one gives off important?

Impression management is the process one goes through in an attempt to convince others that the person we claim to be is accurate and genuine The expressiveness of the individual (and therefore his capacity to give impressions) appears to involve two radically different kinds of sign activity: the expression that he gives, and the expression that he gives off. The first involves verbal symbols or their substitutes which he uses admittedly and solely to convey the information that he and the others are known to attach to these symbols. This is communication in the traditional and narrow sense (calculated, designed to communicate a message) INTENTIONAL The second involves a wide range of action that others can treat as symptomatic of the actor, the expectation being that the action was performed for reasons other than the information conveyed in this way (more natural and indicative of one's true state) UNINTENTIONAL

(Collins) Building on the works of Marx, Weber, and Goffman, Collins develops a 'theory of conflict stratification' - what are the components of this theory? How does Collins attempt to employ both a macro and micro approach to address the topic of conflict stratification?

In all of these spheres, Marx was primarily interested in the determinants of political power, and only indirectly in what may be called a "theory of stratification." The same principles imply, however. 1. The material circumstances of making a living are the main determinant of one's style of life; since property relations are crucial for distinguishing ways of sup porting oneself, class cultures and be haviors divide up along opposing lines of control over, or lack of, property. 2. The material conditions for mobiliza tion as a coherent, intercommunicating group also vary among social classes; by implication, another major difference among class lifestyles stems from the differing organization of their commu nities and their differing experience with the means of social communica tion. 3. Classes differ in their control of the means of mental production; this pro duces yet another difference in class cul tures—some are more articulated sym bolically than others, and some have the symbolic structures of another class im posed upon them from outside The basic argument, then, has three strands: that men live in self-constructed sub jective worlds; that others pull m any of the strings that control one's subjective experi ence; and that there are frequent conflicts over control. Life is basically a struggle for status in which no one can afford to be oblivi ous to the power of others around him. Macro: There is conflict and coercion because these are political resources that are valuable. These strings can be pulled and are used to control one's subjective experience Mirco: "Every individual maximizes his subjective status according to the resources available to him and to his rivals." Everyone constructs their own world with himself in it

(Parsons) What is the "motivational problem" of social order? (p.11) What are the properties of biological "human nature" and how might they impact any given actor? (p. 12)

Individuals must be socialized to serve society; to carry out social roles whereas society must meet the biological and psychological needs of its individuals ○ Certain things that... ■ Interfere with the role performance of one or more other actors ■ Reduce the efficiency of the system by depressing levels of role performance ■ Create a threat to stability ○ ex). ■ The problem of opportunity ■ The problem of prestige allocation ■ The problem of power (ex. An imbalance of power) ○ The problems of socialization and of social control and their relation to the dynamics of the social system Motivational problem: People have to follow their role. Problem of opportunity, problem of prestige allocation, problem of power. If there are strata and people are unequal without opportunity "Plasticity" of the human organism ■ Its capacity to learn any one of a large number of alternative patterns of behavior instead of being bound to its genetic constitution ● My ex). Malleability ○ "Sensitivity" ■ Accessibility of the human individual to influence by the attitudes of others in the social interaction process and the resulting dependence on receiving on receiving particular/specific reactions ● My ex). Peer pressure and reflected appraisals ■ Provides a motivational basis for accessibility to influence in the learning process ■ The attitudes of others are important to learning and in motivating the acceptance of value-orientation patterns and are essential in the achievement of a disciplined integration of personality ■ The stability of expectations in relation to fulfillment is essential for a functioning social system ○ Emotional dependency Properties of biological human nature: Plasticity: ability to learn based on culture There is an extent to which genes might marr this ability Sensitivity: determined by a human need to find emotional fulfillment

(Cooley) Why is self-assertion, according to Cooley, a salient goal that the ill-paid classes must aim to achieve?

It is quite apparent that an organized and intelligent class-consciousness in the hand-working people is one of the primary needs of a democratic society. In so far as this part of the people is lacking in a knowledge of its situation and in the practice of orderly self-assertion, a real freedom will also be lacking, and we shall have some kind of subjection in its place; freedom being impossible without group organization. That industrial classes exist—in the sense already explained— cannot well be denied, and existing they ought to be conscious and self-directing. The most obvious need of class-consciousness is for self-assertion against the pressure of other classes, and this is both most necessary and most difficult with those who lack wealth and the command over organized forces which it implies Self-assertion through voluntary organization is of the essence of democracy, and if any part of the people proves incapable of it it is a bad sign for the country. On this ground alone it would seem that patriots should desire to see organization of this sort extend throughout the industrial population.

(Goffman) Outline and briefly explain the key elements of a "dramaturgical" approach to social life. Why does someone seek to acquire information about a person with whom s/he is interacting?

Modeled after Shakespeares' insight that "the world's a stage" and we are all merely actors on the stage of life All actions are behavior are defined as acting for Goffman, or performing As actors, we rehearse, we make entrances, follow scripts, take roles Involves strategies that people employ in an effort to achieve social acceptance of their self concept Refers to these acts of persuasion as impression management This is what we are doing all the time; managing impression, the aim of which is to convince other people that we are who we say we are. That we are who we claim to be. This effort is not always successful, can fail to successfully manage their impressions Can change the act, settings, etc to project this People cooperatively work to maintain each others impressions in teams Also manage the impressions of others around us as well We follow scripts Our self emerged from these plays. We play many parts All dependent on the setting to determine how one acts Front stage vs back stage Because it helps define the situation and establish expectations. Helps us know how to respond to them We are social chameleons

(Collins) Collins makes the argument that occupations organize people as a kind of status group -- he identifies 4 variables (or differences among work situations) that influence people's status/positions in the hierarchy of social stratification. What are these variables and what are their characteristics?

