Social Theory Exam 1

Conflict theory

(Macro) (The way inequalities contribute to social differences and perpetuate differences in power) -looks at society as a competition for limited resources. -Marx -Weber -Simmel

Manifesto of the Communist Party- Marx & Engels have a lower base & a superstructure

(changes in the base lead to changes in the superstructure- direct effect) -capital accumulates upward

The General Formula of Capital- 3 equations:

-C-M-C= selling in order to buy (the use-value or consumption value) -M-C-M= buying in order to sell (exchange value) -M-C-M'= have money, buy corn for $10, sell for $15. (sell for same price, plus some. this where capital comes from) (surplus value) (capitalist uses this to take money from workers)

The Sociology of Charismatic Authority (Weber 2013):

-Charismatic domination is the purest form of social prosperity as it is natural abstract divine & depends on heroism -Charismatic authority is characteristically unstable -3 forms of legitimate authority- 1. Traditional= monarch, chieftain, pope, Dalai Lama 2. charismatic= Jesus, Hitler, MLK, Gandhi 3. Legal-rational (bureaucratic) -Why charismatic authority unstable? distributive, revolutionary, anti-institutional -Charismatic justice- why problematic? Is rules free- is just whatever the leader decides -2 instances of communism in human history= household community; charismatic communities (e.g., monastery)

The Human Meaning of Religion- my notes:

-definition of religion that emphasizes not simply the socially constructed nature of the religious but makes the more controversial claim that religion is a mirror of society & that in fact what ppl take to be the realm of the sacred is society itself

What is social theory?

-ideas about a subject- can be via one person, group of theorists -not proven, not a fact -why? explains something -identify relationships btwn concepts -a lens to explain what's happening in the world -social theory actually shapes the hypothesis -tool for analysis -nature of society (goal of social theory- to determine this- the nature of society)

Theory can be one of 2 things:

-interpretive or explanative -structure or agency -focus on the individual or society -can look at structure or on cultural explanations -base off social philosophy vs. mathematical models -ultimate goal- explain/understand some piece of reality

Notion of Civilization- defs. & concepts:

-symbolic frontiers= (frontières idéales) -believed that to explain a civilization one need merely ask whence it comes, from what it has borrowed, and by what means it has passed from one point to another. In reality, the true manner of understanding all this is to determine the causes of which it is the result, that is to say, what collective interactions of diverse orders produced it

The General Formula of Capital (Marx 2013):

-the cycle of buying & selling to receive monetary surplus -to explain the process & power of commodities in the economy -to Marx, surplus value= stolen time, stolen life, stolen labor (stolen value) -this is how capital is accumulated -capital is obtaining huge sums of means of production

Charismatic Authority- defs. & concepts:

-the patriarch, like the bureaucratic official, holds his authority in virtue of a certain established order -the bearer of charisma holds his authority in virtue of a mission held to be incarnate in his person: this mission need not always/necessarily be of a revolutionary nature, dedicated to the subversion of all hierarchies of value & the overthrow of existing morality, law, & tradition, but it certainly has been in its highest forms.

Social Fact- my notes:

Social facts are forces that have impact on individual behavior. -There are ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that present the noteworthy property of existing outside the individual consciousness (a category of facts with very distinctive characteristics- external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they control him). -Variety of phenomena that the term "social" exclusively ought to be applied- since their source is not in the individual, their sub-stratum can be no other than society (social facts exist only where there is some social organization) (we are then victims of the illusion of having ourselves created that which actually forced itself from without- we realize that these feelings have been impressed upon us to a much greater extent than they were created by us). -Every social fact is imitated; it has a tendency to become general, but that is because it is social, i.e., obligatory. Its power of expansion is not the cause but the consequence of its sociological character. If only social facts produced this consequence, imitation could perhaps serve, if not to explain, at least define them (imitation is indeed fitted to designate an effect due to a coercive influence).

3 types that ppl try to fit social theories in- contradictory-

Structural functionalism, critical conflict, symbolic interactionism (3 very different understandings of how the world works)

Fashion- its influence-

the fashionable person is regarded with mingled feelings of approval & envy; we envy him as an individual, but approve of him as a member of a set/group. Fashion raises even the unimportant individual by making him the representative of a class, the embodiment of a joint spirit. Fashion in its very nature represents a standard that can never be accepted by all.

Bureaucracy (Weber 2013):

-Bureaucracy- based on rules, based on written documents -Not enjoyable bc they are impersonal -the vocation— prerequisites, long term -Require training-- info becomes the means to control -stability -Bureaucracy organizes things in an impersonal manner thru the implication of authoritative rules. -Bureaucracy made up of appointed leaders is required for propagating capitalism -it's a well oiled machine (efficiency, calculability, predictability, control, technology) -regulations, official duties, authority, stability, methodical processes, -A firmly ordered system of sub- & super-ordination

Manifesto of the Communist Party- def. of bourgeoisie/proletariat

-By bourgeoisie is meant the class of modern Capitalists, owners of the means of social production and employers of wage-labour. -By proletariat, the class of modern wage-labourers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labour-power in order to live.

Spirit of Capitalism- Marx looks at how capitalism works-

-Marx looks at how capitalism works- weber looks at why capitalism exists (protestants- work ethic, couldn't spend money bc that was sin, made for the seed that planted capitalism) -benjamin franklin: punctuality, frugality, competence, proficiency, -virtues: are only virtues in the extent that they become useful to the individual (virtues if you get away w it, non-virtues if you get caught) -iron cage- capitalism (have to work in this system of accumulation bc no other way to survive, no alternative) -capitalism basically outgrew religion

Alienated labor- exists of 5 different aspects:

-Separating ourselves from our activity goes against human nature. -Workers are alienated from the world because of wage labor. -alienation= we get separated from (1) the product (goods), (2) the labor itself, (3) fellow humans, (4) ourselves, (5) nature -commodity= something that can be bought or sold (in Marx's mind- that is us, we are the commodity working towards being sold in a market)

Charismatic Authority- my notes-oppositions-

-charismatic domination is diametrically opposed to bureacratic in all respects, & hence in its economic sub-structure -charisma rejects as dishonorable all rational planning in the acquisition of money, & in general all rational forms of economy ('pure' charisma opposed to all forms of regulated economy- is the anti-economic force)

C, S, P- my notes- economic & social concepts-

-the way in which social honor is distributed in a community btwn typical groups participating in this distribution we may call the 'social order'. the social order & the economic order are, of course, similarly related to the 'legal order' -the economic order is for us merely the way in which economic goods & services are distributed/used. the social order is of course conditioned by the economic order to a high degree, & in turn reacts upon it -those men whose fate is not determined by the chance of using goods/services for themselves on the market, e.g., slaves, are not, however, a 'class' in the technical sense of the term. they are, rather, a 'status group'. in contrast to classes, status groups are normally communities

On Mechanical and Organic Solidarity- my notes- 2 consciences:

there are in each of us 2 consciences- one which is common to our group in its entirety, which, consequently, is not ourself, but society living and acting within us; the other, on the contrary, represents that in us which is personal and distinct, that which makes us an individual. There are two contrary forces, one centripetal, the other centrifugal, which cannot flourish at the same time. We cannot, at the same time, develop ourselves into two opposite senses.

