try!

Hyrdro

(pseudo-renewable)

Oil

oil is produced by the burial and compression a ancient marine organisms. Oil is more rarified than coal. Oil is found in the porosity of rock layer(interstitial spaces in sedimentary rocks) The molecular structure of oil has 2 hydrogen atoms for one carbon atom. When burnt it produces less carbon dioxide than coal for the same mass

distance from equator is important to climate zones north south:

since heat is transported from the equator to the pole

Co2 fertilization is a negative feedback look inherent to the carbon cycle

firstly we have increasing carbon in the atmosphere this will stimulate photosynthesis by plants this will trigger more carbon uptake by plants this will trigger less atmosphere co2 this will trigger less photosynthesis by plants then the vegetation as carbon sink will be less effective in scrubbing CO2 from the atmosphere and we will have increasingl carbon in the atmosphere

scientific method

this is actual method scientists use. In science we use both deductive and inductive reasoning. Premises based on observations of nature and no arbitrary assumptions. Scientists search for truth not so much by proving hypothesis but by disproving all opposing hypotheses. We are trying to engage with the Earth, different phenomena (weather, chemical processes, what have you) , and the Anthrospere- creating a messy process to find truth. There is never absolute truth in Science. We create evidence-based laws that we think are pretty solid (i.e. Law of Gravity) . It's a process based on iterative improvements in understanding and also acknowledging what we think is true is tenative. This is why we provide no perfect answers. We are on a perennial search for evidence and even looking for evidence that challenges our conception of truth.

which countries are largest emitters of greenhouse gases

total 1. China 2. U.S. 3. EU 4. India (from slides) per capita 1.USA 2. China 3.EU 4. World average 5. India

The process in the long-term carbon cycle that takes carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.____________

weathering(this is the process of slightly acidic precipitation eroding the rocks then the carbon gets into the atmosphere and then runs off and gets into the ocean then marine biota take them in and this carbon bgets into their skeleton- eventually this will get up into the atmosphere by , volcanos . Weathering is long-term carbon cycle and negative feedback. Weathering is temperature dependent in that

deductive

•AXIOMS = Statements assumedto be true which form the initial information in a logical argument •CONCLUSIONS = Statements which are rigorously deducedfrom the axioms of a logical argument IF A is true, THEN B is true GIVEN A, THEN B A Implies B A yields B

Earth Reradiative mechanism

51% of the suns shortwave radiation will not be reflected off the clouds or the earth. it will remain to warm the earth rather some of the short wavelength radiation will be lost thanks to cloud albedo, some will permeate through the clouds. Some will reradiate off of ice, remaining short wavelength. Some will be absorbed by the land mass and then radiated as long wavelength. some of this will escape the earths atmosphere but thanks to the greenhouse effect GHGs will be able to absorb + radiate back to earth

dynamics of La Niña

After a year of El Nino the pendulum swings back. Upsweilling becomes more intense

what transitions El in to La

Amount of warm water in the water and its geometric form/depth are the main mechanism of transfer el/la ninx. It will change the temp of the atmosphere above. When there is a la nina there is a lot of warm water in the pacific and in el nino there is a particular formation where we have lots of rainfall in the middle of the ocean

Methane Sinks

Atmospheric removal through chemical reactions Removal by microbes in soils

Nitrous Oxide Sinks

Atmospheric removal through chemical reactions Abatement options (reduced use of fertilizer)

Short term:

Carbon sinks from atmosphere: Photosynthesis CO2 exchange from atmosphere to ocean "biological pump" in the ocean Carbon sources to atmosphere: Respiration CO2 exchange from ocean to atmosphere

Long term

Carbon sinks: Rock weathering Skeletons deposited on ocean floor Fossil fuel formation from buried plants Carbon sources: Volcanoes

emissions scenario

Climate Scenarios feature an amalgam of assumptions about factors like population growth, economic growth, and the energy source mix. Once a models decides what values they will put in for these factors, they will determine a CO2 emissions prediction. Using this prediction, they will form a model for what the CO2 concentration, the global temperature, and various other earth processes will look like in the year 2100.

cloud radiative feedback

Clouds interact with climate in two major ways. All clouds are made of water vapor, a major greenhouse gas, and so they absorb and reemit long wavelength radiation from the earth, warming the planet. Low, large clouds have a high albedo and so they reflect short wavelength radiation coming from the sun - this has a large cooling effect that is dominant. High, wispy clouds do not reflect much sunlight, and so their net effect is warming rather than cooling. Clouds therefore both cool and warm the planet, and different clouds of different effects, and there is uncertainty in the feedback.

the reasons for different climate zones from north the south and east to west, including the dynamics that underlie these phenomena.