Occupations shape the differences among people, however, not merely by the fact that work is essential for survival, but because people relate to each other in different ways in this inescapable area of their lives. Occupations are the major basis of class cultures; these cultures, in turn, along with material resources for intercommunication, are the mechanisms that organize classes as communities, i.e., as kind of status group (1) Dominance Relationships Undoubtedly, the most crucial difference among work situations is the power relations involved (the ways that men give or take orders). (2) Networks of Occupational Communication Another dimension of occupational cultures comes from the sheer volume and di versity of personal contacts. The politician must see diverse audiences and the king re ceive the awe of crowds, whereas the tenant farmer and the servant rarely see outsiders, and the workman regularly deals with few besides his boss and a little-changing circle of friends and family. The greater cosmopoli tanism of the higher occupational levels is one key to their outlooks. Cosmopolitanism is generally correlated with power because power is essentially the capacity to keep up relations with a fairly large number of per sons in such a way as to draw others to back one up against whoever he happens to be with at the moment. But communications are also a separate variable, as we can see in the case of occupations that have greater con tacts than power, such as salesmen, enter tainers, intellectuals, and professionals gen erally. This variable accounts for horizontal variants within classes, and for their complex internal hierarchies (e.g., within professions or in the intellectual world) that stratify whole sectors over and above their actual or der-giving power (3) Wealth and (4) Physical Demands Besides the main variables of power and communications networks, occupations vary in additional ways that add to the explana tion of class cultures and hence to their po tential variety. One is the wealth produced and another is the kind of physical demands made Income is not al ways commensurate with power. Some men make less or more than others of their power level. Power of position and power of money can be separate ways of controlling others, and hence have alternative or additive effects on ones outlook. Moreover, income can be saved, collected, or inherited so that an as pect of power can be passed on—and so pre serve its accompanying culture—when its or ganizational basis is no longer present. On the physical side, some work calls for more exertion than others; some is more dirty or more dangerous. These aspects tend to be correlated with power, since it can be used to force others to do the harder and m ore unpleasant labor. But physical de m ands do influence lifestyle, making the lower classes more immured to hardship and dirt, and allowing the upper to be more effete and fastidious

(Mead) What does Mead mean by the "play" and "game" stages? Why are these two important for the development of the self? What does it mean to take the role of the other as well as take the role of the generalized other?

Play Develop self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing. Humans begin their their understanding of the social world through "play" and "game" "Play" comes first in child development (1 role at a time) Children take on different roles they observe in "adult" society and play them out to gain an understanding of the different social roles Children imitate roles that they see, acting out the roles of others ex). Playing the role of a mother in the game "House", playing the role of a doctor and patient when playing "Doctor" Taking the role of the other - Putting yourself in another person's shoes to think/reflect on yourself The child learns to become both subject and object, begins to build a self A limited self because the child can only take the role of distinct and separate others They still lack a more general and organized sense of themselves Games Develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the activity. Self is developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by in order to win the game or be successful at an activity. In the game stage, a person builds a full sense of self The child must now take the role of everyone else involved in the game and act accordingly (multiple roles) Organization begins and definite personalities start to emerge Children can now function in organized groups and determine what they will do within a specific group Children is able to act with others and anticipate the actions of others They are aware of their position in relationship to other numerous positions Taking the role of the generalized other - Putting yourself in the position of others, imagine how others will react, and from that contemplate various courses of action The individual understands what kind of behavior is expected, appropriate, etc. Generalized other: At this stage, one reaches full maturity and one can role-take people who are not even in the situation. Can model the behavior of people at a very abstract level This is different from the game stage bc in that stage people can only role take people who are also involved in the situation Have groups, like the family, who have attitudes and expectations and allow people to look at themselves through the eyes of these groups Ex. religious groups have attitudes and expectations "what would jesus do" Even when these people aren't present in the situation, you're thinking about how to act in relation to what these groups would expect Over time, you will have more freedom to form your own attitudes not based on group life, the power of groups has less impact For most americans, tradition, whether it by family or religious, is becoming weaker

(Coser) What functions might conflict serve within a system? Name at least three. What factors determine whether an outcome is beneficial or detrimental? (p.23)