Charismatic Authority- my notes:

(Authority located)- character of the individual, perceived by followers as being endowed with grace -Charismatic leadership involves a profoundly emotional bond btwn the leader & followers, & in its purest form it's constructed as being potentially disruptive, revolutionary, & anti-institutional, & thus a source of far-reaching social upheaval -the concept of charisma is being used in a completely 'value-free' way -charisma recognizes only those stipulations/limitations which come w/in itself. the bearer of charisma assumes the tasks appropriate to him & requires obedience & a following in virtue of his mission. his success depends on whether he finds himself.

C, S, P- my notes:

(Concerning all 3- classes, status groups, parties), presuppose a comprehensive socialization, especially a political framework of communal action (within which they operate) -3 discrete but interrelated realms: the economic, where class is the key concept; the social order (or culture), where status is the central notion; & power (or the political), where the party is the key associational mode. Weber agreed with Marx in that economy has a particularly determinative impact on the social order & power -power, including economic power, may be valued 'for its own sake'. -'classes', 'status groups', & 'parties' are phenomena of the distribution of power w/in a community

Symbolic interactionism

(Micro) (One-to-one interactions and communications) -micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. -Social scientists who apply symbolic-interactionist thinking look for patterns of interaction between individuals. Their studies often involve observation of one-on-one interactions. For example, while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on class difference, a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how individuals in the protesting group interact, as well as the signs and symbols protesters use to communicate their message. The focus on the importance of symbols in building a society -Mead

structural functionalism

(macro or mid) (The way each part of society functions together to contribute to the whole) -sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society -Durkheim: -used it to explain how societies change over time. -believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability, and that society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols. -believed that individuals may make up society, but in order to study society, sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts. Social facts are the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life. Each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society.

C, S, P- my notes- defs. & concepts:

-'class' refers to any group of ppl that is found in the same class situation -'property' & 'lack of property' are the basic categories of all class situations -the generic connotation of the concept of class: that the kind of chance in the market is the decisive moment which presents a common condition for the individual's fate. 'class situation' is, in this sense, ultimately 'market situation'. -communal action refers to that action which is oriented to the feeling of the actors that they belong together. societal action, on the other hand, is oriented to a rationally motivated adjustment of interests. -communal actions that directly determine the class situation of the worker/entrepreneur are: the labor market, the commodities market, & the capitalistic enterprise. -today the central issue is the determination of the price of labor. this transition is represented by the fight for access to the market & for the determination of the price of products.

Anomic Suicide (Durkheim 2013):

-4 kinds of suicide: anomic, fatalistic, egoistic, altruistic -Anomies disrupt lives causing dissatisfaction and unhappiness leading to suicide. -Anomie: absence of norms, normlessness, rulelessness, -Our society pushes people to a feeling of anomie and therefore suicide. -Suicide is looking at: regulation/integration (According to Durkheim, when a major social change takes place and a sense of order is disrupted, people may feel a sense of anomie, or normlessness. When society itself seems to have fallen apart, survivors of disasters may not know how to begin to put their lives back together.)

'Objectivity'- my notes- cultural phenomenon/knowledge-

-A brief question of imputation - whenever the casual explanation of a "cultural phenomenon", "historical individual", is under consideration, the knowledge of casual laws is not the end of the investigation but only a means. We are concerned with adequate causal relationships expressed in rules & with the application of the category of "objective possibility"- the establishment of such regularities isn't the end but rather the means of knowledge. -the conditioning of cultural knowledge through evaluative ideas (Wertideen), is done in the hope that we will not be subject to crude misunderstandings such as the opinion that cultural significance should be attributed only to valuable phenomena

Commodities- def. of commodity & use-value

-A commodity is, in the first place, an object outside us, a thing that by its properties satisfies human wants of some sort or another. -The utility of a thing makes it a use-value; a commodity, so far as it is a material thing, a use-value, something useful. This property of a commodity is independent of the amount of labour require to appropriate its useful qualities. (Use-values become a reality only by use/consumption; they also constitute the substance of all wealth, whatever may be the social form of that wealth). -The use-value (useful article), therefore, has value only because human labour in the abstract has been embodied or materialized in it.

Anomic Suicide- defs. & concepts:

-Anomie, often translated as "rulelessness" or "normlessness", is a characteristic social pathology of modern society. -Egoistic suicide- results from man's no longer finding a basis for existence in life (deficient in truly collective activity, depriving the latter of object & meaning) -Altruistic suicide- because this basis for existence appears to man situated beyond life itself -Anomic suicide- the existence of which has just been shown, results from man's activity's lacking regulation and his consequent sufferings (society's influence is lacking in the basically individual passions, leaving them without a check-rein) -Both egoistic & anomic spring from society's insufficient presence in individuals

Spirit of Capitalism- defs. & concepts:

-Capitalism is an economic system which aims at the unlimited accumulation of profit through the rational organization of production -the answer Weber develops hinges on the idea that a distinctly Protestant ethic served to provide a rationale for such conduct- concludes with a pessimistic account of the future wrought by capitalism, depicted most graphically/poignantly by the metaphor of "iron cage" (implies great inflexibility) -ideal of the credit-worthy man of honor &, above all, the idea of the duty of the individual to increase his wealth, which is assumed to be a self-defined interest in itself -honesty is useful because it leads to the availability of credit. Punctuality, industry, & frugality are also useful & are therefore virtues -the complexity of the issue is above all apparent in the summum bonum ("supreme good") of this "ethic"- namely, the acquisition of money, & more & more money, takes place here simultaneously with the strictest avoidance of all spontaneous enjoyment of it. The pursuit of riches is fully stripped of all pleasurable & surely all hedonistic, aspects -as long as carried out in a legal manner, the acquisition of money in the modern economic order is the result/manifestation of competence/proficiency in a vocational calling

Fashion (Simmel 2013):

-Fashion is designed to separate society through leisure and consumption. -Fashion is always changing and individualizes a person yet separates them into certain groups. -The upper class has to be distinct—why does fashion come and go so quickly—upper class abandons fashions as soon as the lower class picks them up -To distinguish to make a class statement -Fashion is not an individual choice but directed by class and social divisions -Power of exclusion -Differentiating impulse (modern) and socializing impulse (traditional primitive)

