Social Problems Chapter 4: Crime and Social Control

What is deterrence?

- the use of harm or the threat of harm to prevent unwanted behaviors.

T or F: The number of all violent and property crime rates of index offenses has decreased between 2009 and 2010 and in 2010 alone.

T

Community Programs?

-Neighborhood watch programs involve local residents in crime prevention strategies. -MAD DADS (Men Against Destruction--Defending Against Drugs and Social Disorder) patrol the streets in high-crime areas of the city on weekend nights, providing positive adult role models and fun community activities for troubled children. Members also report crime and drug sales to police, paint over gang graffiti, organize gun buyback programs, and counsel incarcerated fathers. - "National Night Out" 2010 was a crime prevention event in which citizens, businesses, neighborhood organizations, and local officials joined together in outdoor activities to heighten awareness of neighborhood problems, promote anti-crime messages, and strengthen community ties. -Mediation and victim-offender dispute resolution programs are also increasing, with thousands of such programs worldwide. The growth of these programs is a reflection of their success rate: 2/3 of cases referred result in face-to-face meetings, 95% of these cases result in a written restitution agreement, and 90% of the written restitution agreements are completed within one year.

What is parole?

-Parole entails release from prison for a specific time period and subject to certain conditions, before the inmate's sentence is finished.

Criminal justice system?

-based on deterrence. -assumes that people rationally choose to commit crime, weighing the rewards and consequences of their actions. Thus "get-tough" measures hold that maximizing punishment will increase deterrence and cause crime rates to go down. Yet, most recently, incarceration rates have declined even as crime has declined, calling into question the principle of deterrence. Further, 30 years of get-tough policies have not significantly reduced recidivism rates and have created other criminal justice problems such as prison crowding. Ex. 2011 U.S. Supreme Court ordered the State of California to reduce its prison population by 30,000 inmates, saying that overcrowded conditions are a violation of the 8th amendment's prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment. -Experts wonder "what works?"

What concerns have been raised with the use of lethal injection?

-led some states to halt executions. -First is the question of whether or not death by lethal injection violates the 8th amendment's prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment. 2007 a district court judge held that Tennessee's lethal injection procedures present a substantial risk of unnecessary pain that could result in a terrifying, excruciating death. However in 2008 the U.S. Supreme Court held that Kentucky's use of lethal injection was not a violation of the 8th amendment (Baze vs. Rees) -Second, concerns the role of physicians in state executions. According to Vu, the American Medical Association is adamant that it its a violation of medical ethics for doctors to participate in, or even be present at, executions. 2010 American Board of Anesthesiology (ABA) adopted the position that participation in capital punishment would prohibit a physician from becoming certified by the ABA, arguing that physicians should not be expected to act in ways that violate the ethics of medical practice, even if these acts are legal.

What are clearance rates?

-measure the percentage of cases in which an arrest and official charge have been made and the case has been turned over to courts.

What is the Clery Act?

-requires that colleges and universities collect and maintain a crime database. Nationally, campus crime data indicate that in general, college students are much less likely to be the victim of crime than their noncollege counterparts.

What is Europol?

-the European law enforcement organization that handles criminal intelligence. -Unlike FBI, Europol officers do not have the power to arrest; they predominantly provide support services for law enforcement agencies of counties that are members of the European Union. -Ex. Europol coordinates the dissemination of information, provides operational analysis and technical support, and generates strategic reports. -Europol, in conjunction with law enforcement agencies in member states, fights against transnational crimes such as illicit drug trafficking, child pornography, human trafficking, money laundering, illegal immigration, and counterfeiting of the euro.

What is capital punishment?

-the state (federal or state government) takes the life of a person as punishment for a crime.

What is Child Gun Safety and Gun Access Prevention Act (prop.) ?

-would amend the Brady Bill by raising the age of handgun eligibility from 18 to 21, and by banning anyone under the age of 21 from possessing semi-automatic assault weapons.

What is the National Criminal Justice Commission Act of 2011 (prop.)?

-would create a blue-ribbon commission to look at every aspect of our criminal justice system with an eye toward reshaping the criminal justice system from top to bottom.

What is the Safety from Sex Offenders Act (prop.)?

-would forbid a property manager from allowing sex offender to access a residence, and prohibit a sex offender from possessing such means of accessing a residence while acting on behalf of a property manager.

What is the Medicare Fraud Enforcement and Prevention Act (prop.)?

-would increase civil fines, criminal penalties, and prison sentences for fraud and abuse under the Medicare program.

What is the Preventing Gun Violence Act (prop.)?

-would prohibit anyone convicted of a violent juvenile crime from possessing a firearm.

What is Nicole's Law (prop.)?

-would require that state protections similar to those for victims of domestic violence be extended to victims of a sex offense who are not in a "familiar or dating relationship" with the perpetrator of the offense.

What is the Second Chance Act?

2008, Bush supports reentry programs in the hopes of reducing recidivism.

Rehabilitation versus Incapacitation?

-What is primary purpose of criminal justice system? Rehabilitate or Incapacitate? -Both rehabilitation and incapacitation are concerned with recidivism rates. -Rehabilitation assumes that criminal behavior is caused by sociological, psychological, and/or biological forces rather than being solely a product of free will. If such forces can be identified, the necessary change can be instituted. -Many rehabilitation programs focus on helping the inmate reenter society.

What is restorative justice?

-a philosophy primarily concerned with reconciling conflict between the victim, the offender, and the community. -in direct response to the concerns of an adversarial criminal justice system that encourages offenders to deny, justify, or otherwise avoid taking responsibility for their actions. -holds that the justice system, rather than relying on "punishment, stigma and disgrace" should "repair the harm. -Key components include restitution to the victim, remedying the harm to the community, and mediation. -Offenders in restorative justice programs were less likely to become recidivists and more likely to meet restitution obligations than offenders not in restorative justice programs.

Proponents of capital punishment?

-argue that executions of convicted murderers are necessary to convey public disapproval and intolerance for such heinous crimes. -it deters individuals from committing murder. -executing a convicted murderer relieves taxpayers of the costs involved in housing, feeding, guarding, and providing medical care for inmates. -argue that it protects society by preventing convicted individuals from committing another crime, including the murder of another inmate or prison official. -Each execution is associated with at least 8 fewer homicides.