Coroilis effect suns radiation and temperature winds

Orbital precession.

Cycle: change in the orientation of Earth's axis relative to the fixed position of the stars, with a periodicity of about 20 000 years.

why do climate models have varying sensitives

Each is unique in the way they code the physics, deal with the feedbacks, and estimate the radiative forcing.

Eccentricity Cycle

Eccentricity (of the ellipse of the Earth's orbit around the Sun). The eccentricity is the degree ofdeparture of earth's orbit from circularity. Cycle: the shape of the ellipse changes very slowlybecoming more circular then more distended, with a periodicity of about 100,000 years.

ex of deductive reasoning

FREON IN REFRIGERATORSCFCs IN ATMOSPHERE CFCs in ATMOSPHERE DESTROY STRATOSPHERIC OZONE REDUCED OZONE INCREASE IN UV RADIATION INCREASE IN UV RADIATION INCREASE SKIN CANCER CASES THEREFORE: FREON IN REFRIGERATORS INCREASE SKIN CANCER CASES

how to calculate carbon dioxide equivalents

For a given mixture and amount of greenhouse gases, the amount of carbon dioxide that would have the same GWP when measured over a specified time scale e.g., tonnes CO2e = tonnes of gas multiplied by GWP of gas

trends in emissions intensity

GDP and emissions intensity are inversely related

GHG emissions

GHGs (or only CO2, in the case of this article) being released into the atmosphere via natural or human sources. Ex. of units: GtCO2eq.

RCP

How is it determined:The RCPs are greenhouse gas concentration (not emissions) pathways, i.e. trajectories over time, over the period 2000-2100. They can be defined equivalently by the level of their CO2-equivalent concentrations or the level of their total radiative forcing, expressed in Watts per square meter. Recall: radiative forcing is the net change in the energy balance of the Earth system resulting from an imposed perturbation. More precisely, it is the change in net irradiance at the tropopause (net irradiance = incoming radiation energy - outgoing radiation energy). Greenhouse gases are forcing agents, i.e. an increase in the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere leads to positive radiative forcing. We can directly derive the overall radiative forcing from a given concentration of GHGs. This is why the four RCPs are named after a level of radiative forcing. For example, the RCP8.5 is a pathway that leads to a level of radiative forcing of 8.5 W/m2 in 2100.

carbon sinks in the short term cycle

Photosynthesis CO2 exchange from atmosphere to ocean "biological pump" in the ocean

Carbon sources in the short term cycle

Respiration CO2 exchange from ocean to atmosphere Human respiration

carbon sinks in the long term cycle

Rock weathering Skeletons deposited on ocean floor Fossil fuel formation from buried plants

Name all the processes in the Long Term Cycle

Skeletons as Limestone, volcano, atmospheric CO2,plants,rocks,oceans,fossil fuels

Models are of two different types, "dynamic or statistical".

Statistical models look at the past and see what happened in order to give statistical likelihood of El Nino in the future. o Dynamic looks at physics and tries to run what will happen in the future.

Wien's law:

The wavelength of the maximum intensity is inversely proportional to the temperature, λmax= a / T. λmax is given in μm, T is in units of K, and the constant a = 2897 μm K. The temperature of the sun is obtained from Weins' Law that relates the wavelength of electromagnetic energy to the temperature of the emitting black body. 2. The Stefan-‐Boltzmann relation is then used to calculate the total energy flux in Watts per square meter originating from the sun.

adversarial method

This is the opposite of the sustainable development. GIven the conclusion I want to reach, THEN sift through axioms and evidence and present only that which supports my assumed conclusion. Roles of axioms and conclusions has been reversed-begins with desired conclusion and works backwards. An ADVOCATE selects only the evidence which supports the desired conclusion. A Judge is an example of advocacy science as lawyers only present the evidence which proves their conclusion, they ADVOCATE for a cause. The role of a judge is to shift through selective evidence and try to sort out a conclusion. Political Campaigns & advertising are other examples. Advocacy is not BAD, but it is not scientific truth.