The German Ideology (Marx & Engels 2013) (2 authors*):

-Free thinking breaking away from traditional society. -Different types of ownership of property through history. dialectics (Hegels)— dialectical materialism based on reality -a seed planted that destroyed Feudalism & created capitalism - same thing happen to capitalism which is meant to lead us to socialism - finally to communism

Adventurer- metaphorical breakdown-

-Like a dream, it gathers all passions into itself & yet, like a dream, is destined to be forgotten; like gaming it contrasts with seriousness, yet, like the va banque of the gambler, it involves the alternative between the highest gain & destruction. Thus the adventure is a particular form in which fundamental categories of life are synthesized. In the adventure, the interweaving of activity & passivity which characterizes our life tightens these elements into a coexistence of conquest. -no matter how much the adventure seems to rest on a differentiation within life, life as a whole may be perceived as an adventure. To have such a remarkable attitude toward life, one must sense above all its totality a higher unity, a super-life, as it were, whose relation to life parallels the relation of the immediate life totality to those particular experiences which we call adventures.

Alienated Labor (Marx 2013- a critical theorist):

-Marx considered last heir of the enlightenment -Marx believes that labor is the core of human activity/existence -Marx asks how much is one hour of 'you' worth ; labor is the thing that is most essentially 'us'

On Mechanical and Organic Solidarity- solidarities:

-Mechanical solidarity- homogeneity -Organic solidarity- specialized (heterogeneity)- Durkheim sees as stronger bc of higher dependence; at this level of solidarity you can pick up and start your own town, go live in tent in the woods, etc. Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a "collective conscience" that works internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. In contrast to mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity is social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one another's services. In a society characterized by organic solidarity, there is relatively greater division of labour, with individuals functioning much like the interdependent but differentiated organs of a living body. Society relies less on imposing uniform rules on everyone and more on regulating the relations between different groups and persons, often through the greater use of contracts and laws.

Class, Status, Party (Weber 2013):

-Power: the chance of a person/group of ppl to realize their will in a communal action against resistance from others -economy is associated with class, social order with status, party with power, however they influence each other -class, status, & party all play a role in what one's socio-economic status is. -prestige/social honor= access, payment (other than money- ex. Police officer, teacher gets respect) -Life chances- class is defined by the distribution of property or lack thereof -Class is basically your place in the market -Status groups & honor groups -Ppl in the same class situation- response in the same way they mass action

The Human Meaning of Religion (Durkheim 2013):

-Religion is a reflection of society and to exist we must idealize. -Religion is simply a mirror of society shown by the ideology of the people. -The essence of religion and the essence of society—the same thing -We define God and society as the totality, all encompassing, omnipotent -The sacred and the profane -Those things that we identify as sacred are actually aspects of society -An idea or a belief is just a piece of our self -Religion is common collective action—and we are merely the endpoint of social conscious -What is society? Is the same as the soul of religion

Adventurer- defs. & concepts:

-Simmel indicates that there are possibilities for departing from that world (of routinization) for most people in temporary ways, but for some as a way of life (the adventurer) -an adventure entails stepping out of the domain of mundane everyday life and entering a domain of activity with its own rules/rhythms- promises release from a disenchanted world, offering the prospect of excitement, novelty, & self-actualization -"wholeness of life" refers to fact that a consistent process runs through the individual components of life, however crassly & irreconcilably distinct they may be -what we designate as "dreamlike" is nothing but a memory which is bound to the unified, consistent life-process by fewer threads than are ordinary experiences. The more "adventurous" an adventure, that is, the more fully it realizes its idea, the more "dreamlike" it becomes in our memory -the adventure is defined by its capacity, in spite of its being isolated & accidental, to have necessity & meaning

Social Fact- defs. & concepts:

-Social fact- is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint; or again, every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestation. -It is the collective aspects of the beliefs, tendencies, and practices of a group that characterize truly social phenomena. -"Social currents"- they come to each of us from without and can carry us away in spite of ourselves; currents of opinion, with an intensity varying according to the time and place, impel certain groups either to more marriages, for ex., or more suicides, or to a higher/lower birthrate etc. These currents are plainly social facts. -l'ame collective- the average expresses a certain state of the group mind

On Mechanical and Organic Solidarity- defs. & concepts:

-Solidarity- which comes from likeness is at its maximum when the collective conscience completely envelops our whole conscience and coincides in all points with it. -Mechanical solidarity- what justifies this term is that the link which thus unites the individual to society is wholly analogous to which attaches a thing to a person. The individual conscience, considered in this light, is a simple dependent upon the collective type and follows those of its owner (in these social types, personal rights are not yet distinguished from real rights). -Organic solidarity- whereas machinal implies that individuals resemble each other, organic presumes their difference. Mechanical is possible only in so far as the individual personality is absorbed into the collective personality; organic is possible only if each one has a sphere of action which is peculiar to him; that is, a personality. -The unity of the organism is as great as the individualism of their parts is more marked- we propose to call the solidarity which is due to the division of labor organic. -Consensus- perfect as possible- all consciences vibrate in unison.

The Metropolis and Mental Life (Simmel 2013):

-There is a struggle for individuality and its needed for an individual's mental well-being. -Individuality of members of a metropolis indicates an intensification of emotional life. -Blasé attitude-gray background -Too much stimulus in the city -Modern consciousness is different from traditional consciousness -Transition from emotional relationships to intellectual or rational relationships -Money functions--$ is the great leveler, it hollows out the core of things -Practiced inattention -A person does not end with the limits of their physical body -Life becomes easier but more impersonal

Bureaucracy- my notes- -the files -leaders

-There is, therefore, a staff of subaltern officials/scribes of all sorts. The body of officials actively engaged in public office, along with the respective apparatus of material implements & the files, make up a bureau. In private enterprise, the bureau is often called the office. In principle, the modern org. of the civil service separates the bureau from the private domicile of the official, & in general, bureaucracy segregates official activity as something distinct from the sphere of private life. -today, the bishop, priest, & preacher are in fact no longer holders of purely personal charisma. Nowadays, in spite of the partial survival of the old theory, such religious leaders are officials in the service of a functional purpose, which in the present-day church has become routinized &, in turn, ideologically hallowed. -the possession of educational certificates are usually linked with qualification for office. Naturally, such certificates or patents enhance the 'status element' in the social position of the official.