What are the 4 functions of INTERPOL?

(1) INTERPOL operates a worldwide police communications network that operates 24/7. (2) INTERPOL's extensive databases ensure that police get the information they need t investigate existing crime and prevent new crime from occurring. (3) INTERPOL provides emergency support services and operational activities to law enforcement personnel in the field. (4) INTERPOL provides police training and development to help member states better fight the increasingly complex and globalized nature of crime.

What are the most common reasons for wrongful convictions?

(1) eyewitness misidentification (2) faulty forensic science (3) false confessions or admissions (4) government misconduct (5) informants (6) inadequate legal counsel

What are the 4 tasks of ICPC?

(1) raise awareness of and access to crime prevention knowledge. (2) enhance community safety (3) facilitate the sharing of crime prevention information between countries, cities, and justice systems. (4) respond to calls for technical assistance.

Gun Control?

-2010 when U.S. adults were asked about gun control, 50% responded that controlling gun ownership was more important than protecting the rights of gun owners, 47% the reverse. -Those concerned with protecting the rights of gun owners were more likely to be Republican, non-Hispanic, and men with high school degrees living in a southern state than their respective counterparts. -Those against gun control argue that not only do citizens have a constitutional right to own guns but also that more guns may actually lead to less crime as would-be offenders retreat in self-defense when confronted. -Advocates of gun control insist that the 250 million privately owned fire arms in the U.S., 1/3 of them handguns, significantly contribute to the violent crime rate in the U.S. and distinguish the country from other industrialized nations. -After a 7 year battle with the National Rifle Association (NRA), gun control advocates achieved a small victory in 1993, when Congress passed the Brady Bill. -In addition to federal regulations, cities and states can create other restrictions. In Washington D.C., gun ownership has virtually been banned for the last 30 years. Only residents with permits such as police, security guards, and the like, can possess handguns and rifles. -2008 U.S. Supreme Court in District of Columbia v. Heller affirmed the right of an individual to own a firearm for private use. -The Tucson shooting, concern over the illegal flow of weapons to Mexico, and the possible change in administrations, may have signaled a renewed interest in gun legislation.

What is rehabilitation?

-A criminal justice philosophy that argues that recidivism can be reduced by changing the criminal through such programs as substance abuse counseling, job training, education, and so on.

What is incapacitation?

-A criminal justice philosophy that argues that recidivism can be reduced by placing offenders in prison so that they are unable to commit further crimes against the general public.

What is recidivism?

-A return to criminal behavior by a former inmate, most often measured by re-arrest or re-conviction.

What is community policing?

-COPS emphasizes proactive problem solving in a systematic and routine fashion. Rather than responding to crime only after it occurs, community policing encourages agencies to proactively develop solutions to the immediate underlying conditions contributing to public safety problems. Problem solving must by infused into all police operations and guide decision-making efforts. -includes "problem-oriented policing", a model that includes analyzing the underlying causes of crime, looking for solutions, and actively seeking out alternatives to standard law enforcement practices.

Capital Punishment?

-In 2008, China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and the United States were responsible for 93% of all executions worldwide -2010 more than 2/3 of the world's countries had abolished capital punishment. -The U.S. is the only western industrialized nation in the world to retain the death penalty. -Of the 34 states that have the death penalty, the majority and the federal government almost exclusively use lethal injection as the method of execution. -1973-2002 study of capital punishment in U.S. found that minority death row inmates convicted of killing whites face higher execution possibilities than other capital offenders. In 2010, 64% Americans favored death penalty, 29% did not, and 6% unsure.

What is INTERPOL?

-International Criminal Police Organization, made in 1923, and is the world's largest international police organization. -Similar to Europol, INTERPOL provides support services for law enforcement agencies of member nations.

Youth Programs?

-Early intervention programs acknowledge that preventing crime is better than curing it once it has occurred. -Fight:Crime is a nonpartisan, nonprofit anticrime organization made up of more than 5000 law enforcement leaders and violence survivors. The organization takes a hard look at research about what prevents kids from becoming criminals and puts that information in the hands of policymakers and the general public. -4 initiatives advocated by Fight Crime include: (1) Quality early care and education for young children (birth to 5 years of age) (2) Parenting education for at-risk parents of young children (3) Effective programming for all children before, during, and after school hours (4) Intervention once troubled and delinquent children are identified. -This approach benefits society by reducing crime rates and saving taxpayers money. Cohen and Piquero said that programs that prevent a child from using drugs, dropping out of school, and becoming a career criminal save society more than $2.5 million per person over the course of their lifetime. -The Perry Preschool Project is a good early childhood intervention program. 123 African American children assigned to either a control or experimental group, the experimental group members received academically oriented interventions for 1 to 2 years, frequent home visits, and weekly parent-teacher conferences. The control and experimental groups were compared on 14 occasions from age 3 to 40. As adults, experimental group members had higher employment and home ownership rates, and significantly lower violent and property crime rates.

What are get-tough measures?

-Fear of crime has led to public emphasis on incapacitation and a demand for tougher mandatory sentences, a reduction in the use of probation and parole, support of a "three strikes and you're out policy, and truth-in-sentencing laws.

How is legislative action one of the most powerful methods of fighting crime?

-Federal and state legislatures establish criminal justice policy by the laws they pass, the funds they allocate, and the programs they embrace.

What is the International Center for the Prevention of Crime?

-ICPC is a consortium of policy makers, academicians, police, governmental officials, and nongovernmental agencies from all over the world. -Located in Montreal, Canada, ICPIC is a unique international forum and resource dedicated to the exchange of ideas and knowledge on crime prevention and community safety.

How have get-tough measures been attacked lately?

