UNIT 2 EXAM - SPEECH
The Print Era
" extended from 1450 to 1850 and was marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written texts
"Talking Culture"
During this 150,000 year period of human existence, ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication, aside from gestures, that humans had.
biological time
Jim was having a hard time concentrating at the morning meaning because he was not yet awake.
A teacher can tell that her students are tired because they have their heads down on their desks. Some even have their eyes closed. The students are using which type of non-verbal communication to communicate their tiredness?
Kinesics
Group communication
is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication
Prejudice
is negative feelings or attitudes toward people based on their identity or identities. Example: a hiring manager may not hire a young man with a physical disability (even though that would be illegal if it were the only reason), which negatively affects that one man.
Mindful communicator
actively and fluidly processes information, is sensitive to communication contexts and multiple perspectives, and is able to adapt to novel communication situations
Feedback loop
also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going.
codes
are culturally agreed on and ever-changing systems of symbols that help us organize, understand, and generate meaning
Schemata
are like databases of stored, related information that we use to interpret new experiences. We all have fairly complicated schemata that have developed over time as small units of information combine to make more meaningful complexes of information
Interpersonal communication
is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication.
Intrapersonal communication
is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment.
Psychological context
includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication
relational context
includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we've known for a long time.
cultural context
includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability.
the triangle of meaning
is a model of communication that indicates the relationship among a thought, symbol, and referent and highlights the indirect relationship between the symbol and referent
self-serving bias
is a perceptual error through which we attribute the cause of our successes to internal personal factors while attributing our failures to external factors beyond our control.
Public communication
is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don't enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.
strategies for improving perception
is a strategy to help us monitor our reactions to and perceptions about people and communication. There are some internal and external strategies we can use to engage in perception checking. In terms of internal strategies, review the various influences on perception that we have learned about in this chapter and always be willing to ask yourself, "What is influencing the perceptions I am making right now?" Even being aware of what influences are acting on our perceptions makes us more aware of what is happening in the perception process. In terms of external strategies, we can use other people to help verify our perceptions
Environmental noise
is any physical noise present in a communication encounter.
noise
is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter
symbols
is something that stands in for or represents something else. Symbols can be communicated verbally (speaking the word hello), in writing (putting the letters H-E-L-L-O together), or nonverbally (waving your hand back and forth).
Interpreting Information
is the third part of the perception process, in which we assign meaning to our experiences using mental structures known as schemata
thought
is the concept or idea a person references.
Salience
is the degree to which something attracts our attention in a particular context.
Selection
is the first part of the perception process, in which we focus our attention on certain incoming sensory information.
Memory
is the least studied of the five canons and refers to the techniques employed by speakers of that era to retain and then repeat large amounts of information
referent
is the object or idea to which the symbol refers
Perception
is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information
Organizing
is the second part of the perception process, in which we sort and categorize information that we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns. Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity, and difference.
Recency effect
leads us to put more weight on the most recent impression we have of a person's communication over earlier impressions. Even a positive first impression can be tarnished by a negative final impression.
Michael thinks he is a good photographer because his friends, family, and co-workers have seen his work and given him a lot of praise. Michael has associated "good" photographer into his self-concept because of which theory?
looking glass self
Audiovisual Era
only lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television.
_________ ____________: Language that helps us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs.
verbal expressions
Difference
we assume that the item that looks or acts different from the rest doesn't belong with the group.
thoughts
we draw conclusions based on what we have experienced. In the perception process, this is similar to the interpretation step. We take various observations and evaluate and interpret them to assign them meaning (a conclusion).
observations
we report on the sensory information we are taking or have taken in. Eyewitness testimony is a good example of communicating observations
Proximity
we tend to think that things that are close together go together.
Integrative learning
which encourages students to reflect on how the content they are learning connects to other classes they have taken or are taking, their professional goals, and their civic responsibilities.
Attribution script
which essentially tries to come up with explanations for what is happening.