Spirit of Capitalism- my notes- economy/vocational calling-

-This economy is bound to the technical/economic conditions of mechanized, machine-based production. This cosmos today determines the style of life not only of those directly engaged in economically productive activity, but of all born into this grinding mechanism- it does so with overwhelming force. The world's material goods acquired an increasing and, in the end, inescapable power over people. -the idea of "obligation to search for & then accept a vocational calling" now wanders around in our lives as the ghost of past religious beliefs. Persons today usually reject entirely all attempts to make sense of a "fulfillment of one's calling" wherever this notion cannot be directly aligned with the highest spiritual/cultural values, or wherever it's not experienced subjectively simply as economic coercion. The pursuit of gain, in the region where it's become most completely unchained/stripped of its religious-ethical meaning, the U.S., tends to be associated with purely competitive passions

Religion- my notes- religion & society-

-Thus the collective ideal which religion expresses is far from being due to a vague innate power of the individual, but it is rather at the school of collective life that the individual has learned to idealize. It is in assimilating the ideals elaborated by society that he has become capable of conceiving the ideal. It is society which, by leading him within its sphere of action, has made him acquire the need of raising himself above the world of experience and has at the same time furnished him with the means of conceiving another. -For a society to become conscious of itself & maintain at the necessary degree of intensity the sentiments which it thus attains, it must assemble and concentrate itself. A society can neither create itself nor re-create itself without at the same time creating an ideal.

Note on the Notion of Civilization (Durkheim and Mauss) (2 authors*):

-To explain a civilization, society needs to look at it sociologically and ask what factors had an impact on its emergence. -Humanity isn't divided, all societies and cultures share something in common. -Levels of analysis -Cultural universals -Civilization: collective interactions of diverse orders -interdependence of systems (articulated the seminal idea that certain social phenomena exist that have a remarkable "coefficient of expansion and internationalization" that gives rise to civilizations and "civilizational complexes." That is, cultural or symbolic phenomena exist that have the capacity to expand beyond local, regional, and national borders and which generate civilizations — that is, entities transcending local culture(s))

Notion of Civilization- concepts on civilization:

-Without doubt every civilization is susceptible to nationalization; it may assume particular characteristics with each people of each state; but its most essential elements are not the product of the state or of the people alone. They extend beyond these frontiers, whether from a determinate area by a power of expansion originating within them, or whether they result from relationships established among different societies & so are the common product of these societies. -Civilization only expresses a collective life of a special genre, the substratum of which is a plurality of interrelated political bodies acting upon one another. International life is merely social life of a higher kind.

The Adventurer (Simmel 2013):

-Youth embrace the lifestyle of an adventurer to escape the world of routinization. -Simmel defines the adventurer as an ideal type who lives apart from society. -The adventure—ahistorical figure—separate from mundane or profane life—lives in the present moment -An adventure—concrete beginning and end : unpredictability -Gambler: chance (risk) -The love affair: unpredictable, beginning and end, experiencing, blind -Adventures: gap year, travel, interview, going to school,

Charismatic Authority- my notes -a 'purely' charismatic authority -communism

-a 'purely' charismatic authority- its existence implies, a well-defined form of social structure with personal organs & a suitable apparatus for providing services/material goods for the mission of the bearer of charisma. the leader's personal aides &, among them, a certain kind of charismatic aristocracy represent a narrower group of followers w/in the group, formed on principles of discipleship & personal loyalty & chosen according to personal charismatic qualification. -together with the household community (though distinct from it), charisma is thus the 2nd great historical example of communism, if that term is taken to mean a lack of 'calculation' in the consumption of goods.

Weber on conflict theory:

-agreed with Marx but also believed that, in addition to economic inequalities, inequalities of political power and social structure cause conflict. Weber noted that different groups were affected differently based on education, race, and gender, and that people's reactions to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of social mobility, as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in power.

The General Formula of Capital- defs. & concepts

-all new capital, to commence with, comes on the stage, that is, on the market, whether of commodities, labour, or money, even in our days, in the shape of money that by a definite process has to be transformed into capital (value being the active factor in such a process). -Capital is money. Capital is commodities. -In the circulation C-M-C, money is in the end converted into a commodity, that serves as a use-value; it is spent once for all. In the inverted form, M-C-M, on the contrary, the buyer lays out the money in order that, as a seller, he may recover money. -"Surplus value", value originally advanced, therefore, not only remains intact while in circulation, but adds to itself a surplus-value or expands itself. It is this movement that converts it into capital. -in the form M-M "en style lapidaire" so to say, money that is worth more money, value that is greater than itself.

Simmel on conflict theory:

-believed that conflict can help integrate and stabilize a society. He said that the intensity of the conflict varies depending on the emotional involvement of the parties, the degree of solidarity/unity within the opposing groups, and the clarity and limited nature of the goals. Simmel also showed that groups work to create internal solidarity, centralize power, and reduce dissent. Resolving conflicts can reduce tension and hostility and can pave the way for future agreements.

Commodities (Marx 2013):

-commodities vary in value* aside from just monetary value -commodity broken down into something you can buy or sell -the dual edged character of commodity as both a source of use-value & value (exchange value)

Religion- born in religion-

-from the mere fact that we consider an object worthy of being loved/sought after, it does not follow that we feel ourselves stronger afterwards; it is also necessary that this object set free energies superior to these which we ordinarily have at our command & also that we have some means of making these enter into us & unite themselves to our interior lives (from this, it is readily seen how that group of regularly repeated acts which form the cult get their importance). -may be said that nearly all the great social institutions have been born in religion (obviously necessary that the religious life be the eminent form and, as it were, the concentrated expression of the whole collective life. If religion has given birth to all that is essential in society, it is because the idea of society is the soul of religion) (religious forces are therefore human forces, moral forces) (even when religion seems to be entirely within the individual conscience, it is still in society that it finds the living source from which it is nourished) -it is merely an idea which comes to express our more or less obscure aspirations towards the good, the beautiful, the ideal (thus it would seem that the ideal society presupposes religion, far from being able to explain it) (a man does not recognize himself; he feels himself transformed and consequently he transforms the environment which surrounds him) (from a double point view it is an ideal world)

Spirit of Capitalism- my notes- vocational calling/work-

-idea of a duty to have a vocational calling, so familiar to us today but actually not at all self-evident, is the idea that is characteristic of the "social ethic" of modern capitalist culture (capitalist economy order of today is a vast cosmos into which a person is born. It simply exists, to each person, as a factually unalterable casing- a nightmare society is putatively permanent- in which he/she must live) -with the degree of inevitability, every worker who cannot/will not adapt to the norms of the marketplace will become unemployed (demonstration generally of modern civilization was the rational organization of life on the basis of the idea of the calling) (the idea that modern work in a vocational calling carries with it an ascetic imprint - the restriction of persons to specialized work is in our world today the precondition for doing anything of value at all- that is, the "specialized task" & this "forsaking" unavoidably determine one another)

What is a Social Fact? (Durkheim 2013):