-Research indicates that incarceration may not deter crime. Despite the massive increase in corrections spending, in many states there has been little improvement in the performance of corrections systems. If more than four out of 10 adult American offenders still return to prison within three years of their release, the system designed to deter them from continued criminal behavior clearly is falling short. -Accusation that get-tough measures, such as California's three strikes and you're out policy are not equally applied. Chen says that African Americans compared to whites and Hispanics are more likely to receive third strike sentences with the greatest racial disparities being for property and drug offenses. Similarly, males are more likely to receive third-strike sentencing than females. -In an environment of budget deficits and legislative cuts, states simply can no longer afford the policies of decades ago. In 2010 state corrections spending quadrupled during past two decades, making it the second fastest-growing area of state budgest, trailing only Medicaid. As a response to the economic downturn and concerns over the effectiveness of get-tough policies, many states are rethinking correctional policies--closing prisons, eliminating mandatory sentencing, replacing jail time with community-based programs, commuting sentences, expanding parole, and providing treatment rather than punishment for nonserious drug offenders. -Clearly, sentencing more offenders for longer periods of time to confinement enhances incapacitation. But faced with budget cuts, states and Obama are revisiting ideals of rehabilitation.

What is probation?

-The conditional release of an offender who, for a specific time period and subject to certain conditions, remains under court supervision in the community.

What is the Brady Bill?

-The law initially required a 5 day waiting period on handgun purchases so that sellers can screen buyers for criminal records or mental instability. -The law was amended in 1998 to include an instant check of buyers and their suitability for gun ownership. -Today, the law requires background checks of not just handgun users but also those who purchase rifles and shotguns.

Corrections?

-U.S. has the highest incarceration rate in the world--743 per 100000. -U.S. rate exceeds many times over those of other countries like Russia, China, England, Wales, Canada, France, Germany. -U.S. incarceration rate has grown at an alarming rate--700 percent between 1980 and 2005, and, despite a general decrease in crime, it is expected to continue to grow, with the greatest increases being in the West, the South, and the Midwest. Growth means more needed funds and states are relying on more community alternatives to prison such as including probation and parole. -Corrections associated with positive changes in inmates, reducing recidivism rates, enhancing self-esteem, lowering aggression, increasing the likelihood of post-release employment, are cost-effective and humane. -Some argue that new technologies coupled with research-based treatment and reentry programs "can produce double-digit reductions in recidivism and save states money along the way".

Law Enforcement Agencies?

-U.S. in 2009 had three law enforcement personnel per 1000 inhabitants. -include municipal, county, state, and federal agencies, often with overlapping jurisdictions. -Shaw and Brennan on the public's confidence in law enforcement at the federal and local levels indicates a slight decline in recent years, despite falling crime rates. Confidence in judges and in the U.S. Supreme Court has also declined. -In 2008, the most common reason for face-to-face contact with a police offer was traffic-related. -Although white, backs, and Hispanics were more likely to be stopped by the police, blacks and Hispanics were more likely to be searched. Further, 1.4% of people having face-to-face police contact reported force or the threat of force being used against them and a majority of these drivers felt that the force was excessive. -Accusations of racial profiling, police brutality, and discriminatory arrest practices have made police-citizen cooperation in the fight against crime difficult. In response to such trends, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 established the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) (community policing)

Opponents of capital punishment?

-believe that no one, including the state, has the right to take another person's life and that putting convicted murderers behind bars for life is a "social death" that conveys the necessary societal disapproval. -Because most homicides are situational and are not planned, offenders do not consider the consequences of their actions before they commit the offense. -Point out that the U.S. has a higher murder rate than many western European nations that do not practice capital punishment, and that death sentences are racially discriminatory. -argue that financial considerations should not determine the principles that decide life and death issues. Taking care of convicted murderers for life may actually be less costly than sentencing them to death because of the lengthy and costly appeals process for capital punishment cases. -2011, 16 states have abolished the death penalty, including Illinois, New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin. However, no Southern state to date has repealed their death penalty. California is considering to abolish death penalty: Confinement on death row (with all the attendant security requirements) adds $90,000 per inmate per year to the normal cost of incarceration. Appeals and habeas corpus proceedings add tens of thousands more. In all, it costs California $125 million a year more to prosecute and defend death penalty cases and to keep inmates on death row than it would simply to put all those people in prison for life without parole. -may result in innocent people being sentenced to death.

What is the 1994 Violent Crime and Law Enforcement Act?

-created community policing, "three strikes and you're out", and truth-in-sentencing laws.

Winslow and Zhang?

-created a global crime database from data from UN and INTERPOL---the international police agency. -In "United States versus the World", they found that U.S. does not have the highest crime rate in the world, (ranks 12th of 165 nations) with Sweden, Denmark, Australia, and Great Britain in rank order having higher crime rate than U.S. -examined crime rates by dividing them into types of crime---violent crime or property crime. -Several developing countries (Namibia and Switzerland) as well as developed countries (Australia and Sweden) have higher violent crime rates than the U.S. -U.S. ranks 13th in property crimes, with Sweden, Denmark, Australia, and Great Britain topping the list

Region and Crime?

-crime rates and violent crime rates are higher in metropolitan areas than in non-metropolitan areas. -crime rates vary by region of country: 2010 both violent and property crimes were highest in southern states, followed by western, midwestern, and northeastern states. -Violent crime is particularly high in the South, which is linked to high rates of poverty and minority populations in the South, a southern subculture of violence, higher rates of gun ownership, and a warmer climate that facilitates victimization by increasing the frequency of social interaction.

What is property crime?

-crimes in which someone's property is damaged, destroyed, or stolen.

What are some biological explanations to crime?

-central nervous system malfunctioning, stress hormones, vitamin or mineral deficiencies, chromosomal abnormalities, and a genetic predisposition toward aggression.

What is racial profiling?

-the practice of targeting suspects on the basis of race

What are the FBI's 8 index offenses?

-violent/personal crime: homicide, aggravated assault, robbery, rape. -property crime: larceny, motor vehicle theft, burglary, arson.

What is homicide?

-willful or nonnegligent killing of one human being by another individual or group of individuals. -is the most serious of violent crimes, and is also the least common of violent crimes. -typical scenario includes a male killing a male with a handgun after a heated argument. -the victim and offender are disproportionately young and of minority status. -when a woman is murdered and the victim-offender relationship is known, she is most likely to have been killed by her husband or boyfriend. -mass murders have more than one victim in a killing event. -serial murder is the unlawful killing of two or more victims by the same offender(s) in separate events.

Victims of crime are disproportionately?

-young, lower-class, minority males from urban areas.

What is the structural functionalist perspective on crime?