Re-establishes unity (works as a stabilizing mechanism) Allows for confrontation Revitalizes norms or contributes to the emergence of new norms Adjusting norms to new conditions Modifies the terms of power relations, guarantees a balance of power As conflict calls for a rejection of a previous accomodation between powers, a new equilibrium can be established Produces associations or coalitions with others Creates a shared bond, reduces social isolation, enforces unity between members, brings diverse people together Maintains boundary lines Helps structure the larger social environment by assigning positions to subgroups, helping define power relations What factors determine whether social conflict is beneficial or not? 1). The types of issues being fought over Positive: Involve goals, values, or interests that do not contradict the basic assumptions upon which the relationship are founded Negative: Involve contending parties that no longer share the basic values, where the structure is being threatened 2). The type of social structure in which it occurs Rigid or flexible? Institutionalization and tolerance of conflict Differing in how much expression to antagonistic claims is allowed Rigid, closely knit groups High frequency of interaction The more frequent the interaction, the more occasions for hostility High personality involvement of the members (intimate social relations) The more deeply involved, the greater affective investment Tendency to suppress conflict Acting out on feelings is sensed as a danger to intimate relationships (they want that group to continue) leading people to suppress feelings rather than to express hostility Feelings of hostility accumulate and intensify In danger of catastrophic breakdown **People bottle up emotions until they explode If conflict breaks out it'll be intense Because the conflict does not aim at resolving an issue and will involve an accumulation of grievances that were previously denied expression Because as people participate with their total personality, conflict will threaten the root of the relationship Flexible, segmental groups Conflict is less likely to be disruptive and intense More prone to a multiplicity of conflicts The energies of group members are mobilized in many directions rather than allowing one conflict to cut through the group Multiple group affiliations of individuals means their total personalities are not involved as they are participating in various group conflicts If in a loosely structured group and open society Allows for immediate and direct expression of rival claims, leading to a readjustment of structures by eliminating sources of dissociation Re-establishes unity by allowing for confrontation rather than suppression Encourages the modification of norms, readjustment Etc.

(Coser) Why do flexible, segmented groups typically benefit from social conflict whereas rigid, close-knit groups find these tensions to threaten their stability? (p.24)

Rigid, closely knit groups High frequency of interaction The more frequent the interaction, the more occasions for hostility High personality involvement of the members (intimate social relations) The more deeply involved, the greater affective investment Tendency to suppress conflict Acting out on feelings is sensed as a danger to intimate relationships (they want that group to continue) leading people to suppress feelings rather than to express hostility Feelings of hostility accumulate and intensify In danger of catastrophic breakdown **People bottle up emotions until they explode If conflict breaks out it'll be intense Because the conflict does not aim at resolving an issue and will involve an accumulation of grievances that were previously denied expression Because as people participate with their total personality, conflict will threaten the root of the relationship Flexible, segmental groups Conflict is less likely to be disruptive and intense More prone to a multiplicity of conflicts The energies of group members are mobilized in many directions rather than allowing one conflict to cut through the group Multiple group affiliations of individuals means their total personalities are not involved as they are participating in various group conflicts If in a loosely structured group and open society Allows for immediate and direct expression of rival claims, leading to a readjustment of structures by eliminating sources of dissociation Re-establishes unity by allowing for confrontation rather than suppression Encourages the modification of norms, readjustment Etc.

(Coser) According to Coser, what are the processes through which one may mitigate destructive social conflict? What is a safety-valve organization? Why are they important?

Safety-valve institutions Not all social systems allow for the free expression of antagonistic claims Societies therefore encourage safety-valve institutions Safety-valve institutions Provide substitute objects upon which to displace hostile sentiments as well as aggressive tendencies Maintains the social structure and the individual's security system Does not reach a solution of the unsatisfactory situation but merely releases the tension which arose from it Objects for the displacement of hostility An outlet, allows for the release of tension + aggression Examples we see today include Youtube comment section, Soulcycle, etc.

(Coser) What purpose do safety-valve institutions serve in society? (p. 25) What is the distinction between "realistic" and "nonrealistic" conflicts with respect to safety-valve institutions? (p. 25)

Safety-valve institutions Not all social systems allow for the free expression of antagonistic claims Societies therefore encourage safety-valve institutions Safety-valve institutions Provide substitute objects upon which to displace hostile sentiments as well as aggressive tendencies Maintains the social structure and the individual's security system Does not reach a solution of the unsatisfactory situation but merely releases the tension which arose from it Objects for the displacement of hostility An outlet, allows for the release of tension + aggression Examples we see today include Youtube comment section, Soulcycle, etc. Realistic vs. non-realistic conflict Realistic conflict Deals with the issue at hand Tries to reach a solution Arise from frustrations of demands within a relationship and gains of participants, directed at the object Non-realistic conflict Uses safety-valve to displace hostility on something other than who or what it was intended for (as tension release) Finds a "target" Conflict is not oriented toward the attainment of specific results Does not reach a solution, but rather a release of tension The need for safety-valve institutions increases the rigidity of the social system

(Blumer) Blumer delineates the significance of self-indication, which he believes to provide the base for the underlying premises of symbolic interactionism. What are the three premises, which according to Blumer are empirically verifiable, of symbolic interactionism?