-if sociology is a thing then what do sociologists study?: social facts -social fact= every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint -education is a way to impose on seeing, feeling, and acting, thinking-- external to the individual-- forced on us outside -Collective or the social is always in control -Social control is exercised through public conscious— surveillance -Social trends, fads, fashions—social currents (By a social fact, Durkheim is referring to facts, concepts, expectations that come not from individual responses and perferences, but that come from the social community which socializes each of its members. Although we might embrace the normative community behavior and share its values, we are constrained by its very existence. "When I fulfill my obligations as brother, husband, or citizen, when I execute my contracts, I perform duties which are defined externally to myself and my acts, in law and in custom." Durkheim describes the constraint as "the public conscience exerciis{ing] a check on every act which offends it by means of the surveillance it exercises over the conduct of its citizens, and the appropriate penalties at its disposal." )

Bureaucracy- defs. & concepts:

-in public & lawful gov't the 3 elements ordered by rules, that is, by laws or administrative regulations, constitute bureaucratic authority. In private economic domination, they constitute bureaucratic management. -bureaucracy is fully developed in political/ecclesiastical communities only in the modern state, &, in the private economy, only in the most advanced institutions of capitalism. -office holding is a 'vocation' -entrance into an office, including one in the private economy, is considered an acceptance of a specific obligation of faithful management in return for secure existence -modern loyalty is devoted to impersonal & functional purposes. Behind the functional purposes, of course, 'ideas of culture-values' usually stand. These are ersatz for the earthly/supramundane personal master: ideas such as state, church, community, party, or enterprise are thought of as being realized in a community; they provide an ideological halo for the master -viewed technically, as an organized form of authority, the efficiency of 'Caesarism', which often grows out of democracy, rests in general upon the position of the 'Caesar' of the masses. -normally, the position of the official is held for life, at least in public bureaucracies, & this is increasingly the case for similar structures. As factual rule, tenure for life, is presupposed- the official normally holds tenure.

Fashion- a product of social demands-

-merely a product of social demands, even though the individual object which it creates/recreates may represent a more or less individual need. The very character of fashion demands it should be exercised at one time only by a portion of the given group, the great majority being merely on the road to adopting it (if we feel certain that the fact will vanish as rapidly as it came, then we call it fashion) -The latest fashion—in all these things affects only the upper classes. Just as soon as the lower classes begin to copy their style, the upper classes turn asway from this style & adopt a new one. Naturally the lower classes look/strive towards the upper. The fashions of the upper classes develop their power of exclusion against the lower in proportion as general culture advances, at least until the mingling of the classes & the leveling effect of democracy exert a counter-influence.

Manifesto of the Communist Party (Marx & Engels 2013) (2 authors*):

-modern society cannot continue due to class struggles. -sustaining society depends on equilibrium of outside forces (economic base) -the proletarian class will end the bourgeoisie thru modern industry

Religion- defs. & concepts:

-objective cause of sensations (sui generis) out of which religious experience is made, is society -it is action which dominates the religious life, because of the mere fact that it is society which is its source -for our definition of the sacred is that it is something added to & above the real -in order for collective consciousness may appear, a synthesis (sui generis) of particular consciousness is required -the particular life thus created tends to spread itself over an area with no definite limits - their sphere of influence is not limited; they go beyond the particular tribes and their territory. They are the great international gods. -there is no people/state which is not a part of another society, more or less unlimited, which embraces all the peoples/states with which the first comes in contact, either directly/indirectly -the only social activity form not expressly attached to religion: economic activity

The Spirit of Capitalism (Weber 2013):

-our ideas of modern capitalism are rooted in religious sentiment -the spirit of capitalism was once asceticism but is now acquisition -capitalism goal: accumulate capital (make money); goal of life is to acquire goods & wealth - happiness of life to acquire material possessions

'Objectivity' in Social Science and Social Policy (Weber 2013):

-sociology is a part of everything in society's cultures -if an objective analysis of cultural events is governed by social laws it is meaningless -objectivity: unbiased, removing social context (to attempt to be as objective as possible) -bc cause effect relationships are so difficult to establish -verstehen- understanding, interpretation -cultural effects of social phenomena -we give the world significance; things that don't have cultural significance do not get attention scientifically (Weber argued that the idea of an aperspectival social science was meaningless: All knowledge of cultural reality, as may be seen, is always knowledge from particular points of view. The reason for this is twofold. First, social reality is too complex to admit of full description and explanation. So we have to select. But, perhaps in contraposition to the natural sciences, we cannot just select those aspects of the phenomena that fall under universal natural laws and treat everything else as "unintegrated residues" This is because, second, in the social sciences we want to understand social phenomena in their individuality, that is, in their unique configurations that have significance for us. Only a small portion of existing concrete reality is colored by our value-conditioned interest and it alone is significant to us. It is significant because it reveals relationships which are important to use due to their connection with our values.) (According to Weber, absolutely objective scientific analysis of culture or "social phenomena" does not exist. The type of social science we are interested in is an empirical science of concrete reality.(72). Our aim is therefore to understand the uniqueness of the reality around us. We seek to achieve this through understanding of relationships and the cultural significance of individual events in their contemporary manifestations on one hand, and looking at the causes of their being historically so and not otherwise, on the other) -the concept of culture is a value concept

Charismatic Authority- my notes- the power of the charismatic

-the continued existence of charismatic authority is, by its very nature, characteristically unstable. -the charismatic hero derives, acquires, & retains his authority only by proving his powers in real life. -the power of charisma depends on beliefs in revelation & heroism, on valued emotional convictions. such belief revolutionizes men 'from within' & seeks to shape things & organizations in accordance with its revolutionary will. -charisma, in its highest forms, bursts the bonds of rules & tradition in general & overturns all ideas of the sacred

'Objectivity'- defs. & concepts:

-the cultural significance of a phenomenon, e.g., the significance of exchange in a money economy, can be the fact that it exists on a mass scale as a fundamental component of modern culture -a general cultural significance- are worthwhile knowing. They alone are objects of casual explanation -where the individuality of a phenomenon is concerned, the question of causality is not a question of laws but of concrete causal relationships -"nomological" knowledge- the knowledge of recurring causal experiences -the "adequate" effects of the causal elements involved must be considered in arriving at any such conclusion -certain individual concrete situations make knowledge of cultural events conceivable through being decided according t the value-ideas in the light of which we view "culture" in each individual case -"culture" is a finite segment of the meaningless infinity of the world process, a segment on which human beings confer meaning & significance -Verstehen- interpretation

