Social Problems Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality

What is a transgender individual?

-(trans) a person whose sense of gender identity--masculine or feminine--is inconsistent with their birth (chromosomal) sex.

Global context of homosexuality?

-Homosexuality has existed throughout human history and in most, perhaps all, human societies. -Laws and social attitudes show that countries vary in their treatment of same-sex sexual behavior--from intolerance and criminalization to acceptance and legal protection. -In 79 of 242 countries, homosexuality among males is illegal. In 45 of these countries, homosexuality among females is illegal. -Legal penalties vary for violating laws that prohibit homosexual acts. In some countries, homosexuality is punishable by prison sentences and/or corporal punishment, such as whipping or lashing. In 5 nations--Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Sudan--people found guilty of engaging in same-sex sexual behavior may receive the death penalty. -In general, countries throughout the world are moving toward increased legal protections of non-heterosexuals, as discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation has become part of a broad international human rights agenda. -Global trends towards more approval of same-gender sexual behavior have largely paralleled changes in the U.S. -In 1996 South Africa became the first country in the world to include in its constitution a clause banning discrimination based on sexual orientation. -Following South Africa, other countries began amending their constitutions: At least 20 countries from Ecuador to Greece have national constitutions banning discrimination based on sexual orientation. Others have laws prohibiting discrimination in some areas of the country, but not in others like Brazil. -Many countries have laws prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation specific to the workplace or regarding access to social services. -In 2009, the U.S. joined the majority of UN member states when Obama supported the decriminalization of homosexuality and the international expansion of human rights protections for those who are non-heterosexual (gender non-conforming). The resolution includes language prohibiting harassment, discrimination, exclusion, stigmatization, and prejudice against members of the LGBT population. (passed) -The growing legal recognition of same-sex relationships provides evidence of the changing status of homosexuality throughout the world, yet it remains a complicated issue that has divided jurisdictions in many countries. -In 2001, Netherlands became the first country in the world to offer full legal marriage to same-sex couples. In 2003, Belgium legalized same-sex marriages. In 2005, Spain, Canada, and South Africa became the third, fourth, and fifth countries, respectively, to legalize same-sex marriage. Since then, Argentina, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden have provided legal recognition of same-sex marriages. In Mexico City, same-sex marriages became legal in 2010. -Other countries recognize same-sex registered partnerships. 1989, Denmark paved the way for legal recognition of any kind for same-sex relationships. Legally recognized registered partnerships for same-sex couples are also available in 25 countries in Europe, the Americas, and as specific jurisdictions of Mexico, Australia, and Venezuela. -Debates over same-sex marriage and civil union legislation continue in many countries throughout the world.

Campus Programs?

-Many LGBT-affirmative and educational initiatives of middle and high schools also occur on college campuses. -Student groups in higher education have been active in the gay liberation movement since 1960s. -In addition to university-wide non-discrimination policies, other measures to support the LGBT college student population include gay and lesbian studies programs, social centers, and support groups, as well as campus events and activities that celebrate diversity. -Some campuses have a "Lavender Graduation" ceremony in which LGBT graduates are honored and receive rainbow tassels for their caps. -Many campuses have Safe Zone programs designed to visibly identify students, staff, and faculty who support the LGBT population. Safe Zone programs require a training session that provides a foundation of knowledge needed to be an effective ally to LGBT students and those questioning their sexuality.

What is privileged?

-When a group has a special advantage or benefits as a result of cultural, economic, societal, legal, and political factors.

What kind of agenda is the effort to achieve sexual orientation equality?

-a human rights agenda that many heterosexuals and mainstream organizations support.

What is sexual orientation?

-a person's emotional and sexual attractions, relationships, self-identity, and behavior.

What is gay?

-can refer to either women or men who are attracted to same-sex partners.

What is the Defense of Marriage Act?

(1) states that marriage is a legal union between one man and one woman. (2) denies federal recognition of same-sex marriage (3) allows states to either recognize or not recognize same-sex marriages performed in other states. -prevents any of the over 1,100 federal rights, benefits, and responsibilities of marriage from being afforded to legally married same-sex couples. -51% of voters oppose DOMA, whereas 34% favor it.

What are registered partnerships?

-(civil unions, domestic partnerships) which are federally recognized relationships that convey most but not all the rights of marriage.

What is internalized homophobia?

-(internalized heterosexism) the internalization of negative messages about homosexuality by lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals as a result of direct or indirect social rejection and stigmatization. -Has been linked to increased risk for depression, substance abuse, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts.

What are domestic partners?

-(reciprocal beneficiaries in Hawaii) A status granted to unmarried couples, including gay couples, that conveys various rights and responsibilities that vary by place but may include: coverage under a partner's health and pension plan, rights of inheritance and community property, tax benefits, access to married student housing, child custody and child and spousal support obligations, and mutual responsibility for debts.

Promotion of Tolerance in Learning Environments?

-18 states and DC have laws that prohibit discrimination, harassment, and/or bullying of students based on sexual orientation--16 of those also prohibit prejudice and discrimination based on gender identity. 4 states have a school regulation or teachers' ethical code that addresses discrimination, harassment, and/or bullying based on sexual orientation, and 22 states prohibit bullying in schools with no list of protected categories. -In July 2011, Miami-Dade Country Public School District amended the language of its anti-bullying and harassment policy to explicitly include harm against any student or teacher based on sexual orientation and gender identity. This is notable since Florida prohibits bullying in general, but does not specify categories of protection. -Sanchez from California headed the effort to have the Safe Schools Improvement Act (prop.), a federal bil which would require school districts to adopt policies prohibiting bullying and harassment based on race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity. -A number of programs exist that aim to create a "harassment-free" climate and promote understanding and acceptance of sexual orientation and gender diversity in the K-12 school setting. -The Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) is a national organization that collaborates with educators, policy makers, community leaders, and students to protect LGBT students from bullying and harassment, to advance comprehensive safe schools laws and policies, to empower principals to make their schools safer, and to build the skills of educators to teach respect for all people. It sponsors initiatives as the "thinkb4youspeak" website, the National Day of Silence in April, No Name-Calling Week in January, and the Training of Trainers Program for teachers and community organizers. It also supports gay-straight alliances (GSAs) and organizes National Day of Silence.