dynamics of El Nino

Under Normal conditions trade winds move from east to west across the pacific- air eventually rises in a low pressure system over by Oceania/ New Guiena (Chicken/Egg)- We get a lot of a rainfall here. The effect is the push warm water above the thermocline in the east where it pools up (Rain+Winds). Cold water comes to the Surface near S. Am. Therefore wet/warm/rainy in new guinea and drier and cooler in the S. Am. In El Niño- those trade winds break down, the thermocline flattens and warm water stretches across the Pacific Ocean- leading to a "wet season" in the central pacific and low pressure across the ocean- trade winds begin to move to LatAm forcing rain over there

carbon sources in the long term cycle

Volcanoes fossil fuel emissions

GHG concentrations

amount of greenhouse gas particles in a unit of volume of the atmosphere. Ex. of units: parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), parts per million in CO2-equivalent (ppm CO2-eq.), kg/m3, etc. Note: Parts-per-million (abbreviated ppm) is the ratio of one gas to another. For example, 320ppm of CO2 means that on average, among a million gas molecules, 320 of them are of carbon dioxide.

abatement options for methane include

changes in animal feed waste management in landfills degasification in coal mines reducing leaks in natural gas productions

Cloud radiative feedback (positive forcing)

high level stratus (low albedo)clouds will produce an increase in the net downward radiative flux at the top of the atmosphere- thereby warming the system

why is are interglacial/ glacial transitions more jarring then one might expect

ice ice albedo bum dum dum dum dum dah dah dum dum

Cloud radiative feedback (negative forcing)

low level cumulus(high albedo) clouds will produce a decrease in the net downward radiative flux at the top of the atmosphere- cooling the system

the most important alternate energy sources, their efficiency and their potential to provide energy now and in the future- Nuclear

many power plants are going offline thanks to exorbitant costs safety concerns

Research in solar

needs to focus on improving absorbtion and conduction. this will lead to great efficiency. For energy storage we have Heat energy can be stored in tanks of molten salt so that the heat gained during the day is preserved overnight. Molten salt with remain hot for a very long time. Although natural energy sources such as the wind and the sun have greatly more potential in theory, that potential is limited by the physics of conversion process from the natural source to electric energy and can be achieved at about 15 to 20% in practice

Ocean acidification

positive feedback mechanism in Earth Systems, namely the Carbon Cycle. When there is an excess of CO2 going into the ocean (via atmospheric precipitation, or the biological pump) the ocean will now have an excess of carbonic acid. This carbonic acid will react with the carbonate ions in the water to form bicarbonate. This synthesis of bicarbonate is unfortunate because those carbonate ions are desperately needed. These carbonate atoms are mostly needed to react with calcium in the ocean that is sourced from weathered rock runoff, to create calcium carbonate shells for biota such as diatoms or coral. As a result of this the shells of these biota is thinner and more fragile. All of the new bicarbonate in the ocean, in turn, makes the ocean more acidic- the more acidic the water is the better it dissolves those fragile calcium carbonate shells. The dissolving of these shells will free up even more carbonate ions to react with carbonic acid, allowing the ocean to absorb even more CO2. All the while the ocean is getting more acidic, making the biota and their calcium carbonate shells all the weaker, and more carbonate ions be freed up. Therefore, the ocean will be able to take in more carbonic acid. This is the positive feedback mechanism of oceanic acidification. (Riebeek, Holli.)

Permafrost Melting (Name them)

rising GHGs in the atmosphere, global temperature increases, melting of the permafrost, release of CO2 and or CH4

ocean currents and climate zones

surface ocean currents transfer heat and moisture to the atmosphere. This ocean circulation combines with atmospheric circulation cells, convective forces, and coriolis effect in forming climate zones

Obliquity Cycle

tilt of the Earth's axis (with respect to the plane of the ecliptic). Cycle: the tilt of the Earth's axis changes between 22.1° and 24.5°, with a periodicity of about 40 000 years. High obliquity (increased tilt) exacerbates the differences between seasons (cold winters and warm summers in both hemispheres), while reduced tilt leads to milder seasons.

negative feedback

(= "self-regulating"): process in which an initial change will bring about the dampening or counteracting of the initial change. The initial change is what triggers a mechanism that eventually leads to a change in the opposite direction. This tends to stabilize a system. E.g. more warming leads to less warming. chemical weathering (carbon-silicate cycle); CO2 fertilization. (See diagrams below)

positive feedback

(= "self-reinforcing"): process in which an initial change will bring about an amplified change in the same direction. The mechanism amplifies a change to make even more change in the same direction. This can destabilize a system. E.g. more warming leads to more warming. permafrost thawing; ocean acidification; forest dieback. (See diagrams below)

Coriolis Effect and Climate Zones

- Winds blow from high pressure to low pressure like the equator to the pole. because the earth rotates counter clock wise an object that that would move from the pole tot he equator actually experiences a deflection to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. They converge from both sides at the equator known at the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. this wind on a rotating earth eventually gives rise to large circulation cells: Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar Cells. These three circulation cells are not exactly equal in size because the Coriolis Effect varies in strength with latitude.