C, S, P- my notes- life chances & class-

-the fact of being conditioned & the results of the class situation must be distinctly recognizable. for only then the contrast of life chances can be felt not as an absolutely given fact to be accepted, but as a result from either (1) the given distribution of property, or (2) the structure of the concrete economic order. -class situations emerge only on the basis of communalization. -each kind of class situation, & above all when it rests upon the power of property per se, will become most clearly efficacious/able when all other determinants of reciprocal relations are, as far as possible, eliminated in their significance. it is in this way that the utilization of the power of property in the market obtains its most sovereign importance -every typical component of the life fate of men that is determined by a specific, positive/negative, social estimation of honor. this honor may be connected with ant quality shared by a plurality, &, of course, it can be knit to a class situation

Notion of Civilization- my notes:

-the largest group which comprises all of the others in itself & which consequently comprises all forms of social activity - is, it would appear, that which forms the political society (collective life then can develop only within political organisms having definite contours, within strictly marked limits - the national life is the highest form of social phenomenon) (nonetheless, there's phenomena which do not have such well-defined limits) -social phenomena that are not strictly attached to a determinate social organism do exist: they extend into areas that reach beyond the national territory/develop over periods of time that exceed the history of a single society. They have a life which is in some ways supranational (there exist not merely isolated instances, but also complex/interdependent systems, which without being limited to a determinate political organism are, however, localizable in time & space) -differences are not determined solely by the intrinsic nature of the social phenomena, but also by the diverse conditions influencing societies.

Social Fact- my notes: -to confirm the definition of a social fact -"constraint"

-to confirm the definition of a social fact by a characteristic illusion from common experience, one need only observe the manner in which children are brought up. It becomes immediately evident that all education is a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling, and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously (from the very first hours of his life, we compel, constrain, exert pressure upon, etc.) -With "constraint", for those who profess the complete autonomy of the individual, man's dignity is diminished whenever he is made to feel that he is not completely self-determinant (and it is generally accepted, moreover, that social constraint is not necessarily incompatible with the individual personality).

Bureaucracy- my notes- officials-

-usually the social esteem of the officials as such is especially low where the demand for expert administration & the dominance of status conventions are weak- especially the case in the U.S., often in new settlements by virtue of their wide fields for profit-making & the great instability of their social stratification. -the pure type of bureaucratic official is appointed by a superior authority. The elected official derives his position from powerful party men (bosses), who also determine his further career. The official is set for a 'career' within the hierarchical of the public service, he moves from the lower, less important, and lower paid to the higher positions. All of this makes for a tendency to consider the offices as 'prebends' of those who are qualified by educational certificates.

Fashion- defs. & concepts:

-we live in a "more nervous age" of the collective psyche, yet also Simmel attributes changes in fashion to the wide expansion of consumer choices industrial society makes possible & to the fact that people increasingly seek to use fashions as ways to differentiate themselves from others -the only motivations with which fashion is concerned are formal social ones. -elegant= distingué -we encounter here a close connection btwn the consciousness of personality & that material forms of life, a connection that runs all through history -the real seat of fashion is found among the upper classes

On Mechanical and Organic Solidarity (Durkheim 2013- structural functionalism):

-what holds society together? solidarity— social glue; social cohesion (the thing that ties us together) -The common conscious is threatened by the growing ways of individuality. -division of labor in premodern & modern society; for Durkheim is completely different than how Marx talks of it -sameness that holds us together (how we know we belong together), as progress into modern times- we specialize (professions, hobbies, skills), do different things, have different tastes, individuality -in terms of society individuals are to be controlled (for the collective group benefit)— -social control- the individual must be controlled bc the interests of the individual are not always the interests of the group -more specialized today, but also more dependent -'society to the body' - structural functional thought -individual and social conscience

Commodities- what is your value?

-what is your value? -use-value— (how it can be used/how useful the product is) -exchange value— (a product expressed in terms of other products) what is something worth in the market (how many markers can i get for how many hours working) -value is determined by the labor that goes into the product -our labor is actually what creates wealth (idea of exploitation- bourgeoisie is sucking the labor out of the proletariat)

'Objectivity'- my notes- explanation-

-when explanation is required, wish to understand what distinguishes the socio-economic aspects of our culture (the goal can only be decided with reference to the significance which certain segments of that infinite multiplicity which we call "commerce" have for culture. We seek knowledge of an historical phenomena, meaning significant in its individuality (Eigenart) -the transcendental presupposition of every cultural science lies in the fact that we are cultural beings, endowed with the capacity/the will to take a deliberate attitude towards the world & to lend it significance.

C, S, P- my notes- parties-

-whereas the genuine place of 'classes' is w/in the economic order, the place of 'status groups' is w/in the social order, that is, w/in the sphere of the distribution of honor. from w/in these spheres, classes & status groups influence one another & they influence the legal order & are in turn influenced by it. -but 'parties' live in a house of 'power'. their action is oriented toward the acquisition of social 'power', that is to say, toward influencing a communal action no matter what its content may be. -for party actions are always directed toward a goal which is striven for in planned manner. parties are then only possible w/in communities that are socialized, that is, which have some order & a staff of persons available who are ready to enforce it. for parties aim precisely at influencing this staff &, if possible, to recruit it from party followers. -parties, which are always structures struggling for domination, are very frequently organized in a very strict 'authoritarian' fashion...

Marx on conflict theory:

-who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes who must compete for social, material, and political resources. -Social institutions like government, education, and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure. Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and keep more resources than others, and these "winners" use their power and influence to maintain social institutions.

Ppl have argued that social theory is=

= a long conversation w Marx w lots of misconceptions. -Marx term- praxis (the combination of theory & practice) theory—> practice —> theory —> practice (cycle of praxis) -Ritzer- calls sociology a multiple paradigm science

Manifesto of the Communist Party- capitalism=

= accumulation of capital, trying to amass a bigger & bigger accumulation of wealth -bourgeoisie societal system has reduced the family relations to a mere money relation (your entire relationship has been reduced to your dependence/independence from your parents) -argues that the bourgeoisie is actually the most revolutionary class in society -capitalism always needs new markets to survive & continue producing -idea of being commodities & selling ourselves a piece at a time

The Adventurer- my notes:

Adventure is a domain of the present where linear time ceases. -the most general form of adventure is dropping out of the continuity of life- an adventure is certainly part of our existence, directly contiguous with other parts which precede & follow it; at the same time, however, in its deeper meaning, it occurs outside the usual continuity of this life (according to its intrinsic meaning, is independent of the "before" & "after"; its boundaries are defined regardless of them) -the adventurer believes that, as far as he himself is concerned, he is certain of this unknown & unknowable element of his life (adventurer relies to some extent on his own strength, but above all on his own luck) -the analogies between love & adventure alone suggest that the adventure does not belong to the lifestyle of old age. The decisive point about this fact is that the adventure, in its specific nature & charm, is a form of experiencing. The content of the experience does not make the adventure.