-Durkheim says that crime is functional for society. It strengthens group cohesion: "The deviant individual violates rules of conduct that the rest of the community holds in high respect; and when these people come together to express their outrage over the offense...they develop a tighter bond of solidarity than existed earlier" -Crime can also lead to social change. Ex. an episode of local violence may achieve broad improvements in city services, be a catalyst for making public agencies more effective and responsive, can strengthen families and social institutions, and creates public-private partnerships.

4 facts about crime that are true throughout the world?

(1) crime is ubiquitous-- there is no country where crime does not exist. (2) most countries have the same components in their criminal justice system: police, courts, and prison. (3) adult males make up the largest category of crime suspects worldwide. (4) in all countries, theft is the most common crime committed, whereas violent crime is a relatively rare event.

What are the 6 global priorities identified by INTERPOL?

(1) drugs and criminal organizations (drug trafficking) (2) financial and high-tech crimes (counterfeiting, fraud, cybercrime) (3) tracking of fugitives (4) public safety and countering terrorism (5) trafficking in human beings (6) fighting corruption (enforcing the rule of law) -Each of these priority areas contains transnational crime.

What is the Innocence Lost National Initiative?

-FBI made it to address domestic sex trafficking of children.

What is corporate violence?

- a form of corporate crime, refers to the production of unsafe products and the failure of corporations to provide a safe working environment for their employees. -result of negligence, the pursuit of profit at any cost, and intentional violations of health, safety, and environmental regulations.

What is the NCVS?

-"Dark figure of crime" = tendency for many crimes to go unreported and undetected by UCR. -So, U.S. Department of Justice conducts the National Crime Victimization Survey (1973) annually and interviews people about their experiences as victims of crime. -Collects victim's background (age, race/ethnicity, sex, marital status, education, and residence), relationship to offender, and the extent to which victim was harmed. -Part of victimization surveys. -According to victimization data, major violent and property crimes dropped between 2001 and 2010. In 2010, there was one rape or sexual assault, two robberies, three aggravated assaults, and ten simple assaults for every 1000 people 12 and older in the U.S. -Although victimization surveys provide detailed information about crime victims, they provide less reliable data on offenders.

What is NIBRS?

-1970s law enforcement called for evaluation of UCR program to recommend an expanded and enhanced data collection system to meet the needs of 21st century. -National Incident-Based Reporting System requires that law enforcement agencies provide extensive information on each criminal incident and arrest for 22 offenses (Group A) and arrestee information on 11 lesser offenses (Group B). -once implemented, should provide more reliable and comprehensive data -part of official statistics.

What is the symbolic interactionist perspective on crime?

-2 major theories of crime are labeling theory and differential association

What are acquaintance rapes?

-80% of all rapes -rapes committed by someone the victim knows. -least likely to be reported and the most difficult to prosecute.

Life sentences for juveniles without possibility of parole violates which amendment?

-8th amendment prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment; except in cases that involved killing.

Economic Costs of Crime?

-Conklin said that financial costs of crime can be classified into six categories: (1) direct losses from crime, such as the destruction of buildings through arson, of private property through vandalism, and of the environment by polluters. (2) costs associated with transferring of property. Bank robbers, car thieves, and embezzlers have all taken property from its rightful owner at tremendous expense to the victim and society. (3) criminal violence, including the medical cost of treating crime victims (medical and mental health care, law enforcement, victim and social services) (4) costs associated with the production and sale of illegal goods and services, that is, illegal expenditures. The expenditure of money on drugs, gambling, and prostitution diverts funds away from the legitimate economy and enterprises, and lowers property values in high-crime neighborhoods. (5) cost of prevention and protection--billions of dollars spent on locks and safes, surveillance cameras, guard dogs, etc. (6) cost of controlling crime (escalating). Criminal justice spending varies by function, with spending on law enforcement increasing over the years and spending on criminal justice assistance decreasing. The cost of corrections has also soared, leading Missouri to require that judges are informed of the costs of the sentences they impose. -Although the costs from "street crimes" are staggering, the costs from "crimes in the suites", such as tax evasion, fraud, false advertising, and antitrust violations, are greater than the cost of the FBI index crimes combined. Barkan found that the total cost of property crime annually is less than the price tag for employee theft alone.

What is primary deviance?

-Deviant behavior committed before a person is caught and labeled as an offender.

What is secondary deviance?

-Deviant behavior that results from being caught and labeled as an offender.

Social and Psychological Costs of crime?

-Fear is dependent upon individual perceptions of crime as a problem. Ex. Since 2001, Americans' fear of victimization has increased even as violent and property crime rates have decreased. Such misconceptions are fueled by media presentations that may not accurately reflect the crime picture. Ex. Krisberg, when comparing youth crime rates to newspaper coverage of juvenile crime, concluded that the media doesn't provide a balanced perspective on crime or youth issues, instead focusing on crime increases and crime emergencies. -Not only do Americans worry about crime at the aggregate level, but they also worry about crime at the individual level. When a random sample of Americans was asked the extent to which they worry about crime, nearly 25% said that they wold be afraid to walk alone at night within a mile of their home. -Fear of crime is not randomly distributed: both women when compared to men, and low socioeconomic status households compared to higher socioeconomic status households, are more likely to be afraid of criminal victimization. -The most common method of dealing with fear of victimization is to avoid going to certain places/neighborhoods you might otherwise want to go to (behavioral change)(Shapland and Hall) -Other costs found by Shapland and Hall include a sense of shock, a loss of trust, feelings of guilt for being victimized, anger, and a sense of vulnerability. Although these responses vary by type of offense, it should not be concluded that white-collar crimes do not carry a social and psychological toll (Madoff scheme)

Why is only a fraction of the population labeled criminal?

-For individuals to be officially labeled criminals: (1) their behavior must become known to have occurred (2) the behavior must come to the attention of the police, who then file a report, conduct an investigation, and make an arrest (3) the arrestee must go through a preliminary hearing, an arraignment, and a trial and may or may not be convicted. -At every stage of the process, offenders may be "funneled out" -the measures of crime used at various points in time lead to different results.

How are Americans concerned with juvenile violence and the high rate of gang-related violence?

-Growth of gangs is in part a function of the increased availability of guns in the 1980s, and the lucrative and expanding drug trade. -Gang activity is more likely to be found in large urban areas, then suburban counties, then small cities, then rural counties. -Gangs are estimated to be responsible for 80% of crime in some communities, and are becoming more violent. -When law enforcement officials were asked about factors involving gang violence, the most common reason given was drug-related factors.