Natural Gas

- cleaner than oil and coal because there is one carbon . Gas is overcooked oil, is sometimes let out into the atmosphere during oil drilling. Gas is extracted via hydraulic frackturing which fractures the shale to crack

different types of fossil fuels and why they create carbon dioxide on burning: Coal

Coal is produced by the burial and compression of ancient plant matter derived from swampy environments. Such environments were very common in the Earth's past (somewhat less so today) so coal is found in large amounts in many locations. There are difference grade of coal which produce different amount of energy per pound. Lignate produces the lowest BTU (amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree fahrenheit) per point but is the most commonly used in China and America. Coal is a hydrocarbon Burning means oxidation and leads to carbon dioxide and water as products of the chemical reaction. The more carbon, the more carbon dioxide, the my hydrogen the more water.

Convection cells

Hadley, Mid-Lattitude, Polar cells rain/ low pressure at the upwelling and dry/ higher pressure at the downwelling. Look back at the Koeppen-Geiger climate zones; 30 degrees north and south are the place where the great deserts are located. the reason they are so dry is because moisture that has risen in the equatorial regions to form clouds had largely been removed as equatorial rain belt and as the air moves over the top of the Hadley cell and then descends at 30 degrees it is very dry

Efficiency

How much of the theoretical availability can be captured/ turned into electricity

Inductive

From this image we can see correlation not causation and therefore we are safe to assume that there is some other factor that is causing temperature and CO2 to rise contemporaneously. We now have a hypothesis that we got from the DATA and we will do an experiment in order to prove/ disprove. Our experiment is taking different earths and increasing CO2 and seeing if the temperature rises. See notes from lecture slides for further clarification: "Construct laboratory or field experiments specifically designed to test the hypothesis, for example: -construct an "Earth" -construct a second identical "Earth" as a control -introduce high concentrations of carbon dioxide and monitor changes relative to control" IRL we use computer models to approximate. Computer models, even as recently as with Irma, can show wildly different paths for hurricane paths. We must continue to develop these and other climate models. When we use system science to build Earth-based computer models we are taking an incredibly complex set of systems and attempting to capture them in a model. Systems include atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, anthrosphere.

GHG intensity

In this paper, the authors refer to the emissions intensity of an economy, measured by the emissions intensity of GDP. Therefore it is the average amount of GHGs emitted per unit of output produced. It corresponds to the ratio CO2/GDP. Units: kgCO2/USD.

In the short term???? Carbon Cycle what is the main source/sink of CO2

Limestone is the main source and the biological pump is the main sink

Solar Energy

Lots of TW Theoretical availability-But low efficiency and insurmountable difficulties in moving solar energy from sunnier places to low sun locations

how to calculate carbon equivalents

Multiply carbon dioxide equivalent by carbon content of carbon dioxide (12/44 = 0.27) Atomic weight of carbon =12 Atomic weight of oxygen = 16 Atomic weight of CO2= 12+(2*16)=44

Nitrous Oxide Sources

Natural: Microbial action in soils Anthropogenic: Fertilizer use, nitrogen fixing crops agricultural soils management animal manure management sewage treatment

Wind farms

Output power goes as the square of the blade diameter but as the cube of wind speed - build them big and put them in windy places. Wind farm planning is difficult because you are not sure how to stack them behind each other to capitalize on the wind flow. They have to be turned off in high winds (because damage is fairly common) and Output drops quickly for lower wind speeds and for intermittent winds

Radiative Forcing

Radiativeforcing is change in net irradiance at the tropopause* Net irradiance = incoming radiation energy -outgoing radiation energy (measured in Watts per square meter) RF = net irradiance(present)-net irradiance(1750) Positive forcing means higher present incoming than outgoing radiation than in 1750= warming

Methane Sources

SOURCES Natural: Wetlands Termites Ocean Freshwater Enteric fermentation in ruminant animals Methane hydrate Anthropogenic: Coal mining, natural gas Enteric fermentation in domestic animals Rice paddies Animal wastes Sewage treatment Landfills Biomass burning

relative sizes of the reservoirs in the carbon cycle

Sedimentary rocks are a massive reservoir for carbon, but the atmosphere is not

Ocean Acidification (name them)

Shell Hell: There is an increased absorb

If, in addition to the efficiency being 15%, the Sun in the location of a solar panel only shines 6 hours a day how does that reduce the daily amount of output energy from the solar panel.