Marriage Equality Legislation?

-2004 Massachusetts became the first state to allow same-sex couples to be legally married. June 2011 New York was the 6th state to legalize same-sex marriage, joining Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Vermont, New Hampshire, and D.C. -Some states allow same-sex couples to apply for a civil union license. -Federal law does not recognize the rights of partners in same-sex civil unions, so they do not have the more than 1000 federal protections that go along with civil marriage, nor is their legal status recognized in all other states. -Some states, counties, cities, and workplaces allow unmarried couples, including gay couples, to register as domestic partners. -In February 2011, the Attorney General of the U.S. announced that the White House would no longer defend the constitutionality of Section 3 of DOMA. Later, the White House endorsed the Respect for Marriage Act (RMA) (prop.), which would overturn DOMA and grant federal recognition to same-sex marriages, regardless of the state laws in which the couple reside. The bill would not require states to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other states. This is the first time that the President and his administration have formally acknowledged that non-heterosexuals are being discriminated against at the federal level. The legal recognition of same-sex marriages by the federal government would mean that same-sex couples would realize all of the benefits of their opposite-sex counterparts.

What is National Day of Silence?

-A day during which students do not speak in recognition of the daily harassment that LGBT students endure.

What is heterosexism?

-A form of oppression that refers to a belief system that gives power and privilege to heterosexuals, while depriving, oppressing, stigmatizing, and devaluing people who are not heterosexual. (belief that heterosexuality is superior to non-heterosexuality results in prejudice/discrimination, homosexuals question legitimacy of their same-sex attractions)

What is a civil union?

-A legal status that entitles same-sex couples who apply for and receive a civil union certificate to nearly all of the benefits available to married couples.

What is discrimination?

-Actions or practices that result in differential treatment of categories of individuals.

Understanding Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality?

-Advancements in LGB rights are notable and include progress with respect to marriage equality, the repeal of DADT, the growing public support of LGB civil rights, the endorsement of LGB civil rights by mental health and medical organizations, and the growing adoption of nondiscrimination policies covering sexual orientation. -But winning some battles doesn't signify that LGBT individuals have secured equal rights: with Proposition 8, gay rights previously won can be taken away, LGB individuals at workplaces with antidiscrimination policies are still harassed and rejected from coworkers, students in schools with policies against bullying are still subjected to antigay taunts. Homosexuality is condemned in some countries with punishments from fines to deaths. -Many of the advancements in gay rights have been the result of political action and legislation. Frank emphasized the importance of political participation in influencing social outcomes. He noted that demonstrative and cultural expressions of gay activism, like gay pride celebrations or other cultural activities promoting gay rights are important in organizing gay activists, but cannot be used as substitutes for "conventional, boring, but essential" political participation. -As both structural functionalists and conflict theorists note, non-heterosexuality challenges traditional definitions of family, child rearing, and gender roles. Every victory in achieving legal protection and social recognition for non-heterosexuals fuels the backlash against them by groups who are determined to maintain traditional notions of family and gender. Often, this is rooted from religious ideology. -As symbolic interactionists note, the meanings associated with homosexuality are learned. Powerful individuals and groups opposed to gay rights focus their efforts on maintaining the negative meanings of homosexuality to keep the gay, lesbian, and bisexual population marginalized. -But political efforts to undermine gay rights and recognition must realize that prejudice and discrimination against individuals based on statuses over which research suggests they have no control hurts everyone. Using gay epithets as a way of questioning a boy's or man's masculinity threatens heterosexual as well as non-heterosexual males and the community a a whole. Antigay harassment has been identified as a precipitating factor in several school shootings. -There is the loss of capital (potential contributions LGBT individuals would have made if not for the prevalence of antigay sentiment) -Fear of reprisals keeps many LGBT employees from sharing information about their personal lives at work. Employees who are "closeted" at work are less satisfied with their jobs, less trusting of their employers, and are more likely to leave their position than their "out" counterparts. -States that don't legally recognize unmarried couples in committed relationships equally ignore the rights of heterosexual and homosexual couples. Heterosexuals who look or act gay may be the victims of hate crimes. Heterosexual mothers and fathers live in fear that their children will be victimized by antigay prejudice and discrimination--harassed, fired, or even killed. -True, the American public is becoming increasingly supportive of gay rights, and LGBT individuals have been granted legal rights in several states. However "the new confidence and social visibility of homosexuals in American life have by no means conquered homophobia. Indeed it stands as the last acceptable prejudice."

Critics of SOCE?

-American Medical Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, American Psychiatric Association, National Association of Social Workers, National Education Association, and the American Association of School Administrators all agree that homosexuality is not a mental disorder, that sexual orientation cannot be changed, and that efforts to change sexual orientation may be harmful. -Cianciotto and Cahill found that depression, social isolation from family and friends, low self-esteem, internalizad homophobia, and suicidality can result, rather than a change in sexual orientation. -Most significant statement against SOCE by American Psychological Association said that SOCE are not only unlikely to be successful, but may involve some risk of harm to the individual. Further, individuals who choose to undergo SOCE tend to have strongly conservative religious views that impact their decision to seek to change. According to Lambda Legal, the oldest and largest LGBT legal activist group in the U.S., such practitioners can be held liable for the harm they inflict upon clients including malpractice, consumer fraud, false advertising, or child abuse and neglect in the case of minors who are forced to attend an ex-gay program.

Proponents of Same-Sex Marriage?