What is economic marginalization of women relative to men?

-Heimer says that such increases are a function of the economic marginalization of women relative to men, that is, female criminality goes up when women's economic circumstances in relation to men's decline.

Physical Injury and Loss of Life from Crime?

-Homicide is the second most common cause of death among 15 to 25 year olds, exceeded only by accidental death -Barkan reported that consequences of white collar crime include: (1) workplace-related deaths from illness or injury (2) deaths from unsafe products (3) deaths from environmental pollution (4) deaths from unnecessary surgery. -U.S. Public Health Service now defines violence as one of the top health concerns facing Americans. -Health initiatives related to crime include reducing drug and alcohol use and the deaths and diseases associated with them, lowering rates of domestic violence, preventing child abuse and neglect, and reducing violence as well as physical health consequences. -Crime has mental as well as physical health consequences: violent crime, and particularly rape and sexual assault, are related to post-traumatic stress disorder.

What are two examples of transnational crime?

-Internet child pornography -Human trafficking: 80% of victims are women and girls, 50% are minors. Majority trafficked into commercial sexual exploitation, others trafficked into forced labor, sexual servitude, and for use as child soldiers.

What are official statistics?

-Local sheriffs' departments and police departments in U.S. collect information on the number of reported crimes and arrests and voluntarily report them to FBI. FBI then compiles these statistics annually and publishes them in summary form in the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) -The UCR lists crime rates, the actual number of crimes, the percentage of change over time, and clearance rates.

What are some shortcomings of official crime statistics?

-Many incidents of crime go unreported -Even if a crime is reported, the police may not record it. -Some rates may be exaggerated; motivations for such distortions may come from the public, from political officials, and/or organizational pressures. -official statistics may be a better indicator of what police are doing rather than of what criminals are doing (change in law enforcement behavior and not a change in number of violations)

What are some ways to prevent Medicare fraud according to FBI?

-Medicare should conduct comprehensive criminal background checks on providers, stop the practice of paying claims within 14 days, suspend payments for questionable charges, and change the system of using Social Security numbers for beneficiaries to prevent identity theft.

Are drug use and prostitution and gambling problematic?

-Most Americans view drug use as socially disruptive. -Less consensus nationally/internationally that gambling and prostitution are problematic: Netherlands legalized prostitution in 2000 hoping to cut ties between the sex trade and organized crime (a link that remains), Sweden penalizes clients of prostitutes and treats sex workers as victims (an approach that several European countries including England and Wales are adopting).

What are self-report offender surveys?

-ask offenders about their criminal behavior. -sample may consist of a population with known police records (prisoners) or it may include respondents from the general population (college students). -reveal that virtually every adult has engaged in some type of criminal activity

What is aggravated assault?

-attacking a person with the intent to cause serious bodily injury. -like homicide, it occurs most often between members of the same race and, as with violent crime in general, is more likely to occur in warm weather months. -most common violent crime

How are children under age 18 who do crime handled?

-by juvenile courts, either as status offenders or as delinquent offenders. -juveniles commit more property crimes than violent crimes (like adults)

What are the types of property crime?

-car theft, burglary and larceny

Crime and Victimization?

-NCVS says 40% of male victims of violent crime knew their offenders compared to 64% of female victims of violent crime. -Victims who knew their offenders were most likely to classify them as "friends or acquaintances". -Females are much more likely to report victimization by an intimate partner than males (based on results) -Victims of violent crimes are most often under the age of 25, and least often over the age of 65 -Weapons were used in 22% of all violent crimes. -Blacks were more often victims of violent crime, including robbery, rape, and aggravated assault, than whites. -Blacks were more likely to be victims of violent crime in general, and to be victims of of robbery, rape, simple assault, and aggravated assault when compared to Hispanics. -American Indians and Alaskan Natives had the highest victimization rate, followed by persons of two or more races. -Households of incomes of less than $7500 per year were over 2.5 times more likely to experience burglary than households with annual earnings of $75,000 or more. -Households with incomes below $7500 were also more likely to be victims of property theft. -Larger households were more likely to report being the victim of a property crime than smaller households. -Consistent with UCR, NCVS said that both nonlethal violent crime and property crime decreased between 2009 and 2010.

What is the Sarbanes-Oxley Act?

-President Bush in 2002, it significantly increased penalties for white-collar offenders.

What is differential association theory on crime?

-The assignment of meaning and definitions learned from others is central to differential association. -Sutherland said that through interactions with others, individuals learn the values and attitudes associated with crime as well as the techniques and motivations for criminal behavior. -Individuals who are exposed to more definitions favorable to law violation than to unfavorable ones are more likely to engage in criminal behavior. Thus, children who see their parents benefit from crime or who live in high-crime neighborhoods where success is associated with illegal behavior are more likely to engage in criminal behavior. -Unfavorable definitions come from a variety of sources like video games. In response to violent video games, many states now require a video rating system that differentiates between cartoon violence, fantasy violence, intense violence, and sexual violence.

What is insider trading?

-The use of privileged (nonpublic) information by an employee of an organization that gives that employee an unfair advantage in buying, selling, and trading stocks or other securities.

What are some parts of the criminal justice system?

-U.S. Department of Justice, FBI, law enforcement, courts, corrections.

What are transnational crime organizations like?

-Unlike traditional crime organizations that are hierarchically arranged, transnational crime organizations tend to be decentralized and less likely to operate through legitimate businesses. -Like transnational crime in general, they directly or indirectly involve more than one country. -They are a growing threat to the United States and to global security. -Wagley says "The end of the Cold War--along with increasing globalization beginning in the 1990s--has helped criminal organizations expand their activities and gain global reach. Criminal networks are believed to have benefited from the weakening of certain government institutions, more open to borders, and the resurgence of ethnic and regional conflicts across the former Soviet Union and many other regions. Transnational criminal organizations have also exploited expanding financial markets and rapid technological developments. -Are less likely than traditional crime "families" to develop around a family or ethnic structure. -involved in many types of transnational crime including money laundering, narcotics, arms smuggling, and trafficking in people. -Terrorists are increasingly supporting themselves through transnational organized crime groups.