Self-indiction is a moving communicative process in which the individual notes things, assesses them, gives them a meaning, and decides to act on the basis of the meaning. The human being stands over against the world, or against "alters," with such a process and not with a mere ego. Further, the process of self-indication cannot be subsumed under the forces, whether from the outside or inside, which are presumed to play upon the individual to produce his behavior. Environmental pressures, external stimuli, organic drives, wishes, attitudes, feelings, ideas, and their like do not cover or explain the process of self-indication. The process of self-indication stands over against them in that the individual points out to himself and interprets the appearance or expression of such things, noting a given social demand that is made on him, recognizing a command, observing that he is hungry, realizing that he wishes to buy something, aware that he has a given feeling, conscious that he dislikes eating with someone he despises, or aware that he is thinking of doing some given thing. By virtue of indicating such things to himself, he places himself over against them and is able to act back against them, accepting them, rejecting them, or transforming them in accordance with how he defines or interprets them. His behavior, accordingly, is not a result of such things as environmental pressures, stimuli, motives, attitudes, and ideas but arises instead from how he interprets and handles these things in the action which he is constructing The foregoing are the essential features, as I see them, in Mead's analysis of the bases of symbolic interaction. They presuppose the following: that human society is made up of individuals who have selves (that is, make indications to themselves); that individual action is a construction and not a release, being built up by the individual through noting and interpreting features of the situations in which he acts; that group or collective action consists of the aligning of individual actions, brought about by the individuals' interpreting or taking into account each other's actions.

(Goffman) How does Goffman's definition of the self compare and contrast to that of Mead?

Similar: each person has an I and a Me, which can be found paralleled in Goffman's idea of the front and back stage

B. The positive social functions of social inequality - Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore

Structural Functionalist Perspective 1. Society must grant greater rewards to individuals who serve the most vital social roles in order to ensure these roles are occupied by the most qualified people. !!!!!!! Equality is still important, but should be limited to equality of opportunity 2. Hence, structures and the roles within these structures are organized into hierarchies; the more important and necessary the structure/role, the higher in the hierarchy it is located, and the greater the rewards - wealthy, status, and power - assigned to it. It is assumed that executives, etc play a larger, more indispensable roles than the janitor for example in the maintenance and operation of society A meritocracy comes with this- the larger your contribution to society the more power, wealth, and status is afforded you In order to motivate people to climb this ladder, you must motivate them with rewards Thus, it is assumed that ones pay is commensurate with your contribution. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Inequality is good because it provides incentive in a society to reach for these more important roles 3. Contrast with a Marxist explanation of inequality: Marx condemned this mechanism of stratification as unjust because people at the top are there because people at the top exploit those at the bottom Capitalists at the top do not benefit society, only benefit themselves at the expense of the majority In the functionalist view, top capitalists or CEOs are benefitting society by using their companies to create wealth. This wealth is reinvested back into the economy and creates job (trickle down economics). This function affords the CEO much rewards But is this reality? Not really, prof claims he sees more trickle up Marxists would see this structural functionalist perspective as propaganda. Think that corporations not being taxed and keeping wealth is not good, as SFs do. Do not reinvest money saved on taxes. They actually use it to buy back their own stock, which is a scam The problem of motivation: the reward of "prestige" - or the unequal allocation of honor - the most prestigious task/job is also the most functional or necessary task and vice versa. Individuals are rewarded with great honor and lots of money because they perform duties that most people value as essential to the maintenance of society. The assumption is that the rich and famous deserve their wealth and fame because they benefit society the most. Wealth and status are measures of a person's contribution to the welfare of society. a) Although we are raised to value and pursue prestige and wealth, and instilled to believe that these rewards can make us happy, the unequal distribution of wealth and prestige might be functional for society but is often dysfunctional to the individual

Talcott Parson's AGIL Model

Structural Functionalist Perspective 1. The "motivational problem" of social order: Individuals must be socialized to serve society; to carry out social roles; at the same time, society must meet the biological and psychological needs of its individuals. 1. The AGIL model of universal functional requirements; no social system can exist without meeting these requirements Includes four universal functional requirements that apply to all societies in all times. A VERY macro theory bc it applies to all societies and social systems from friendship cliques to nation states AGIL Model: Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, Latent Pattern Maintenance a) Adaptation (Implemented Through the Economic System): Refers to the need for a social system to adapt itself to the larger environment, both social and physical A very basic version of the theory of Evolution. Societies must adapt to new environments / circumstances As time goes by, society learns to adapt in new ways: through social institutions Ex. trade is a social adaptation, an institution. Allows people from one environment to rely on others in different conditions to compensate for the shortcomings of their own. Allows the to trade for goods and services which they cannot obtain in their immediate environment Ex. Saudi Arabia can trade oil for massive wealth and turn the desert into a habitable oasis This goal is implemented largely through the economic system b) Goal Attainment (Implemented Through the Political System): The need for social systems to have objectives or purposes. People are not going to be motivated to serve the group if there is no unifying goal. Have to be able to rally people around some purpose, to find a reason for existence This goal is implemented primarily through the political system We have founding documents in this country that establish who we are and what our purpose is as a nation Ex. the United States constitution promotes the goals of "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" A group can lose its solidarity and become fragmented without these goals c) Integration: Refers to the need for a social system to coordinate the relationship of its component parts (the left hand needs to know what the right hand is doing) All of these structures need to be working together in harmony The healthcare system, education, military, criminal justice, all have to be on the same page. Working towards the same goals with the same values Develop lots of institutions to integrate individuals into the larger fabric of society With more people, it becomes more difficult to unify people Ex. the super bowl is something that people can unite around Ex. holidays, ceremonies, the pledge of allegiance are supposed to renew your faith in society Ex. in the 20th century, the Cold War integrated us through fear. We came together to fight the communists. After the collapse of the soviet union, we have terrorism to unite us in fear d) latent pattern maintenance (latency): Involves a process of reinforcing individual commitment to the group, renewing your ties to group life Overlaps with integration Think of the family for this function. There may be latent behaviors the family follows to keep them together, such as the family dinner Religious institutions perform this function as well Renews people's faith in performing these rituals Can be a negative side to latency Sometimes performed by the legal system. Violating legal norms can result in arrest and prosecution If these four functions are not performed, the integrity of the group is weakened As ritzer points out, these functions are carried out in the real world by various institutions: 2. AGIL applied to society, or institutional structures/subsystems that fulfill these functions a) adaptation ---> economy b) goal attainment ---> political system c) integration ---> family, legal system, religion d) latent pattern maintenance ---> family, education, religion