-Argue that banning same-sex marriages or refusing to recognize same-sex marriages granted in other states is a violation of civil rights that denies same-sex couples the countless legal and financial benefits that are granted to heterosexual married couples. -Married couples have the right to inherit from a spouse who dies without a will, to avoid inheritance taxes between spouses, to make crucial medical decisions for a partner, and to take family leave to care for a partner in the event of the partner's critical injury or illness. Spouses can receive Social Security survivor benefits, and include their partner on health insurance coverage. Other rights include assumption of a spouse's pension, bereavement leave, burial determination, domestic violence protection, divorce protections, and immunity from testifying against a spouse. -Unlike other countries that recognize same-sex couples for immigration purposes, the U.S. does not recognize same-sex couples in granting immigration status. -It would promote relationship stability among gay and lesbian couples: "To the extent that marriage provides status, institutional support, and legitimacy, gay and lesbian couples, if allowed to marry, would likely experience greater relationship stability." Greater relationships stability benefits not only same-sex couples but also their children. Children in same-sex families would gain a range of securities and benefits including the right to get health insurance coverage, Social Security survivor benefits from a nonbiological parent and the right to continue living with a nonbiological parent should their biological mother or father die. Ironically, the same pro-marriage groups that stress that children are better off in married-couple families disregard the benefits of same-sex marriage to children. - A cross-cultural and historical view shows that marriage is a social construction that comes in many forms; many family types contribute to stable and humane societies.

Police Mistreatment?

-As with heterosexuals and gender conforming individuals, intimate partner violence and sexual assault occurs in the lives of LGBT individuals. -Fearing further victimization, many cases of LGBT violence are not reported to the police. Among LGBT victims who do report the crime to police, about half report that the police were "courteous", while the other half describe them as "indifferent", verbally abusive, and/or physically abusive. -One factor that contributes to the underreporting of intimate partner violence within LGBT relationships is the failure of police to identify such incidents as criminal. Police often fail to recognize that the incident has occurred in the context of an intimate partnership. Survivors of same-sex intimate partner violence must also contend with the misconception among law enforcement that a determination of domestic violence is based primarily on the sex of the victim. As a consequence, many officers simply assign the label of "mutual abuse" and arrest both parties, resulting in re-victimization of the survivor. It is estimated that police are 10 to 15 times more likely to make a dual arrest in cases of same-sex domestic violence than in heterosexual domestic violence.

What are some armies that have had LGB recruits without much problems?

-Australia, Israel, Uruguay, and South Africa.

Marriage Inequality?

-Before 2003 Goodridge v. Department of Public Health, no state had declared that same-sex couples have a constitutional right to be legally married. -In response to growing efforts to secure legal recognition of same-sex couples, opponents of same-sex marriage have prompted antigay marriage legislation. -Clinton in 1996 signed the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) -(prop.) Federal Marriage Amendment (Marriage Protection Act) would amend the U.S. Constitution to define marriage as being a union between a man and a woman. 53% now in favor of same-sex marriage, with the same rights as traditional opposite-sex marriage. -Currently, state statutes determine whether gays and lesbians can be married or enter into civil unions. Many states ban not only same-sex marriage but also domestic partnerships and civil unions. Some states ban domestic partnerships for opposite-sex couples. -Marriage licenses are granted to same-sex couples in 6 states and the District of Columbia. Other states recognize same-sex marriages but do not perform them, or offer couples the same or similar state-level spousal rights through domestic partnerships or civil unions. -The campaigns for and against Proposition 8, which defines marriage as between a man and a woman, became the most expensive social issues campaign in U.S. history. -About 50k same-sex couples have been legally married in U.S., 30k same-sex couples might have married in other countries, 85k same-sex couples in domestic partnerships (all before New York State permission of same-sex marriage)

Structural Functionalist Perspective on sexual orientation inequality?

-Consistent with their emphasis on institutions and the functions they fulfill, structural functionalists emphasize the importance of monogamous heterosexual relationships for the reproduction, nurturance, and socialization of children. -Homosexual relations, as well as heterosexual non-marital relations, are "deviant" because they do not fulfill the main function of the family institution--producing and rearing children. This argument is less noticeable in a society in which (1) other institutions, like schools, have supplemented the traditional functions of the family. (2) reducing (rather than increasing) population is a societal goal. (3) same-sex couples can and do raise children. -Some argue that antagonisms between individuals who are heterosexual and homosexual disrupt the natural state or equilibrium of society. Durkheim recognized that deviation, however, can also be functional. The gay rights movement has motivated many people to reexamine their treatment of sexual orientation minorities and has produced a sense of cohesion and solidarity among members of the gay population. Gay activism has also been instrumental in advocating HIV/AIDS prevention strategies and health services that benefit the society as a whole. -Is concerned with how changes in one part of society affect other aspects. Research has shown that the worldwide increase in legal and social support of same-sex equality has been influenced by three cultural changes: the rise of individualism, increasing gender equality, and the emergence of a global society in which nations are influenced by international pressures. Frank and McEneaney say individualism appears to loosen the tie between sex and procreation, allowing more personal modes of sexual expression: "Whereas once sex was approved strictly for the purpose of family reproduction, sex increasingly serves to pleasure individualized men and women in society. This shift has involved the casting off of many traditional regulations on sexual behavior, including prohibitions of male-male and female-female sex." -Gender equality involves the breakdown of sharply differentiated sex roles, thereby supporting the varied expressions of male and female sexuality. Globalization permits the international community to influence individual nations (Zimbabwe anti gay policy hunt-down, Uganda's Anti homosexuality bill concerns) -Latent function of the gay rights movement is increased opposition to gay rights (Proposition 8). In Strauss v. Horton, the court upheld Proposition 8 but allowed existing same-sex marriages to stand. In Perry v. Schwarzenegger, Proposition 8 was overturned.

What are Anti-LGBT hate crimes?

-Crimes against individuals or their property that are based on bias against the victim because of perceived sexual orientation or gender identity. -Include verbal threats and intimidation, vandalism, sexual assault and rape, physical assault, and murder. -Most motivated in order by: anti-gay male bias, anti-lesbian bias, anti-bisexual bias. -FBI hate crime statistics underestimate the incidence of hate crimes. -Most reported murder victims were of color--specifially transgender women or feminine-presenting men. -Because it is not uncommon for heterosexual men and women to be mistaken for gay men and lesbians, 10.4% of victims of anti-LGBT violence in 2010 were identified as being heterosexual.

What is gay pride?