What is classic rape?

-Wilson -rapist was a stranger who used a weapon and the attack resulted in serious bodily injury (women usually report)

What are some outcomes of feminist criminology?

-Winslow and Zhang say they include: mandatory arrest for domestic violence offenders, the development of rape shield laws, public support for battered women's shelters, laws against sexual harassment, and the repeal of spousal exception in rape cases.

Gender and Crime?

-Women everywhere are less likely to commit crime than men. -In the U.S., both official statistics and self-report data indicate that females commit fewer crimes than males. -Not only are females less likely than males to commit serious crimes, but also the monetary value of female involvement in theft, property damage, and illegal drugs is typically far less than that for similar offenses committed by males. -Rates of female criminality have increased dramatically over the last decade: arrest rates for women increased most for robbery, burglary larceny, drug abuse violations. -The recent increase in crimes committed by females has led to growth of feminist criminology.

Local initiatives to combat crime?

-Youth programs like the Boys and Girls Club, community programs that involves families and schools---both are effective "first line of defense" against crime and juvenile delinquency.

What is a crime?

-a violation of a federal, state or local criminal law.

What is a status offense?

-a violation that can be committed only by a juvenile, such as running away from home, truancy, and underage drinking. -most common ones are underage drinking, truancy, and running away.

What two events have colored the public's view of the need for corporate responsibility?

-accelerations problems in Toyota vehicles, Gulf Oil (BP) spill

What is a delinquent offense?

-an offense that would be a crime if committed by an adult, such as the 8 index offenses.

Proponents of racial profiling?

-argue that because race, like gender, is a significant predictor of who commits crime, the practice should be allowed.

What are subcultural theories?

-argue that certain groups or subcultures in society have values and attitudes that are conducive to crime and violence. -members of these groups and subcultures, as well as other individuals who interact with them, may adopt the crime-promoting attitudes and values of the group. -Kubrin and Weitzer found that retaliatory homicide is a response to subcultural norms of violence that exist in some neighborhoods.

Opponents of racial profiling?

-argue that it is little more than discrimination and should be abolished.

Age and Crime?

-criminal activity is more prevalent among younger people than among older people. -although those younger than age 25 made up over half of all arrests in the U.S. for crimes such as robbery, burglary, motor vehicle theft, and arson, those younger than age 25 were significantly less likely to be arrested for crimes such as embezzlement, fraud, and forgery and counterfeiting. -Those 65 and older made up less than 1 percent of total arrests for the same year. -high school students who have jobs become more, rather than less, involved in crime. -in earlier generations, teenagers who worked did so to support themselves and/or their families. Today, teenagers who work typically spend their earnings on recreation and "extras", including car payments and gasoline. -the increased mobility with having a vehicle also increases the opportunity for criminal behavior and reduces parental control. -Conflict theorists would argue that teenagers and young adults have less power in society than their middle-aged and elderly counterparts. This lack of power means that the police can have a mental map of who is a "typical offender" and are more likely to have teenagers and young adults in their suspect pool. With increased surveillance of teenagers and young adults comes increased detection of criminal involvement--a self-fulfilling prophecy.

What kind of drugs lower reporting levels of rape?

-date-rape drugs.

Examples of white-collar crimes against consumers?

-deceptive advertising, antitrust violations, dangerous products, manufacturer kickbacks, physician insurance fraud.

What is strain theory?

-developed by Merton, uses Durheim's concept of anomie (normlessness) -when the structure of society limits legitimate means (job) of acquiring culturally defined goals (money), the resulting strain may lead to crime. -individuals must adapt to the inconsistency between means and goals in a society that socializes everyone into wanting the same thing but provides opportunities for only some. -(culturally defined goals, structurally defined means) -Conformity(+,+) occurs when individuals accept the culturally defined goals and the socially legitimate means of achieving them. Merton said most individuals, even those who do not have easy access to the means and goals, remain conformists. -Innovation(+,-) occurs when an individual accepts the goals of society but rejects or lacks the socially legitimate means of achieving them. Innovation is the mode of adaptation most associated with crime, and explains the high rate of crime committed by uneducated and poor individuals who do not have access to legitimate means of achieving the social goals of wealth and power. -Ritualism(-,+ is when individuals accept a lifestyle of hard work but reject the cultural goal of monetary rewards. Ritualists go through the motions of getting an education and working hard, yet they are not committed to the goal of accumulating wealth or power. -Retreatism(-,-) involves rejecting both the cultural goal of success and the socially legitimate means of achieving it. Retreatists withdraw or retreat from society and may become alcoholics, drug addicts, or vagrants. -Rebellion(+/-, +/-) occurs when individuals reject both culturally defined goals and means and substitute new goals and means. Rebels may use social or political activism to replace to goal of personal wealth with the goal of social justice and equality. -explains criminal behavior as a result of blocked opportunities.

What is the conflict perspective on crime?

-deviance is inevitable whenever two groups have differing degrees of power. -the more inequality there is in a society, the greater the crime rate in that society. -social inequality leads individuals to commit crimes such as larceny or burglary as a means of economic survival. -other individuals not satisfied by low socioeconomic status commit crimes through drug use, assault, and homicide. -In Argentina, the soaring violent crime rate is hypothesized to be a product of the gap in income between the rich and poor. -those in power define what is criminal and what is not, and these definitions reflect the interests of the ruling class. -Laws against vagrancy penalize individuals who do not contribute to the capitalist system of work and consumerism. -D'Alessio and Stolzenberg found that in cities with high unemployment, unemployed defendants have a substantially higher probability of pretrial detention than employed defendants. -Rather than viewing laws a mechanism that protects all members of society, conflict theorists focus on how laws are created by those in power to protect the ruling class. -Wealthy corporations contribute money to campaigns to influence politicians to enact tax laws that serve corporate interests. -law enforcement is applied differentially, penalizing those without power and benefiting those with power. -in arrests, court processing and sentencing, new admissions and ongoing populations in prison and jails, probation and parole, capital punishment, and recidivism...persons of color, particularly African Americans, are more likely to receive less favorable results than their white counterparts. -Female prostitutes are more likely to be arrested than are men who seek their services. -Rape laws originated to serve the interests of husbands and fathers who wanted to protect their property--wives and unmarried daughters. -Unlike street criminals, corporate criminals are most often punished by fines rather than lengthy prison terms. -Societal beliefs also reflect power differentials: "rape myths" are perpetuated by the male-dominated culture to foster the belief that women are to blame for their own victimization, thereby, in the minds of many, exonerating the offenders. Such myths include the notion that when a woman says no she means yes, that "good girls" don't get raped, that appearance indicates willingness, and that women secretly want to be raped. Not surprisingly, there is less rape in societies where women and men have greater equality.