Anomic Suicide- my notes:

Anomie, a regular factor, springs from which the annual contingent feeds (in modern societies) -In societies where a man is subjected to a healthy discipline, he submits more readily to the blows of chance (it is everlastingly repeated that it is a man's nature to be eternally dissatisfied, constantly to advance, without relief or rest, toward an indefinite goal). -Industrial and commercial functions are really among the occupations which furnish the greatest number of suicides (self-destruction) (anomy is actually in a chronic state in the sphere of trade & industry of social life) (the enormous rate of those with independent means sufficiently shows that the possessors of most comfort suffer most. Everything that enforces subordination attenuates the effects of this state). -A new type of anomy to distinguish from the others- it differs from them in its dependence, not on the way in which individuals are attached to society, but on how it regulates them.

Bureaucracy- my notes:

Bureaucracy deemed essential to capitalism to expand productive capacity -impact of modern bureaucratic orgs., which Weber saw as an integral aspect of industrial capitalism, parallel in significance to the machine. He understood that a successful capitalist had to make decisions based on such criteria as efficiency, calculability, predictability, & control. Bureaucracy, like the machine, was a reflection of a scientific & rational worldview (presents an ideal typical portrait of the most salient features of bureaucracy, mainly the nature and basis of authority)

'Objectivity'- my notes: -empirical science of concrete reality -knowledge of reality

Causal analysis (Verstehen= interpretation) to inquire cultural significance matters of social phenomena -empirical science of concrete reality- aim is the understanding of the characteristic uniqueness of the reality in which we move- wish to understand on the one hand the relationships/cultural significance of individual events in their contemporary manifestations & on the other the causes of their being historically so and not otherwise (as soon as we've shown some casual relationship to be a "law", i.e., if we've shown it to be universally valid by means of comprehensive historical induction/made it immediately & tangibly plausible according to our subjective experience, a great number of similar cases order themselves under the formula thus attained) -knowledge of reality with respect to its cultural significance & its causal relationships can be attained through the quest for recurrent sequences (designated as "cultural sciences" those disciplines which analyze the phenomena of life in terms of their cultural significance) (the concept of culture is a value-concept. Empirical reality becomes "culture" to us because & insofar as we relate it to value-ideas - includes those segments & only those of reality which have become significant to us because of this value-reference)

Charismatic Authority- the breakdown:

Charismatic authority, unlike traditional authority, is a revolutionary and unstable form of authority. Weber borrows the religious term of charisma and extends its use to a secular meaning. Audiences and followers believe that charismatic leaders have a close connection to a divine power, have exceptional skills, or are exemplary in some way. Charismatic leaders promise change in the future for the society and also change people's attitudes and values; in this way, charismatic authority is revolutionary in a way that traditional and legal-rational authority are not. However, charisma is unstable and deteriorates if the leader cannot produce the changes he promises or when he confronts the contradictory logics and demands of the other types of authority. There are particular ways-including search, revelation, designation, or heredity-that charismatic successors are identified, but transferring charismatic authority is difficult and not always successful.

Commodities- my notes:

Dual-edged character of commodity as both a source of use-value / value. -To become a commodity a product must be transferred to another, whom it will serve as a use-value, by means of an exchange. Nothing can have value without being an object of utility. If the thing is useless, so is the labour contained in it; the labour does not count s labour, therefore it creates no value. -The value of a commodity varies directly as the quantity, and inversely as the productiveness, of the labour incorporated in it (the magnitude of this value to be measured is plainly, by the quantity of the value-creating substance, the labour, contained in the article). -Commodities become what they are because they are something twofold, both objects of utility, and, at the same time, depositories of value. They manifest/have the form of commodities therefore, only in so far as they have two forms, a physical/natural and a value-form. -on the one hand all labour is an expenditure of human labour power, and in its character of identical abstract human labour, it creates and forms the value of commodities. On the other hand, all labour is the expenditure of human labour power in a special form and with a definite aim, and in this, its character of concrete useful labour, it produces use-values.

Fashion- my notes:

Fashion reflects individuality and the structure of class/other social divisions -fashion is the imitation of a given example & satisfies the demand for social adaptation; at the same time it satisfies in no less degree the need of differentiation, the tendency towards dissimilarity, the desire for change & contrast- by a constant change of contents, because fashion differ for different classes (in addition to imitation the element of demarcation constitutes an important factor of fashion) -fashion on one hand signifies union with those in the same class, the uniformity of a circle characterized by it, &, uno actu, the exclusion of all other groups- union & segregation are the 2 fundamental functions which are here inseparably united

Adventurer- meaning behind Simmel's thoughts (breakdown)- lastly

Finally, adventures require intensity of individual action, yet also an extraordinary "passivity" as well: the ability to accept the precariousness of one's position in the world, to accept the existence of unknown dangers, and yet to carry on as these dangers are known, finite, and surmountable. "Adventure has the gesture of the conqueror, the quick seizure of opportunity....[yet also] the complete self-abandonment to the powers and accidents of the world, which can delight us, but in the same breath can also destroy us."

Adventurer- meaning behind Simmel's thoughts (breakdown)- 1st thing-

First, the adventure may seem like an island within the flow of a person's life, but it's defined by the ocean that swirls around it. This is because Simmel sees adventure as a state of experience rather than a fixed set of events or conditions imposed upon us from the outside. One person's adventure, after all, might be another person's day at the laundromat. And since this extreme experience is defined by inner conditions rather than outer ones, the adventure only gains shape according to the particular qualities of the individual. So, as much as an adventure feels extreme and otherworldly, it finds its sharp edges according to the parameters of an individual's personality.

Anomic Suicide- the idea of divorce-

If they have so strong an inclination to suicide, it is because they were already strongly inclined to it while living together and by the very effect of their common life. Admitting so much, the correspondence between divorces & suicides becomes explicable.

The Metropolis and Mental Life- my notes:

Individuals struggle to maintain individuality and compel a blasé attitude -deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual to maintain the independence/individuality of his existence against the sovereign powers of society, against the weight of the historical heritage & the external culture & technique of life (the reaction of the metro person is moved to a sphere of mental activity which is least sensitive/furthest removed from the depths of personality)

On Mechanical and Organic Solidarity- my notes:

Move toward exclusively organic solidarity with the division of labor -Durkheim saw traditional society as characterized by mechanical solidarity and modern society as defined in terms of organic solidarity. (it appears what solves this apparent antinomy is a transformation of social solidarity due to the steadily growing development of the division of labor) (strong and defined states of the conscience are the roots of penal law) -The more we advance, the more profoundly do societies reveal the sentiment of the self and of unit. There must, then, be some other social link which produces this result; this cannot be any other than that which comes from the division of labor. -It will become still more evident that social solidarity tends to become exclusively organic. It is the division of labor which, more and more, fills the role that was formerly filled by the common conscience. It is the principal bond of social aggregates of higher types. -Conclude by saying that all social links which result from likeness progressively slacken.