-Demonstrative and cultural expressions of gay activism that include celebrations, marches, demonstrations, or other cultural activities promoting gay rights.

Hate Crimes Legislation?

-Hate crimes call for tougher sentencing when prosecutors can prove that the crime committed was a hate crime. -As of June 2009, 31 states and DC had hate crime laws that include sexual orientation, 14 states had hate crime laws that did not include sexual orientation, and 5 states had no hate crime laws. -2009 Obama signed into law the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (HCPA).

Self-Described Sexual & Gender Identity of U.S. College Students?

-Heterosexual, gay/lesbian, bisexual, unsure, transgender (high to low rank order)

Homophobia and Biphobia?

-Homophobia--refer to negative or hostile attitudes directed toward same-sex sexual behavior, a non-heterosexually identified individual, and communities of non-heterosexuals. -Homophobia made possible by heterosexism. -Homophobia is not necessarily a clinical phobia (one involving a compelling desire to avoid the feared object despite recognizing that the fear is unreasonable). Rather, research indicates that disgust and anger, rather than fear and anxiety, are more involved in heterosexuals' negative attitudes and emotional responses to LGB individuals. -When prejudice is directed toward bisexual individuals, this is called biphobia. -Both heterosexuals and non-heterosexuals often reject bisexuals; thus, bisexual women and men can experience "double discrimination". -Other terms that refer to negative attitudes, beliefs, and emotions toward non-heterosexuals include homonegativity, bi-negativity, antigay bias, and sexual prejudice. -Although homosexuality has been decriminalized in the U.S., some people still believe that gay and lesbian relations should not be legal. 64% of Americans believe that gay and lesbian relations between consenting adults should be legal. Almost 67% of respondents say they would vote for a president who is non-heterosexual. The Gay and Lesbian Victory Fund calculates that 107 openly gay candidates were elected into office in 2010. (more people today than before accept gays) -The gender gap with respect to attitudes toward homo- and bisexuality has narrowed over time. This is notable because previous public opinion surveys have indicated that men are more likely than women to have negative attitudes toward gay individuals. Research that has assessed attitudes toward male versus female homosexuality has found that heterosexual women and men hold similar attitudes toward lesbians, but that men are more negative toward gay men.

Effects of Antigay Harassment on Teenagers and Young Adults

-LGBT youth in middle and high school settings undergo harsh treatment by their peers and may feel uncomfortable seeking the support of teachers, school administrators, and family members. -The reported GPA of students who were frequently harassed because of their sexual orientation or gender expression was almost half a grade lower than for students who were less often harassed. -LGBT youth may suffer from mental health problems as a result of minority stress. (minority stress theory). -Victimization due to LGBT status was significantly associated with negative psychosocial adjustment, such as lower levels of life satisfaction and depression, which carried over into adulthood. -Lifetime suicide attempts were common among LGBT youth aged 16 to 20 years old. -Boys who were bullied because they were thought to be gay experienced greater psychological distress, greater verbal and physical bullying, and more negative perceptions of their school experiences than boys who were bullied for other reasons. -Non-heterosexual female high school students were more likely to report nonphysical bullying and experience more depression than their heterosexual peers.

Parental Rights Legislation?

-Large national organizations like the Child Welfare League of America, National Association of Social Workers, the American Psychological Association, and the American Bar Association all support the suitability of qualified unmarried and non-heterosexual couples to foster and adopt children. -Politicians are working to help end discrimination against non-heterosexual parents. -Stark reintroduced Every Child Deserves a Family Act (prop.) which would remove obstacles to non-heterosexual individuals providing loving homes for adoption or foster care. If passed, this legislation would also widen the pool of homes for children in the foster care system. -Each state has its own laws governing both joint adoptions and second-parent adoptions for same-sex couples. -Although some states, like Utah and Mississippi, prohibit same-sex couples from adopting, there have been legislative advances in other states. In 2010 Florida's Third District Court of Appeals ruled that a 1977 statute prohibiting "homosexuals" from adopting is unconstitutional. 2011 Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene decided to allow a woman to be named as a parent on the Maryland birth certificate of the child born to her same-sex married spouse, without requiring a court order.

Workplace Discrimination and Harassment of LGB individuals?

-Most Adults (89%) agree that LGB individuals should have equal opportunities. -Yet it is still legal in 29 states to fire, decline to hire or promote, or otherwise discriminate against employees because of their sexual orientation and, in 35 states, it remains legal to discriminate against an employee for being transgender. -Many workplaces have nondiscrimination policies that cover LGBT employees. But gay-affirmative policies do not ensure friendly attitudes and behaviors from coworkers. In U.S., just 1/3 of LGBT employees were "out" to anyone at work, and only 25% were "out" to everyone at work. -Few LGB employees reveal their sexual orientation at work because employees who are open about their LGB status are more likely to be harassed, lose their job, and be discriminated against when compared to employees who are not "out" at work. -Nearly half of LGBT employees say that they hear coworkers express negative views concerning LGBT issues "at least once in a while" and 61% report hearing coworkers tell jokes about LGBT people "at least once in a while". More than one in five respondents said they looked for a new job in the last year because of the uncomfortable working environment in their current job. -For many other Americans who risk their lives for the public's welfare, the workplace is the military. -Clinton signed a bill instituting a "don't ask, don't tell" (DADT) policy, and many servicemen and women have been discharged on the basis of their sexual orientation. Because of this discriminatory law, many have decided not to join the military. DADT does not prohibit lesbians, gays, and bisexuals from serving in the military, but it prohibits recruiters from asking enlistees their sexual orientation and prohibits LGB servicemen and women from revealing their sexual orienation. -Not only can LGB servicemen and women lose their jobs under DADT, they are vulnerable to harassment by other service members who threaten to "out" them. -At minimum, total cost of DADT was $555 million for the replacement and training of personnel who were discharged as a result of the policy. DADT infects the morale of LGB troops and their military peers who must serve in a climate of needless alienation, dishonesty, and fear. -On September 22, 2011, the repeal of DADT became official.

What is prejudice?

-Negative attitudes and feelings toward or about an entire category of people.