Describe international crime rate comparisons?

-dramatic differences exist in international crime rates, although comparisons are made difficult by variations in measurement and crime definitions.

Examples of white-collar crimes against employers?

-embezzlement, pilferage, misappropriation of government funds, counterfeit production of goods, business credit fraud.

What is control theory?

-explains why members of strain theory and subcultural groups don't all become criminals. -developed by Hirschi -consistent with Durkheim's social solidarity -a strong social bond between individuals and the social order constrains some individuals from violating social norms. -4 elements of the social bond: (1) attachment to significant others (2) commitment to conventional goals (3) involvement in conventional activities (4) belief in the moral standards of society. -the higher the attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief (elements), the stronger the social bond and the lower the probability of criminal behavior. -Ford concludes that a strong family bond lowers the probability of adolescent substance use and delinquency. -Bell reports that weaker attachment to parents is associated with a greater likelihood of gang membership for both males and females.

What is feminist criminology?

-focuses on how the subordinate position of women in society affects their criminal behavior and victimization. -Ex. Chesney-Lind and Shelden reported that arrest rates for runaway juvenile females are higher than those for males not only because girls are more likely to run away as a consequence of sexual abuse in the home but also because police with paternalistic attitudes are more likely to arrest female runaways than male runaways. -concentrates on gender inequality -adds insights into understanding crime and violence that are often neglected by traditional theories of crime. -has also had an impact on public policy

What is labeling theory on crime?

-focuses on two questions: How do crime and deviance come to be defined as such? What are the effects of being labeled criminal or deviant? -Becker says "Social groups create deviance by making rules whose infractions constitute deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an "offender". The deviant is one to whom the label has successfully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label." -Distinction between primary deviance and secondary deviance. -After a person violates the law and is apprehended, that person is stigmatized as a criminal (becomes his or her master status). -Being labeled as deviant often leads to further deviant behavior because (1) the person who is labeled as deviant is often denied opportunities for engaging in non-deviant behavior (2) the labeled person internalizes the deviant label, adopts a deviant self-concept, and acts accordingly.

Examples of white-collar crimes against employees?

-health and safety violations, wage and hour violations, discriminatory hiring practices, illegal labor practices, unlawful surveillance practices.

What are victimless crimes?

-illegal activities that have no complaining participant(s) and are often thought of as crimes against morality.

What is prostitution in U.S. like?

-illegal, with the exception of several counties in Nevada. -multimillion-dollar industry -motivated by profit, smugglers traffick thousands of women and children into U.S. for prostitution. Trafficking within U.S. also occurs (tens of thousands child victims)

What is white-collar crime?

-includes both occupational crime, in which individuals commit crimes in the course of their employment, and corporate crime, in which corporations violate the law in the interest of making profit. -Occupational crime is motivated by individual gain: employee theft of merchandise, or pilferage, is one of the most common types of occupational crime. Other examples include embezzlement, forgery and counterfeiting, and insurance fraud. -Price fixing, antitrust violations, and security fraud are types of corporate crime, that benefits the organization.

What is rape?

-intraracial -FBI definition contains three elements: sexual penetration, force or the threat of force, and nonconsent of the victim. -more likely to occur in warm months

What is robbery?

-involves force or the threat of force or putting a victim in fear. -most often committed with the use of a firearm and occur disproportionately in southern states. -vary from opportunistic robberies whose victims are easily accessible and that yield only a small amount of money, to professional robberies of commercial establishments.

What is arson?

-involves the malicious burning of the property of another. -Estimating the frequency and nature of arson is difficult given the legal requirement of "maliciousness" -the top cases of arson involved structures (most residential), movable property, and miscellaneous property.

What are motor vehicle thefts?

-larcenies involving automobiles and auto accessories are the largest category of thefts (huge cost involved) -has decreased since 2001 -because of insurance requirements, vehicle theft is highly reported index crime. -estimates between UCR and NCVS are fairly compatible -most motor vehicle thefts have not been cleared.

What is gambling in U.S. like?

-legal in many states, in Nevada, New Jersey, Connecticut, North Carolina; also state lotteries, bingo parlors, horse and dog racing, and jai alai. -although illegal in U.S., online gambling flourishes on offshore gambling sites. -Congress reevaluating its 2006 ban on online gambling -Some argue there is little difference, other than societal definitions of acceptable and unacceptable behavior, between gambling and other risky ventures like investing in the stock market. -Conflict theorists note that the difference is who is making the wager.

What are some social policies/programs that have been initiated to alleviate the crime problem?

-local initiatives, criminal justice policies, legislative action, and international efforts

Why do many white-collar criminals go unpunished?

-many companies, not wishing the bad publicity surrounding a scandal, simply dismiss the parties involved rather than press charges. -many white-collar crimes, like traditional crimes, go undetected. -federal prosecutions of white-collar criminals have generally decreased recently. Only few believe the decrease is a result of lower prevalence of white-collar crime offenses. First, white-collar crimes are becoming increasingly complex, making prosecution a time and resource intensive endeavor. Second, the decrease in white-collar crime prosecutions represents a shift in priorities: After 9/11, nearly 1/3 of FBI agents were moved away from criminal programs to terrorism and intelligence duties.

Race, Social Class, and Crime?

-minorities are disproportionately represented in official statistics. Blacks are more likely than whites to be arrested for drug offenses, to be admitted to prison, and if admitted to prison for a violent crime, receive longer sentences. -inaccurate to conclude that race and crime are causally related.

What triggered federal investigation on financial crimes?

-mortgage fraud as part of the subprime mortgage crisis.

What are the types of violent crime?

-murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault.

What is burglary?