Since there is no such thing as energy storage for renewables- it is very beneficial to have a steady input of solar/wind energy. If a solar panel is unable to move as to always be facing the sun or if it is winter it might only receive sunlight six hours per day - this can reduce the PV cell's daily output of energy. This is because you are getting less incoming solar energy to convert into electrical energy. At current estimates, PV cells have an avg. efficiency of 15%- therefore for every 1 watt per sq. meter that radiates onto a rooftop- only .15 W/m2 is converted into electrical energy. This would be one thing if we had a steady input of source energy, but the sun only radiates on the panel for 6 hours a day- or ¼ of the time in which a user might need electricity. This significantly lowers the amount of input energy available to be turned into electricity at a further relatively inefficient capacity. This reduces the amount of electrical need that a PV cell can meet. Research needs to be done in making PV cells more efficient while keeping the cost down.

If the Global Warming Potential were calculated on a 50 year time horizon rather than 100 years, would the GWP of methane be larger or smaller? Explain your reasoning in max 20 words. (2 points)

The GWP of methane over a 50-year time horizon would be larger than over a 100-year time horizon, because methane only has a positive radiative forcing for 21 years (the time that is stays in the atmosphere), and therefore its radiative forcing averaged over 50 years is higher than when averaged over 100 years.

thermocline

The thermocline is an oceanographic phenomenon from when the ocean separates warm water at the surface from a considerable drop and then stabilization at that considerably low temperature for the rest of the deep water. · In El-Niño conditions we have a Flat-ish thermocline, warm surface water in the east, rain in the central pacific · In La-Niña conditions we have a very steep thermocline, warm water surface water in the west, rain in the western pacific. Over time, the warm water pools at the top of the thermocline will evaporate into the atmosphere. The trade winds will move this moisture to Oceania, where they will precipitate creating a larger pool of warm water in that region. Therefore, during a regular season in the Pacific the thermocline will upswell because the warm water will not be evenly distributed. There will be a deeper pool of warm water in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean and cool top-level water temperatures in the western- hemisphere' s (Western South America) Pacific Ocean. There will be a linear "slope" in the thermocline. In El Niño situations- the pool of very warm water becomes larger and more expansive. We no longer see the upswell that gives cool surface water temperatures toward the western tropics. The thermocline does not ever reach the surface, instead is buried deeper down than usual as warm water pools cover the much of the pacific. This creates increased atmospheric moisture and produces increased rainfall everywhere. On the other hand, during La Niña, the slope of the thermocline is considerable steeper. This will completely divide the Pacific Ocean into a cold water region and a warm water region. This brings colder temperatures closer to the surface in the Western Pacific and a larger area of the ocean has a cold surface temperature. The thermocline is much lower in the Eastern tropics, with deep pools of warm water a feature of that area. In the South America region, La Niña produces a dry period, where there is less moisture in the air.

What are the advantages of having wind farms located off shore as distinct from on land?

The Sea Breeze Effect increases the primary wind resource available. The Seas Breeze Effect has to do with the differences in temperature between the land and the sea- thanks to their differing capacities to absorb the sun's energy. During the day the sun heats up both the earth's surface and the land- but the land heats up much quicker. Therefore, there is a difference in air temperatures on the land and the water- this creates difference in air pressure. The differences in air pressure above the coast's surface and the ocean's surface creates an of wind flow during the day. The breeze strength depends on some factors-including the temperature difference between the land and the ocean. At night there is a similar process going on. The land loses the energy it absorbed during the day quicker than the ocean does. The ocean retains this heat and stay warm. Therefore, the ocean is warmer than the land, creating a similar temperature gradient that spurs a similar but reversed breeze. There two processes mean that there will be a constant, steady wind energy resource off the shore of coastal terrain. This is the advantage to offshore wind power. In many of the smaller and very developed coastal states (especially with regards to the Northeast)- there are not massive, treeless fields (see prairie land) for the wind to blow uninterrupted by anthropogenic developments and buildings. But all of these states have, to tremendous variation, some degree of uninterrupted and steady wind resource by virtue of their locations on the coast. It is also safer and less disruptive to place wind farms off shore

Why is bigger better for wind turbines compared to increasing the area of solar panels?