Lewis Coser

Structural Functionalist that highlighted how some ideas of Conflict Theory could be functional for society 1. The positive function of social conflict (enhances internal group solidarity) a. inter-group conflict: external threats and attacks bring the group closer together; the exaggeration and invention of threats by leaders; scape-goating b. the larger and more diverse the group, the more difficult it is for leader to mobilize its members against real or perceived threats c. intra-group conflict: the closer the relationship, the greater the emotional investment, the greater the tendency to suppress rather than express hostile feelings; differences in conflict resolution between primary and secondary groups. 1. Inter-group conflict serves the positive function of increasing in-group solidarity. External threats can make a group stronger. External conflict, i.e. being threatened by outsiders, your own group will become more unified and rally together. It contributes to the integration of your group a) Latent effect: As the threat - or the perception of a threat - escalates, the leaders of a group tend to restrict personal freedom and dissent; democracy and civil liberties are suspended during the crises. The leaders claim that the survival of the group (aka "national security") requires total unity and cooperation. Opposition is viewed as treason, and therefore repressed by authorities. Once the threat has passed or been defeated, individual freedoms are presumably restored, but political leaders have been known to use external threats as a pretext to permanently abolish liberties and opposition. Indeed, leaders have been known to exaggerate or even manufacture threats (through fear-mongering, scare tactics, and scape-goating) to augment and consolidate their power 2. Intra-group conflict is also functional or healthy for social relations. Repressing conflict or hostility can erode group solidarity. Group members need to find ways or develop mechanisms for resolving conflict and expressing their feelings. Conflict that occurs within a group between group members Inter-between. Intra-within Invariably, relations between group members will have some conflict. Never is always harmonious This type of conflict is usually worse in more intimate settings. The closer the group, the more hurtful the conflict can be Some members engage in the natural tendency to bury conflict out of fear that it will hurt the group. This does not make the conflict go away. It could get worse Suppression of conflict is pervasive in institutions like the family or friendships. Conflict is seen as illegitimate or at risk of hurting the relationship, so nothing is done under the assumption that the conflict will blow over This is not good. Over the long run, unresolved conflict will undermine group solidarity Conflict tensions might spill over into other aspects of your life or other relationships and cause further harm Most secondary groups have mechanisms for such intragroup conflicts Ex. can go to an external party, such as an RA or conflict mediator of some sort, to either resolve conflict or prevent it from happening further Other forms of secondary mechanisms include collective bargaining (HR, conflict resolution)

(Blumer) How does Blumer's conceptualization of symbolic interactionism provide an alternative to the assumption that the behavior of people, as members of a society, is a mere expression of the forces that characterize entities such as "social systems," "social structures," "culture," or "institutions"?

The assumption is that the behavior of people as members of a society is an expression of the play on them of these kinds of factors or forces These remarks suggest another significant line of difference between general sociological views and the position of symbolic interaction. These two sets of views differ in where they lodge social action. Under the perspective of symbolic interaction, social action is lodged in acting individuals who fit their respective lines of action to one another through a process of interpretation; group action is the collective action of such individuals. As opposed to this view, sociological conceptions generally lodge social action in the action of society or in some unit of society Some conceptions, in treating societies or human groups as "social systems," regard group action as an expression of a system, either in a state of balance or seeking to achieve balance. Or group action is conceived as an expression of the "functions" of a society or of a group. Or group action is regarded as the outward expression of elements lodged in society or the group, such as cultural demands, societal purposes, social values, or institutional stresses. These typical conceptions ignore or blot out a view of group life or of group action as consisting of the collective or concerted actions of individuals seeking to meet their life situations. If recognized at all, the efforts of people to develop collective acts to meet their situations are subsumed under the play of underlying or transcending forces which are lodged in society or its parts. The individuals composing the society or the group become "carriers," or media for the expression of such forces; and the interpretative behavior by means of which people for

(Dahrendorf) Dahrendorf discusses the contexts that serve to characterize distinct types of conflict; what is the distinction between pluralism versus superimposition? How may these concepts stimulate a better sociological understanding of conflict?

The pluralism-superimposition scale measures how much conflicts overlap between groups In pluralistic societies, different groups don't line up across different associations so they don't exist in identical relations of conflict i.e. Protestants and Catholics are both rural and urban In superimposed societies, groups line up across different associations and so they remain in identical relations of conflict I.e. All Protestants are rural and all Catholics are urban The two major aspects of the pluralism-superimposition scale are the number of conflicts and the distribution of rewards

(Mead) According to Mead, the self is developed through three activities, list and explain all three. How do communication and interaction play a part in the development of the self?