-the second most common index offense -involves entering a structure, usually a house, with the intent to commit a crime while inside. -most burglaries are residential rather than commercial and take place during the day when houses are unoccupied. -the most common types of burglary are forcible entry, followed by unlawful entry.

What is identity theft?

-the use of someone else's identification to obtain credit or other economic rewards. -although mail theft is a common way of obtaining needed information, new technologies have contributed to the increased rate of identity theft.

Examples of white-collar crimes against the public?

-toxic waste disposal, pollution violations, tax fraud, security violations, police brutality.

Bernet says what two factors help explain violent behavior?

-variant of the MAO-A gene (warrior gene). -history of child abuse.

Why are race and crime not causally related?

-official statistics reflect the behaviors and policies of criminal justice actors. Thus, the high rate of minorities may be a consequence of individual and institutional bias against minorities. Racial profiling may be responsible for their higher arrest rates. -race and social class are closely related in that nonwhites are overrepresented in the lower classes. Because lower-class members lack legitimate means to acquire material goods, they may turn to instrumental, or economically motivated, crimes. Although the "haves" typically earn social respect through their socioeconomic status, educational achievement, and occupational role, the "have-nots" more often live in communities where respect is based on physical strength and violence, as subcultural theorists argue. Ex. Kubrin examined the "street code" of inner-city black neighborhoods by analyzing rap music lyrics. Her results indicate that lyrics instruct listeners that toughness and the willingness to use violence are central to establishing viable masculine identity, gaining respect, and building a reputation. -criminal justice system contact, which is higher for nonwhites, may actually act as the independent variable; that is, it may lead to a lower position in the stratification system. Kerley found that contact with the criminal justice system, especially when it occurs early in life, is a major life event that has a deleterious effect on individuals' subsequent income level. -even when social class backgrounds of blacks and whites are comparable, blacks have higher rates of criminality. Sampson found that the likelihood of self-reported violence by blacks was 85% higher than for whites. The likelihood of Latino self-reported violence was less than that reported by whites.

What are three major types of statistics used to measure crime?

-official statistics, victimization surveys, and self-report offender surveys.

What are vice crimes?

-often thought of as crimes against morality, are illegal activities that have no complaining participants and are often called victimless crimes. -Examples include illegal drugs, engaging in or soliciting prostitution, illegal gambling, and pornography.

Why is criminal activity more prevalent among individuals in their late teens and early twenties?

-one reason is that juveniles are insulated from many of the legal penalties for criminal behavior. -younger individuals are also more likely to be unemployed, or employed in low-wage jobs. Thus, strain theorists say they have less access to legitimate means for acquiring material goods.

What is transnational crime?

-organized criminal activity across one or more borders. -Shelley says it is a defining issue for 21st century policy makers; terrorists and transnational crime groups will proliferate because these crime groups are major beneficiaries of globalization; they take advantage of increased travel, trade, rapid money movements, telecommunications and computer links, and are well positioned for growth.

How is pornography a problem internationally?

-particularly Internet pornography, growing problem. -Regulation is made difficult by fears of government censorship and legal wrangling as to what constitutes "obscenity". -For many, the concern with pornography is not its consumption per se but the possible effects of viewing or reading pornography--increased sexual aggression. -Conklin concluded that there is no consistent evidence that nonviolent pornography causes sex crimes.

What are some costs of crime and violence?

-physical injury and loss of life, economic losses, and social and psychological costs.

What are some psychological explanations to crime?

-psychopathic personalities, unhealthy relationships with parents, and mental illness.

What is computer crime?

-refers to any violation of the law in which a computer is the target or means of criminal activity. -(cybercrime) is one of the fastest growing types of crime in U.S. -Hacking, or unauthorized computer intrusion, is one type of computer crime. -Another category is Internet fraud. The most common type of Internet fraud is nondelivery of merchandise or payment, followed by FBI-related scams. Other Internet Fraud categories are check fraud, confidence fraud, Nigerian letter fraud, computer fraud, and credit/debit card fraud. -Another type is online child sexual exploitation. U.S. created Internet Crimes Against Children Task Force Program. -the most common complaint category is identity theft.

What is organized crime?

-refers to criminal activity conducted by members of a hierarchically arranged structure devoted primarily to making money through illegal means. -discussed under victimless crimes because of its associated with prostitution, drugs, and gambling -use coercive tactics -traditional notion is Mafia, a national band of interlocked Italian families. However, many ethnic groups engage in organized crime in the U.S: Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese gangs have been found on the East and West coasts, active in smuggling drugs and extorting money from businesses in their communities. Scores of other groups can be found in various cities: Israelis dominating insurance fraud in L.A., Cubans running illegal gambling operations in Miami, Canadians engaging in gun smuggling and money laundering in Miami, Russians carrying out extortion and contract murders in New York. -also occurs in other countries.

According to Americans, would most prefer increasing law enforcement or resolving social problems to combat crime?

-resolving social problems

What is larceny?

-simple theft, accounts for more the 2/3 of all property arrests. -most common index offense

Why are crime rates higher in urban areas?

-social control is a function of small intimate groups that socialize their members to engage in law-abiding behavior, expressing approval for their doing so and disapproval for their noncompliance. In large urban areas, people are less likely to know one another and thus are not influenced by the approval or disapproval of strangers. -Demographic factors: Large cities have large concentrations of poor, unemployed, and minority individuals. -Some of the nation's most violent cities, including the 10 most dangerous cities in the U.S., have been identified by the U.S. Department of Justice as transit points for Mexican drug cartels.

What are the three major theories of crime developed from structural functionalism?

-strain theory, subcultural theory, control theory.

What are crime rates?

-the number of crimes committed per 100,000 population

For a violation to be a crime?

-the offender must have acted voluntarily and with intent and have no legally acceptable excuse or justification for their behavior.

Who are the Yakuza?

Japaneze Yakuza are one of the largest crime organizations in the world. Young men who join Yakuza tend to be from the lower class and must undergo a training period of 5 years. During this apprenticeship, members learn absolute loyalty to their superiors as well as the other norms and values of the group. Yakuza are involved in drugs, illegal gambling, pornography, and prostitution, as well as several legitimate businesses. Yakuza proudly display their name at their corporate headquarters and recruits wear lapel pins identifying themselves as members.

T or F: The number of property crimes has gone down since 1998.

T