What is gender non-conforming?

-Often used synonymously with transgender, gender non-conforming (sometimes called gender variant) refers to displays of gender that are inconsistent with society's expectations.

Religion as Anti-LGB bias?

-Organized religion has been both a source of comfort and distress for many LGB Americans. -Countless LGB individuals have been forced to leave their faith communities due to the condemnation embedded in doctrine and practice. -Higher levels of religiosity are strongly associated with negative attitudes toward homosexuality, religious fundamentalism, and more conservative political beliefs. -Many religious leaders teach that homosexuality is sinful and prohibited by God. Westboro Baptist Church, pickets funerals of American servicemen and servicewomen, saying that U.S. military casualties are God's way of punishing the United States for being "nice" to lesbians and gays. This group also maintains a website called godhatesfags.com. -At the same time, there exists variability within the Judeo-Christian faiths regarding attitudes toward LGB individuals. An increasing number of organized religious groups in America have issued statements officially welcoming LGB members and have been supportive of LGB issues, such as freedom from discrimination, the affirmation of same-sex marriage, and the ordination of openly gay clergy. Reformed Judaism ordains openly lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals as rabbis. As early as the 1970s, the United Church of Christ became the first major Christian church to ordain an openly gay minister, and in 2005, became the largest Christian denomination to endorse same-sex marriages. -Other Christian denominations, with various levels of inclusiveness, include Lutherans, Episcopalians, Methodists, and Presbyterians. The Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists (AWAB) is a network of churches and organizations that advocate for the inclusion of LGB individuals within the Baptist community of faith. With some exceptions, the majority of religious groups in the U.S. have been silent with respect to transgender individuals.

Ending Workplace Discrimination?

-Presently, only discrimination on the bases of race, religion, national origin, sex, age, and disability are protected by federal law. -The Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) (prop.) would offer individuals basic protections against workplace discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. -With the absence of federal legislation prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation, some state and local governments and private corporations, prohibit employment discrimination based on sexual orientation and extend domestic partner benefits to same-sex couples. -21 states and DC have laws banning sexual orientation discrimination in the work place and offer domestic partner benefits for their government employees. -The Domestic Partnership Benefits and Obligations Act (prop.) would extend domestic partnership benefits to all federal employees and their partners. -Over 90% of Fortune 500 companies include sexual orientation in their equal employment opportunity or nondiscrimination policies, and almost half offer same-sex domestic partner health benefits. -Nearly 200 cities and counties prohibit sexual orientation discrimination in the public sector. -DADT signed into law by Obama, Lesbian, gay, and bisexual troops will be able to serve openly 60 days from the certification date, September 22, 2011.

Origins of Sexual Orientation?

-Questions about the causes of sexual orientation are typically concerned with the origins of homosexuality and bisexuality because heterosexuality is considered normative and natural. -A wealth of biomedical and social science research has investigated the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, yet no conclusive findings have suggested that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or interplay of factors. -In the absence of compelling findings, many practitioners and professionals believe that sexual orientation might be determined by the interplay of environmental and biological factors. Further, most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation. -Aside from what "causes" homosexuality, sociologists are interested in what people believe about the "causes" of homosexuality. Research shows that people rely heavily on ideology, religion, and life experience to form their beliefs on the causes of homosexuality. Currently, Americans are narrowly at odds over the factors that contribute to someone being gay--42% attribute it to one's upbringing and environment, while 40% believe that people are born gay or lesbian. Yet, long-term, there has been a significant shift away from the belief that homosexuality is a choice. -In addition, Americans' views on what causes non-heterosexual orientations appear to be the most strongly associated with their support for same-sex rights. Those most supportive of same-sex rights are much more likely to believe people are born gay or lesbian than that it is a product of their environment, controlling for other attitudinal and demographic factors. The belief that homosexuality is learned, acquired, or a personal choice implies that those with same-sex attractions can control, and therefore are responsible for, their sexuality. Long time ago, most thought upbringing was responsible for making someone gay, but being born with it caught up to same proportions.

Prevalence of LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couple Households in the U.S.?

-Reliable estimates of the percentage of the U.S. population that is gay, lesbian, or bisexual are scarce. -About 9 million Americans are LGBT, about the population of New Jersey. -Bisexual individuals comprise a slightly greater population than those who identify as lesbian or gay in the U.S. -Women are substantially more likely than men to identify as bisexual, and estimates of individuals who report any lifetime same-sex behavior or attraction are considerably higher than estimates of those who actually identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual. -When asked to estimate the number of LGB individuals in U.S., people say 25% is, which is a higher estimate than what research says. -Data on the prevalence of Americans who identify as LGBT are important because they can influence laws and policies that affect lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals and their families. - The 2010 Census did not ask about sexual orientation or gender identity. In a reversal of a Bush decision, the 2010 Census became the first to report the number of same-sex partners and the number of same-sex spouses. LGBT people living with a spouse or partner could identify their relationship by checking wither the "husband or wife" or "unmarried partner" box. About 1/4 of all same-sex households are raising children.

What are gay-straight alliances (GSAs)?

-School-sponsored clubs led by middle or high schools, that strive to address anti-LGBT name-calling and promote respect for all students.

Opponents of Same-Sex Marriage?

-Some view homosexuality as sick, unnatural, or immoral. -Argue that granting legal status to same-sex unions would convey social acceptance of homosexuality and would thus teach youth to view homosexuality as an acceptable lifestyle. -Concerned that if same-sex marriages are legalized, schools would be pressured to treat LGB individuals as any other minority group resulting in, for example, classes on gay history, gay literature, and the like. -Commonly argue that such marriages would subvert the stability and integrity of the heterosexual family. -Sullivan argues that lesbians, gays, and bisexuals are already part of heterosexual families: "Homosexuals are sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, even mothers and fathers of heterosexuals. The distinction between "families" and "homosexuals" is, to begin with, empirically false; and the stability of existing families is closely linked to how homosexuals are treated within them." -Base their opposition on religious grounds. 81% of Americans who claim no religious affiliation favor legal same-sex marriage, compared to 48% support among Catholics, 33% among Protestants. Research demonstrates the importance of religion when predicting attitudes toward same-sex marriage and civil unions, as well as the differences within religions in attitudes.