The self is developed through three activities: Language Develop self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through symbols, gestures, words, and sounds. Play Develop self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing. Humans begin their their understanding of the social world through "play" and "game" "Play" comes first in child development (1 role at a time) Children take on different roles they observe in "adult" society and play them out to gain an understanding of the different social roles Children imitate roles that they see, acting out the roles of others ex). Playing the role of a mother in the game "House", playing the role of a doctor and patient when playing "Doctor" Taking the role of the other - Putting yourself in another person's shoes to think/reflect on yourself The child learns to become both subject and object, begins to build a self A limited self because the child can only take the role of distinct and separate others They still lack a more general and organized sense of themselves Games Develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the activity. Self is developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by in order to win the game or be successful at an activity. In the game stage, a person builds a full sense of self The child must now take the role of everyone else involved in the game and act accordingly (multiple roles) Organization begins and definite personalities start to emerge Children can now function in organized groups and determine what they will do within a specific group Children is able to act with others and anticipate the actions of others They are aware of their position in relationship to other numerous positions Taking the role of the generalized other - Putting yourself in the position of others, imagine how others will react, and from that contemplate various courses of action The individual understands what kind of behavior is expected, appropriate, etc. We create meaning through social interactions That becomes our social reality We place meaning on symbols, objects and each other People use this socially-constructed meaning they derive from interaction to guide their own behavior

(Blumer) Why does Blumer believe that symbolic interactionism refers to the distinctive character of human interaction? What does symbolic interaction imply about the nature of human beings and human association?

The term "symbolic interaction" refers, of course, to the peculiar and distinctive character of interaction as it takes place between human beings. The peculiarity consists in the fact that human beings interpret or "define" each other's actions instead of merely reacting to each other's actions. Their "response" is not made directly to the actions of one another but instead is based on the meaning which they attach to such actions. Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of one another's actions. This mediation is equivalent to inserting a process of interpretation between stimulus and response in the case of human behavior.

(Merton) What does Merton mean by the "unanticipated consequences of purposive action"? Why is discussing the unanticipated consequences of purposive action important from a sociological perspective?

The unintended outcomes of deliberate acts intended to cause social change ex). Putting forth a policy not intended to be discriminatory that resulted in a victimization of a certain group of people in its implementation

(Davis and Moore) What are the two levels that must be met within a system? (hint: the functional necessity of stratification) (p. 242) What are the "rewards" associated with the performance of various positions within society? (p. 243). Give an example of each.

Two levels that must be met within a system: Must be qualified to fill a position Have to have a desire to fulfill certain positions and the desire to perform the duties attached to them Stratification is required by any society in placing and motivating individuals in the social structure ○ Society must distribute its members into social positions ○ Society must make members perform the duties of these positions ○ Their absorption into the system must be arranged and motivated ■ 1. To instill in the proper individuals the desire to fulfill certain positions ● Arrangement ■ 2. The desire to perform the duties attached to them ● Motivation Rewards: things that contribute to sustenance or comfort. Must be some value in working Money Ego-boost Humor and Diversion (Do these things because it is fun to us) ○ A society must have ■ Some kind of rewards as inducements ■ Some way of distributing these rewards differentially according to positions ○ Rewards as things that contribute to ■ Sustenance and comfort ■ Humor and diversion ■ Self respect and ego expansion ● A function of the opinions of others ○ There are rewards/rights "built into" positions and their accompaniments/perquisites

(Dahrendorf) Dahrendorf talks about the variability of class conflict; he identifies 2 variables that characterize conflict. What are these two variables, and what are their characteristics?

Two variables; Intensity and Violence Intensity = energy expenditure and degree of involvement of conflicting parties; ex. Particular conflict can be high intensity if the cost of victory or defeat is high for parties concerned; high stakes, very involved in this conflict (cost-benefit) if you have a lot to lose, a lot on the line; Ex. Running for the Presidency; NFL Super Bowl; emotionally affected, conflict between brothers is more intense, emotions/feelings; significant relationship versus a rando on the street Violence - relates to its manifestations rather than its causes; like the weapons that are chosen by conflict groups to express their hostilities; spectrum, a conflict could be very violent; having a heated debate and discussion or an actual war Ex. Civil War, militant struggles or strikes, heated debate

The ideas of George Herbert Mead and his contributions to Symbolic Interactionism