Anomic Suicide- religion & gov't-

Religion has lost some of its power. And government, instead of regulating economic life, has become its tool and servant. The most opposite schools, orthodox economists and extreme socialists, unite to reduce government to the role of a more or less passive intermediary among the various social functions.

Adventurer- meaning behind Simmel's thoughts (breakdown)- 2nd thing

Second, adventures are vivid and intense, moments when we feel fully alive. Yet there is also a dreamlike aspect to many of them, an unreal or surreal quality that separates them from the psyche. "The more 'adventurous' an adventure...the more 'dreamlike' it becomes in our memory. It moves so far away from the center of the ego and the course of life which the ego guides and organizes that we may think of it as something experienced by another person."

Manifesto of the Communist Party- my notes:

Societal form bases on the antagonism of oppressing & oppressed classes. -We see then: that the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in a feudal society (worker sells not his labour but his labour power). -In proportion as the bourgeoisie, i.e., capital, is developed, in the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working class, developed - a class of labourers, who live only so long as they find work, and who find work only so long as their labour increases capital (the essential condition for the existence, and for the sway of the bourgeois class, is the formation & augmentation of capital; the condition for capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests exclusively on competition between the labourers). -What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, is its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable... -the proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interests of the immense majority. -That the bourgeoisie is unfit any longer to be the ruling class in society, and to impose its conditions of existence upon society as an overriding law; it is incompetent to assure an existence to its slave (proletariats) within his slavery. Society can no longer live under this bourgeoisie, in other words, its existence is no longer compatible with society.

The General Formula of Capital- my notes:

The circulation of capital (money and commodities) has no limits. -The circulation of commodities is the starting-point of capital. The production of commodities, their circulation, and that more developed form of their circulation (commerce), form the historical groundwork from which it rises (we find its final result to be money: this final product of the circulation of commodities is the first form in which capital appears). -Marx sketches a general formula to account for the distinctive way commodities circulate in capitalism. In a simple version, C-M-C, one commodity is exchanged for another and money becomes a medium that allows one to compare use-values. However, in capitalism, another form is evident: M-C-M', where M' is greater than M. In the first ex., a transaction occurs that provides the seller with a good that they did not possess before, and that has personal use-value. With the second formula, the individual who has money puts it into circulation with the anticipation of having the money returned along with an additional increment, "surplus value". -M-C-M' is therefore in reality the general formula of capital as it appears prima facie within the sphere of circulation.

On Mechanical and Organic Solidarity- my notes- individuality:

The yoke that we submit to is much less heavy than when society completely controls us, and it leaves much more place open for the free play of our initiative. Here, then, the individuality of all grows at the same time as that of its parts. Society becomes more capable of collective movement, at the same time that each of its elements has more freedom of movement.

Spirit of Capitalism- my notes:

Thirst for money-making is the very essence of modern capitalism -the spirit of capitalism demands individualism, innovation, hard work, & the pursuit of wealth for its own sake. It is thus an economic ethic (Puritan-capitalist "can-do" energy) (the good paymaster is lord of another man's purse. He that is known to pay punctually & exactly to the time he promises, may at any time, & on any occasion, raise all the money his friends an spare) (the Puritan wanted to be a person with a vocational calling; we must be) (its significance for the content of a community-building, ethical social policy must now be outlined—that is, for the type of organization of social groups, ranging from the conventicle to the state, & their functions)

Note on the Notion of Civilization- my notes:

believes in social analysis at a broader framework, one that operates at a civilizational level & takes into account intercivilizational encounters (=methodological individualism) -Methodological individualism is the principle that subjective individual motivation explains social phenomena, rather than class or group dynamics which are (according to proponents of individualistic principles) illusory or artificial and therefore cannot truly explain market or social phenomena. -Civilization- those system of facts that have their own unity/form of existence

Manifesto of the Communist Party- (Engels)- history is

history is class conflict (class struggle), class warfare- ability to oppress & take more from one group. -bourgeoisie is the most revolutionary

In sociology, a theory

is a way to explain different aspects of social interactions and to create a testable proposition, called a hypothesis, about society. -Sociologists develop theories to explain social events, interactions, and patterns. A theory is a proposed explanation of those social interactions. Theories have different scales. Macro-level theories, such as structural functionalism and conflict theory, attempt to explain how societies operate as a whole. Micro-level theories, such as symbolic interactionism, focus on interactions between individuals.

Mead on symbolic interactionism:

outlined these basic premises: humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things; the ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society; the meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific circumstances.

Alienated labor- species being:

species being- calls into question how can we as humans be most in & of ourselves? (Marx says not thru capitalism)

The German Ideology: the ideology— consciousness— waking ppl up-

the ideology— consciousness— waking ppl up- can identify your class membership, you can unionize (come together as a class)- class unity. --how do we get conscious/understand our position in capitalism as workers -a class in itself vs. a class for itself -society is built on units -defining communism— very weak on this ( in terms of economic system*, not political) -social location determines our consciousness -Marx and Engels argue that humans distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their means of subsistence; what individuals are coincides with their production in both how and what they produce. The nature of individuals depends on the material conditions determining their production. How far the productive forces of a nation are developed is shown by the degree to which the division of labor has been carried. Also, there is a direct link between division of labor and forms of ownership. The ruling class, in ruling the material force of society, is simultaneously the ruling intellectual force of society. They regulate the production and distribution of ideas of their age. As the ruling class changes with time, so too do the ideals and the new ruling class must instill upon its society its own ideas which will become universal. The ruling ideas are thought to be the universal interest. However, it is an illusion that the ideas of the ruling class are the communal interests. This system will forever remain in place so long as society is organized around the need for a ruling class. To illustrate this theoretical framework, Marx draws on his formulation of base and superstructure. Historical development is the reflection of changes in the economic and material relations of the base. When the base changes, a revolutionary class becomes the new ruling class that forms the superstructure. During revolution, the revolutionary class makes certain that its ideas appeal to humanity in general so that after a successful revolution these ideas appear natural and universal. These ideas, which the super-structural elements of society propagate, then become the governing ideology of the historical period. Furthermore, the governing ideology mystifies the economic relations of society and therefore places the proletariat in a state of false consciousness that serves to reproduce the working class

Alienated labor- wage slave:

wage slave= slave of production- there is no choice (in capitalist world system- if don't sell hrs for our wage, we don't survive) --sadly, we do this to ourselves. knowingly enter into these systems --the more we produce the less we consume