Anti-LGB Hate and Harassment in Schools?

-Survey of 13 to 18 year olds and their teachers found that actual or perceived sexual orientation is one of the most common reasons that students are harassed by their peers, second only to physical appearance. -Research provides further evidence of the pervasiveness of anti-LGBT bullying in schools, as well as a link between homophobic language, most notably by male classmates, and bullying of LGBT adolescents. -2009 National School Climate Survey of middle and high school students found that nearly 9 out of 10 LGBT students experienced harassment at school in the previous year and nearly 2/3 felt unsafe because of their sexual orientation. -84.6% of LGBT students reported being verbally harassed, 40.1% reported being physically harassed, and 18.8% reported being physically assaulted at school in the past year because of their sexual orientation. -72.4% heard homophobic remarks like "******" or "dyke", frequently or often at school. -61.1% of students reported that they felt unsafe in school because of their sexual orientation. -30% of LGBT students missed at least one day of school in the previous month because of safety concerns. -LGBT bullying is also common among college students. -College Climate Survey said that sexual and gender minority students face more physical harassment because of sexual orientation or gender expression, and more cyber-harassment than their heterosexual peers. 82% to 95% of students hear racist, sexist, homophobic comments or negative comments about gender expression, from students on campus. Participants reported that when comments are made, very few professors or students intervene. Of those students who reported being harassed or assaulted, the majority never informed campus officials.

Sex Education and LGBT-Affirmative Classroom Curricula?

-The censorship of LGBT current issues, historical figures and events, and sexual health in both the classroom and in school libraries is a heated debate across the nation. -Whether LGBT themes can be brought into public school classrooms varies considerably between and within states. -Brown signed legislation making California the first state to require that textbooks and history lessons include the contributions of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender Americans. -In advocating for the end to censorship of LGBT resources in school libraries, Lambda Legal normalizes and affirms LGBT experiences. This includes promoting greater awareness of human diversity, the reduction of bullying and harassment, and the provision of support, reassurance, and information that non-heterosexual and gender non-conforming students need. -Opposition to LGBT curricula topics has garnered momentum in some areas of the country, including 2011 Tennessee Senate approval of a bill that prohibits teachers from discussing homosexuality in any way with students from kindergarten to eighth grade; the bill has been called "Don't Say Gay Bill" by opponents.

Gays, Lesbians, and the Media?

-The media has been instrumental in the lives of LGBT individuals for several reasons. -First, it has provided LGBT individuals, most importantly youth, role models for "coming out". -National Coming Out Day, October 11 is recognized in many countries as a day to raise awareness of the LGBT population and foster discussion of LGBT rights issues. This day signifies the recognition that coming out is not only an important step in the lives of LGBT individuals, but also a critical component of the fight for equality in the U.S. -Harvey Milk was first gay person to be elected to office in the U.S. -Coming out can have positive outcomes in terms of strengthening relationships, instilling hope in LGBTs who conceal their identities, and, in turn, their emotional well-being. However, when LGBT individuals come out, they also risk rejection from friends, coworkers, and family. In a study of fathers coming out to their sons and daughters, several of the children rejected their fathers and remained hostile. Further, criminal victimization of gays is possible. -As more LGBT Americans come out to their family, friends, coworkers, heterosexuals, and gender-conforming individuals have more personal contact with LGBT individuals. -Allport asserted that contact between groups is necessary for the reduction of prejudice--an idea known as the contact hypothesis. -Heterosexuals have more favorable attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women if they have had prior contact with or know someone who is gay or lesbian. -In a national poll, less than half of individuals who personally knew someone who was gay were opposed to marriage equality compared to 72% of those who did not personally know someone who was gay. -Second, in addition to providing role models, LGBT visibility in the media counteracts stereotypes of LGBT individuals and allows non-LGBT individuals to see them not as abstractions, but as real people. -Since Ellen's coming out, many television viewers have watched shows depicting LGBT characters in more realistic ways and that take a supportive stance on LGBT rights issues. Honest, non-stereotyped and diverse portrayals of gays and lesbians in prime time can offer youth a realistic representation of the gay community and can offer positive role models for gay and lesbian youth. -One study found that college students reported lower levels of antigay prejudice after watching television shows with prominent gay characters. The researchers propose a parasocial contact hypothesis, for example, they hypothesize that contact with individuals through the media may reduce prejudice in the same way as Allport proposed in his contact hypothesis. -The visibility of famous gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals has also had a societal impact. -The media has also provided examples of the increasing social disapproval of LGB prejudice. In 2011, some celebrities experienced personal and professional consequences as a result of their use of antigay slurs. -Social media has been important in addressing the needs of LGBT youth who feel the effects of minority stress. Savage created It Gets Better Project, which turned viral and has videos that instill messages of hope and support for LGBT youth who have been bullied, feel that they must hide in shame, or who experience rejection from family members.

What is coming out?

-The ongoing process whereby a lesbian, gay, or bisexual individual becomes aware of his or her sexuality, accepts and incorporates it into his or her overall sense of self, and shares that information with others such as family, friends, and coworkers. -also applies to transgender individuals who become aware of their gender identity and share this with others. -happens because heterosexuality and gender conformity are considered normative by society.

Children and Parental Rights?

-The percentage of Americans saying that the increasing number of gay couples raising children is a "bad thing" has fallen from 50% to 35%. -National organizations have taken the position that a parent's sexual orientation or gender identity has nothing to do with his or her ability to be a good parent. -Irrespective of whether children were from divorced lesbian and gay parents or born to lesbian and gay parents, studies showed that these children are at least as well adjusted overall as those from opposite-sex parents. -Children raised in lesbian families actually experience lower rates of physical and sexual abuse than the national norms. -Across U.S. today, the legal contexts for lesbian and gay parents and their children vary significantly from one jurisdiction to another.

Myths and Negative Stereotypes as Anti-LGB bias?