Want to use the individual as the primary unit of analysis, rather than society in general 1. The Self - the individual self is a product of society (as with functionalism), but the individual is actively involved in the process of defining their self. The self develops through social interaction but this process is not the same for everyone. 1. Features of the Self. characterized by three aspects a) self as process (not a thing) Not a thing, but a dynamic and ongoing process that is always evolving and changing It would be misguided to think this process ever stops b) self as a "social" process The self is social, meaning you do not become a self on your own in isolation. c) the self is binary, divided between the "I" and the "Me" Two dimensional, self is constituted by the "I" and the "Me" The "I" is the more spontaneous and creative part of the self The "me" is an organized set of attitudes or expectations of a social group. The social side of yourself, the part of society that you incorporate into yourself. The "i" is more unique, personal The dynamic between the "i" and the "me" is different for each person The "me" is the part of the self that conforms to social roles and expectations The balance between the I and Me can change over your lifetime. Tendency is for the Me to grow, causing the I to shrink. Become a conformist rather than an individual/rebel The I is in conflict with the Me often, is restricted by the Me There is trial and error in this process. Their I bumps up against the Me(expectations of society) and they learn over time until it becomes second nature to act within society's norms b) construction of the self through "role-taking" or reflexivity - internalizing the attitudes and expectations of the group (of role-models, in particular) as your own Self formation Self begins to form at a young age, this is why Mead was interested in child development Depending on parents, family, culture, lots of variance in the development of the self Very creative people can maintain some sense of the I as they grow older. Some societies accept these people as artists, avant garde types, while others don't Over time, modern society has extended more freedom to the individual to be different role-taking (aka objectification or reflexivity) The essence of human self formation is the ability to put yourself into the position of others and act as they act, so that you see yourself as you think others see you Have to be able to imagine what others will think of your behavior. Not always knowable, but easy to make a good guess The mirror, in which people examine themselves, is a looking glass self !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! in which people try to imagine what society will think of them Mead calls this process objectification, in which people either beforehand or after judge themselves based on society's standards to develop themselves Another way to look at role taking: the capacity to anticipate what others expect of you or what their attitudes are in a certain situation This is a guessing game in which people are wrong often. This can lead to embarrassment when you're wrong about these things It can be hard to judge how people will think of you because people judge others differently. Some people will offer more harsh judgements than others In order to engage in role-taking, the individual must objectify, or get out of themselves, to imagine themselves in the same situation as everybody else This process depends a lot on who you think is important. Going to base role taking on who matters to you the most First and foremost, the parents are one of these meaningful exposures to society that are emulated through role taking As you get older, friends, coworkers, peers are also emulated. The self will grow as emulation expands to other groups b) stages of role-taking: play stage, game stage, generalized other Play stage: first phase of this process Very young children go through this stage As small children, we are only able to internalize the expectations of a small amount of people Involves taking the roles of significant individuals, primarily parents and siblings Essentially modelling parents and siblings for the first 5 / 6 years of your life w/o siblings, kids are very dependent on parentsAlso involves modeling certain cultural icons and heroes, such as firefighters, police officers (depending on social background), teachers, astronauts A lot of role taking today comes from the TV. Gain role models from characters on TV. Shows like arthur, teletubbies, sesame street, barney are trying to teach morality This stage is very simple, just modeling one person at a time. Not frivolous, but is morality play in which kids learn what is right and wrong This is the first place you learn right and wrong Also can be taught gender roles through gendered role activities Also can be rehearsal for adulthood through games like store, doctor, war The self in the play stage is still very limited because it can only take on one role. The child still lacks a more general and social concept of the self Game Stage: At some point, usually around 7-10, kids evolve from the play stage into the more complicated game stage In this stage, the child must learn to take the role of everyone else involved in the game. You are expected to compete or collaborate with other players in the game Kids learn winning and losing in this game, learn sportsmanship and how to lose with grace because of the inherent competitiveness of games Need to be able to anticipate not only what the other team will do, but also what members of one's own team will do / are expected to do Teamwork is an important concept here, role taking involves working together to succeed and achieve the goals of the group Generalized other: At this stage, one reaches full maturity and one can role-take people who are not even in the situation. Can model the behavior of people at a very abstract level This is different from the game stage bc in that stage people can only role take people who are also involved in the situation Have groups, like the family, who have attitudes and expectations and allow people to look at themselves through the eyes of these groups Ex. religious groups have attitudes and expectations "what would jesus do" Even when these people aren't present in the situation, you're thinking about how to act in relation to what these groups would expect Over time, you will have more freedom to form your own attitudes not based on group life, the power of groups has less impact For most americans, tradition, whether it by family or religious, is becoming weaker 3. The structure of the self a) d) the "complete" or unified self as constituted by multiple "elementary" selves; people who experience a highly contradictory and disorganized social environment, will also experience difficulty in developing a coherent and consistent self image. Conflicting demands placed on the individual by different social groups can create conflicting and irreconcilable elementary selves (self identities) within the individual. You have a self, but it is constituted by various elementary selves that are developed in specific social situations Might have an elementary self for work, one for family, one for friends As you engage with are settings and groups, you develop more elementary selves The sum of all of these selves is the "complete" or "unified" self Some people's self is more unified than others, depending on the unity of their social situations People with a diversity of social situations can become uncomfortable and may withdraw from some social groups or situations to preserve their sanity Sometimes keeping groups separate can be beneficial so that the person can control the interaction b) conflict within the self, or an identity crisis, can develop when two or more elementary selves contradict each other, or place conflicting demands on the individual to the extent that the individual no longer knows who he or she is; they become confused or conflicted over which roles to identify with. People who belong to groups with conflicting social expectations are at risk of developing an identity crisis, which can lead to psychiatric disorders, mental disorders Claimed that modern individuals are more prone to schizophrenia because of the complexity of modern life, which forces people to engage with far more diverse groups and social settings c) The "Me" part of the self is the social and cooperative self, or those parts of society that an individual incorporates into the self (attitudes and expectations of others that one takes on); the sum of "generalized others" Formed through retrospection; can only learn about group attitudes after group members respond to your actions The way the group responds will shape your subsequent action Children have a harder time factoring this into their self because they do not interpret these signals as readily. Parents have to be explicit that their actions are wrong because they will not pick up on the reactions of others that typically enforce societal norms As you get older, the responses become patterned within your personality d) The "I" is the spontaneous, impulsive, rebellious, imaginative, and creative phase of the self; the "I" takes chances and risks social sanction. In a free and open society with a high degree of individual freedom, the "I" is allowed greater expression. Over the course of a life-time the individual's "I" is overshadowed by the "Me"; that is, one's individuality becomes more limited and constrained. Of course, the balance between the I and the Me will vary somewhat by individual. Less controlled, uninhibited behavior that receives a positive or negative response from the people in the social situation The I can be a positive influence on society, it is creative, dynamic. Need these misfits because they are also pioneers, geniuses, visionaries The I is the source of novelty and innovation in society. In societies that are too repressive, they are not going to have much room for change and innovation