The bigger the better for power output, because larger wind turbines reach higher above the earth's surface. This is beneficial because the wind strength is greater at greater heights and because the surface turbulences risk presented by structures such as trees and buildings is reduced. The output power of a wind turbine goes up as the square of the blade diameter

Milankovitch cycles

The three Milankovitch cycles are long-term cycles, i.e. have long periodicities (periodicity = time for the process to accomplish a full cycle). They correspond to variations in the Earth's revolution around the Sun and in the Earth's rotation on its axis. These three variations result in long-term natural climate variability. The cycles, especially the 100,000- year eccentricity, are particularly well observed in ice core records. However, the three cycles alone do not fully explain the ice core record. Indeed, the changes seen in the ice cores are sharper. This is due to several feedback effects, notably the ice albedo effect. For example: when the three variations coincide in such a way that northern winters are unusually cold, this triggers the start of a glacial period. Because of the ice-albedo effect, the ice cover in the northern hemisphere increases, which leads to even cooler northern winters, etc.

Surface winds and climate zones

There are two main drivers. The first is the effect of emperature as described above. The temperature variation from equator to pole has a direct effect on air pressure. Air that is Heated expands and becomes less dense. Sea level pressure can be thought of as the weight of the air mass above. If the air is less dense there will be less weight of air and less air pressure and hence the hot equatorial region is associated with relatively low air pressure. The Antarctic continent, where the temperature is the coldest on Earth is associated with a veryhigh-°©‐pressure system. Pressure gradients create a force that causes air to flow from High to low pressure regions. This flow is what we refer to as wind. The most familiar example is a sea breeze. GLobal wind patterns show a a gradient of surface wind flow down and then also convection cycles like hit But this north to south wind pattern is largely not what we experience: in fact the dominant wind direction on a global scale is more nearly east/west. That force is ......dun.... dun...dun....dun the coroliolis effect

Explain in words and/or an illustration why there is an upper limit to conversion of wind energy to electric power — Betz Law.

There are wind speed limits to the conversion of wind energy to electric power, wind cannot blow to fast or else a turbine will shut off or risk being damaged. Moreover, Betz's Law illustrates that even under ideal situations there is no way that a turbine could convert all of the kinetic wind energy to the blade's mechanical energy and then to electrical energy. This is because: if all of the kinetic energy from the wind that came through was converted into mechanical energy - then the speed of the wind on the other side of the turbine would be zero. There would be stalled air at the other end of the wind turbine- effectively a wall that would prevent continued wind flow through the turbine. The most efficient wind turbine balances the need for continuous wind flow and for converting as much of the wind's kinetic energy into mechanical and then electrical energy. Bentz's Law says that the upper limit for efficiency is about 16/28 or 59.3%

ice-albedo feedback

Warming effect: Increasing temperatures result in decreased ice cover, which then decreases albedo. Decreased albedo means that less insolation is reflected and more is absorbed by the land's surface. The more insolation absorbed, the warmer it gets. Ice cover and subsequently albedo decrease further.-Cooling effect: Decreasing temperaturesresult in increased ice cover. Albedo increases, decreasing the amount of insolation absorbed and thus decreasing temperatures.

don't read this, biological pump

n our primitive model of the oxygen minimum layer, the upwelling seawater attempts to bring both carbon and nutrients back to the surface of the ocean. However, the biologic activity in the surface layer (aided by sunlight) keeps removing the nutrients and causing them to settle back down, together with the appropriate amount of carbon (determined by the Redfield Ratio). This is a way of pumping nutrients and carbon down, against the upward movement of upwelling, and hence the term "biological pump." The biological pump in effect puts some of the carbon into a hidden reservoir, where the atmosphere cannot reach it. Thus, the atmosphere gets less than its share of carbon than it would otherwise. How much more carbon would be hidden away if we increase the upward motion of the deep water?

Names all the Proccese (Not) in the short term cycle

plants, and soil, atmospheric CO2, oceans,plants and soil, ocean biota, skeletons

CO2 sources and Sinks

sinks: ocean, plants

The Earth's north-‐south variation in temperature

temperature fields (climate zones are largely temperature zones)- temperature at the surface is the temperature achieved by the Earth through the balance of absorption and re-radiation of the sun' energy. first and foremost is the incoming radiation from the sun. Second is the fraction of energy absorbed by the sun- since only energy absorbed by the earth causes it to gain heat. Some parts of the art are more asbsorbing than others third is the makeup of the atmosphere