-The stigma associated with homo- and bi-sexuality can also stem from myths and negative stereotypes. -One negative myth about non-heterosexuals is that they are sexually promiscuous and lack "family values", such as monogamy and commitment to relationships. Although some gays and lesbians do engage in casual sex, as do some heterosexuals, many same-sex couples develop and maintain long-term committed relationships and live together. Between 64% and 80% of lesbians and between 46% and 60% of gay men report they are in a committed relationship at any given time. 80% of gay men reported they were not happy being single and that it was not their preference. 40% of gay males cohabit and 60% of lesbians live together, while 62% of heterosexual couples live together. -Another myth is that non-heterosexuals, as a group, are a threat to children--most notably child molestation. In other words, people confuse homosexuality with pedophilia, which refers to the perpetration by an adult against a youth who has not yet reached puberty or has just achieved puberty. Having a non-heterosexual orientation is a separate issue from when an adult acts on inappropriate impulses with a youth who is not legally capable of consenting to sex. Research has not demonstrated a connection between an adult's same-sex attraction and an increased likelihood of molesting children and teenagers. In fact, a pedophile does not have an adult sexual orientation because they are fixated on children and teenagers. -Bergman found that gay men who become parents had heightened self-esteem as a result of becoming parents and raising children. The simple act of becoming a father had a very positive outcome on gay men's sense of self-worth. -Research has shown that gay men have been stigmatized by social service employees, such as social workers and managers, as being "perverts" as well as being viewed as presenting "problematic" models of gender expression. -Most often, child abusers are the father, stepfather, or a heterosexual relative or family friend.

What is oppression?

-The use of power to create inequality and limit access to resources, which impedes the physical and/or emotional well-being of individuals or groups of people.

What is the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (HCPA)?

-This new law expands the original 1969 federal hate crimes law to cover hate crimes based on actual or perceived sexual orientation, gender, gender identity, and disability.

Rigid Gender Roles as Anti-LGB bias?

-Thompson found that male students say that the most humiliating putdown was being called a "fag". The boys in this school gave Thompson the impression they were expected to conform to rigid, narrow standards of masculinity to avoid being labeled as a "fag". -Kimmel writes about the relationship between perceived masculinity and bullying: "Why are some students targeted? Because they're gay or even "seem" gay--which may be just disastrous for a teenage boy. After all, the most common put-down in American high schools today is "that's so gay", or calling someone a "fag". It refers to anything and everything: what kind of sneakers you have on, what you're eating for lunch, some comment you made in class, who your friends are or what sports team you like...Calling someone gay or a fag has become so universal that it's become synonymous with dumb, stupid, or wrong." -From a conflict perspective, heterosexual men's subordination and devaluation of gay men reinforces gender inequality. "By devaluing gay men..heterosexual men devalue the feminine and anything associated with it". Negative views toward lesbians also reinforce the patriarchal system of male dominance. Societal disapproval of lesbians is a form of punishment for women who relinquish traditional female sexual and economic dependence on men. -Individuals with traditional gender role attitudes tend to hold more negative views toward homosexuality.

Can Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexuals Change their Sexual Orientation?

-Those who believe that non-heterosexuals choose to have same-sex attractions tend to think that these individuals can and should change their sexual orientation. -Various forms of reparative therapy, conversion therapy, and reorientation therapy are dedicated to changing the sexual orientation of individuals who are non-heterosexual. The American Psychological Association collectively refers to these "treatments" as sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE). -Many conversion and reparative therapy programs view homosexuality as inherently immoral and/or pathological and allgedly achieve "conversion" to heterosexuality through embracing evangelical Christianity and being "born again".Some treatments have gone to unethical extremes, using shame, physical punishment, and other abusive methods to convert those with same-sex attractions. Sometimes, adolescents are sent to camps or group homes by their parents. -Exodus International, leader in the religious ex-gay movement, has come under scrutiny after some of its founding members have come forth stating they were not cured. -National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH) is a secular organization comprised of mental health practitioners who use their training in psychology and related fields to assist clients in ridding themselves of "unwanted" same-sex attractions, behaviors, and identifications. Members of NARTH deny that they are antigay and assert that they provide non-religious psychosocial services (reorientation therapy) for people who are distressed by their sexual orientation. NARTH claims to have the same success rate for reorientation therapies as for any other presenting problem in therapy such as anxiety or depression.

Sexual Orientation: Problems Associated with Identification and Classification?

-classification of individuals as homo-, hetero-, bisexual is problematic because: (1) Distinctions among sexual orientation categories are simply not as clear-cut as many people would believe. -Kinsey on sexual behavior found that although 37% of men and 13% of women had had at least one same-sex sexual experience since adolescence, few of the individuals reported exclusive same-sex behavior. Kinsey concluded that heterosexuality and homosexuality represent two ends of a continuum and that most individuals fall somewhere along this sexuality continuum. In other words, most people are, to some degree, bisexual: Kinsley said: "The world is not to be divided into sheep and goats. Not all things are black nor all things white. It is a fundamental of taxonomy that nature rarely deals with discrete categories. Only the human mind invents categories and tries to force facts into separated pigeon-holes. The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects. The sooner we learn this concerning human sexual behavior the sooner we shall reach a sound understanding of the realities of sex". -More recent research has also indicated that many individuals are not exclusively heterosexual or homosexual. In a longitudinal study of women, 2/3 change their sexual identity labels they had claimed at the beginning of the study, while 1/3 changed labels 2 or more times. The most commonly adopted final assessment after 10 years was "unlabeled". Vrangalova and Savin-Williams found that 84% of the heterosexual women and 51% of the heterosexual men reported the presence of at least one same-sex quality--sexual attraction, fantasy, and/or behavior. (2) Research with same-sex populations has tended to define sexual orientation based on 1 of 3 components: sexual/romantic attraction or arousal, sexual behavior, and sexual identity. However, sexual orientation involves multiple dimensions--sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual fantasies, emotional attraction, self-identification, and the interrelations between these dimensions. Many people with same-sex attractions or who have engaged in same-sex sexual behavior do not identify themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. (3) A factor complicating the identification and classification of same-sex populations is the social stigma associated with non-heterosexual identities. The social stigma associated with non-heterosexual behavior is, in part, a function of conservative religious and political beliefs, and an adherence to traditional gender roles. As a result of the stigma associated with being gay, lesbian, or bisexual, many individuals conceal or falsely portray their sexual orientation to protect themselves from prejudice and discrimination.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on sexual orientation inequality?