(Parsons) What are the functional prerequisites (hint: minimum needs of individual actors) of the social system? (p.10) What are the two main prerequisites required for the motivation of actors? (p.9-)

○ "The set of conditions to which the social system must adapt" ○ Biological/basic -- nutrition and physical safety ○ Minimum stability of personality ○ Minimum conditions of socialization (ex. Affectual support and security) The elements of this class of functional prerequisites may be said to begin with the biological prerequisites of individual life, like nutrition and physical safety. They go on to the subtler problems of the conditions of minimum stability of personality. It seems to be reasonably well established that there are minimum conditions of socialization with respect, for instance to the relation between affectional support and security, without which a functioning personality cannot be built up. Negative - control over potentially disruptive behavior, no disruption/deviance ○ Positive - fulfillment of expectations (ex. roles) ○ Both give us the concepts "role" and "institutionalism" The prerequisite of adequate motivation in turn subdivides into two main aspects, a negative and a positive. The negative is that of a minimum of control over potentially disruptive behavior This means action which interferes with the action of others in their roles in the social system. It may involve either aggressive action toward others or merely action which has deleterious consequences for others or for an aspect of the system, without aggressive intent Has to be control over disruptive actions There is a fulfillment of expectations, for example there are roles

(Parsons) What three integrative foci constitute action theory? (p. 9) What are the aspects of the interrelation of the social system with the system of cultural patterning and the individual actor? (p. 9)

○ Individual actor - person ○ Interactive system - interrelation between actors, network (family) ○ Cultural patterning - customs/beliefs that tell us how to behave (context) The individual actor (the person), the interactive system (the interrelation between actors, some sort of network of how you are connected), the system of cultural patterning (norms and values) ○ There are minimum individual conditions that need to be met in order for an individual to integrate with other individuals ■ There are minimum social conditions necessary for cultural systems to be produced, maintained, developed (ex. language) ■ 1. It can't be too radically incompatible ■ 2. There must be a minimum of "support" from other systems, actors must be motivated to act in accordance to the requirements of its role system and to advance the system ● Positively in conforming to role obligations (necessary performances), engaging and contributing to society ● Negatively in not disrupting society, not being deviant ○ Each has to be compatible with another, stable, have support from the other two First, a social system cannot be so structured as to be radically incompatible with the conditions of functioning of its component individual actors as biological organisms and as personalities, or of the relatively stable integration of a cultural system. Secondly, in turn the social system, on both fronts, depends on the requisite minimum of "support" from each of the other systems. It must, that is, have a sufficient proportion of its component actors adequately motivated to act in accordance with the requirements of its role system, positively in the fulfillment of expectations and negatively in abstention from too much disruptive, i.e., deviant, behavior. It must on the other hand avoid commitment to cultural patterns which either fail to define a minimum of order or which place impossible demands on people and thereby generate deviance and conflict to a degree which is incompatible with the minimum conditions of stability or orderly development.

(Davis and Moore) What is the function or "role" of religion as described in this text? (p. 244) What important part does government play in society? (p. 246)

○ Religion ■ Provides its members with unity through common values and ends ■ An imaginary world symbolized by concrete sacred objects, related by a meaningful way to the facts and trials of the individuals lives ■ They symbolize, and accept supernatural prescriptions that are codes of behavior, a powerful control over human conduct is exercised ■ Integration in terms of sentiments, beliefs, rituals ○ Government ■ Organizes the society in terms of law and authority, orienting society to the actual rather than the unseen world ● The ultimate enforcement of norm ● The final arbitration of conflicting interests ● The overall planning and direction of society ● The handling of war and diplomacy ■ Acts as the agent of the entire people, enjoys a monopoly of force and controls all individuals within its territory

(Davis and Moore) What makes up a "high rank" position? (p. 243) What are the two ways in which qualifications come about? (p. 244). Give examples for each.

○ The two determinants of positional rank ■ The highest ranked positions ● 1. Have the greatest importance for the society ● 2. Require the greatest training or talent ○ Through inherent capacity ■ Innate talents of such high degree, these ppl are rare ○ Through training ■ Training as long, costly and elaborate that relatively few can qualify ■ Medical education is so burdensome and expensive that virtually none would undertake it if the position did not carry a reward commensurate with the sacrifice