-focuses on the meanings of heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality; how these meanings are socially constructed; and how they influence the social status, self-concepts, and well-being of non-heterosexual individuals. -The meanings we associate with same-sex relations are learned from society--from family, peers, religion, and the media. -The negative meanings associated with homosexuality are reflected in the current slang use of the phrase "That's so gay" or "You're so gay", which is meant to convey that something or someone is stupid or worthless. -Sociological and psychological research has shown that the use of such words as fag and queer by heterosexuals to insult one another facilitates social acceptance by peers, particularly among heterosexual males. However, this behavior comes at an expense to the well-being of non-heterosexuals. -Points to the effects of labeling on individuals. Language is power. Once individuals become identified or labeled as lesbian, gay, or bisexual, that label tends to become their master status. In other words, the dominant heterosexual community tends to view "gay", "lesbian", and "bisexual" as the most socially significant statuses of individuals who are identified as such. Esterberg notes that "unlike heterosexuals, who are defined by their family structures, communities, occupations, or other aspects of their lives, lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals are often defined primarily by what they do in bed". -Draws attention to how social interaction affects our self-concept, behavior, and well-being. When gay and lesbian individuals interact with people who express antigay attitudes, they may develop what is known as internalized homophobia (or internalized heterosexism) -Family members also have a powerful effect on the self-concepts, behavior, and well-being of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. A study of young LGB adults found that higher rates of family rejection during adolescence were significantly associated with poorer health outcomes. Further, young LGBT adults who reported higher levels of family rejection were more likely to have attempted suicide, have high levels of depression, use illegal drugs, and engage in unprotected sex compared to LGBT peers from families that reported no or low levels of family rejection. Research indicates that a positive reaction from parents to a youth's coming out is a protective factor that buffers against stigma-related stress and reduces risk for illegal drug use. -Although newer research is pointing to the resilience of LGBT individuals in the face of sexual and gender identity prejudice, research also indicates the effects of environmental stress combined with internal stress processes, such as internalized homophobia, makes a person more vulnerable to developing a mental health disorder.

Conflict Perspective on Sexual Orientation Inequality?

-frames the gay rights movement and the opposition to it as a struggle over power, prestige, and economic resources. This struggle is largely over prestige, or social respect. -Sexual minorities want to be recognized as full and decent human beings who are deserving of all rights and protections entitled to individuals who are heterosexual. -A major achievement in gaining acceptance of gay and lesbian individuals occurred in 1973, when the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its official list of mental disorders. -Recently, gay and lesbian individuals have been waging a political battle to win civil rights protections against employment discrimination and to be allowed to marry a same-sex partner. -Helps to explain why many business owners and corporate leaders support nondiscrimination policies: It is good for the "bottom line". The majority (89%) of Fortune 500 companies have included sexual orientation in their nondiscrimination policies, while 43% have also included gender identity. Further, employees are increasingly offering benefits to domestic partners of LGBT employees. Gay-friendly work policies help employers maintain a competitive edge in recruiting and maintaining a talented and productive workforce. Many LGBT as well as heterosexual heterosexual consumers prefer to purchase products and services from businesses that provide workplace protections for LGBT employees. Recent trends toward increased social acceptance of homosexuality may, in part, reflect the corporate world's competition for the gay and lesbian consumer dollar. -Many business leaders also see an economic advantage to supporting same-sex marriage. Levi Strauss says that "ending marriage discrimination will improve businesses' ability to attract the best and the brightest to California and enhance California's reputation as a diverse, inclusive and innovative community, both of which are key factors to continued economic growth and prosperity."

Lawrence v. Texas?

-invalidated state laws that criminalize sodomy--oral and anal sexual acts. -overruled a 1986 Bowers v. Hardwick, which upheld a Georgia sodomy as constitutional. -Sodomy laws were discriminatory and unconstitutional -Removed the legal stigma and criminal branding that sodomy laws have long placed on LGB individuals. -But sodomy still illegal in 14 states, four of which (Kansas, Montana, Oklahoma, and Texas) target only same-sex couples. -In states that criminalize both same- and opposite-sex sodomy, sodomy laws are primarily used against gay men and lesbians.

What do LGBT, LGBTQ, LGBTQI stand for?

-refer collectively to individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, or "queer" and intersexed. Sometimes letter A is encountered, which stands for allies.

What is gender expression?

-refers to how a person presents her- or himself to society as a gendered individual (masculine, feminine, or androgynous) -A person may have a gender identity as male but nonetheless present their gender as female for any number of reasons.

What is lesbian?

-refers to women who are attracted to same-sex partners.

What are some American cultural origins of Anti-LGB bias?

-religion, rigid gender roles, myths and negative stereotypes about non-heterosexuals.

What is bisexuality?

-the emotional, cognitive, and sexual attraction to members of both sexes.

What is heterosexuality?

-the predominance of emotional, cognitive, and sexual attraction to individuals of the other sex.

What is homosexuality?

-the predominance of emotional, cognitive, and sexual attraction to individuals of the same sex.

What do sociological theories of sexual orientation inequality do?

-they do not explain the origin or cause of sexual orientation diversity; instead, they help to explain societal reactions to homosexuality and bisexuality and ways in which sexual identities are socially constructed.

Matthew Shepard?

-was a gay college student who was killed and so nation focused on hate crimes against non-heterosexuals.

What is the minority stress theory?

-when an individual experiences the social environment as emotionally or physically threatening due to social stigma, the result is an increased risk for mental health problems. -If someone is exposed to considerable hostility, or is aware that it happens to similar others, she or he may develop expectations that discrimination or harassment will happen to them. Internalized homophobia, biphobia, and/or transphobia may also develop.