Five canons of rhetoric
which include invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory.
Primacy effect
which leads us to place more value on the first information we receive about a person. So if we interpret the first information we receive from or about a person as positive, then a positive first impression will form and influence how we respond to that person as the interaction continues
Fundamental attribution error
which refers to our tendency to explain others' behaviors using internal rather than external attributions
Feedback
includes messages sent in response to other messages
symbol
the word that represents the thought
How do we create our self concept?
-through the Social Comparison Theory, where we compare our beliefs, abilities, and abilities to others' - through socializing forces such as family, friends, teachers, culture, and the media - through our interactions with others
Relational Needs
0 include needs that help us maintain social bonds and interpersonal relationships
Physical context
9 includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication.
Rhetoric
Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric2 , which refers to speaking well and persuasively
mass communication
Public communication becomes mass communication7 when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing "Enter" to send a Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show.
Culture
Race, gender, sexual orientation, class, ability, nationality, and age all affect the perceptions that we make.
personal time
Sarafina loves taking vacations, and is always planning for her next vacation. She is future-oriented.
onomatopoeia
Some scholars speculate that humans' first words were onomatopoetic. You may remember from your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like that to which they refer—words like boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack. Just think about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these words and hand gestures. He or she could use gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans who could talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also more predisposed to communicate
physical time
Terrell does not like the winter time. He feels depressed because he loves being outdoors, and in the winter it is too cold to go hiking or work in his yard.
Which of the following is an example of reclaiming an identity marker?
The LGBTQ community re-claiming the word "queer."
cultural time
The United States is more monochronic, as Americans typically keep rigid schedules.
halo and horn effects
The halo effect occurs when initial positive perceptions lead us to view later interactions as positive. The horn effect occurs when initial negative perceptions lead us to view later interactions as negative.
Similarity
We tend to think similar-looking or similar-acting things belong together
Unconscious Incompetence
You are not even aware that you are communicating in an incompetent manner
Conscious Incompetence
You just communicate successfully without straining to be competent. Can vary by person.
Conscious Incompetence
You know what you should be doing, and you realize that you're not doing it as well as you should.
Conscious Competence
You know you are communicating well in the moment, which will ad to your bank of experiences to draw from in future interactions.
Manuscript Era
around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life.Marshall T. Poe, A History of Communications: Media and Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 61-73. As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked with actual objects that symbolized an amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of grain—symbols, likely carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of grain. During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers turned businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As clergy, the ruling elite, and philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more complex. The turn to writing didn't threaten the influential place of oral communication, however. During the near 5,000-year period of the "Manuscript Era," literacy, or the ability to read and write, didn't spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn't until the 1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world
Selective Attention
can help us meet instrumental needs and get things done.
Computer mediated communication (CMC)
communication is one-way and linear CMC is integrated into many aspects of our lives now and has opened up new ways of communicating and brought some new challenges.
Internal attribution
connect the cause of behaviors to personal aspects such as personality traits.
External attribution
connect the cause of behaviors to situational factors.
Communication Ethics
deals with the process of negotiating and reflecting on our actions and communication regarding what we believe to be right and wrong.
Transmission model of communication
describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process.
transaction model of communication
describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don't just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don't communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.
Interaction model of communication
describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts
looking glass self
explains that we see ourselves reflected in other people's reactions to us and then form our self-concept based on how we believe other people see us
True or False. You can identify a person's sexual orientation by looking at them or talking to them.
false
Internet Era
has only lasted from 1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of digital and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.
verbal expressions
help us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs
Instrumental Needs
include needs that help us get things done in our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and long-term goals.
physical needs
include needs that keep our bodies and minds functioning. Communication, which we most often associate with our brain, mouth, eyes, and ears, actually has many more connections to and effects on our physical body and well-being.
Identity Needs
include our need to present ourselves to others and be thought of in particular and desired ways.
Communication meets our __________ by helping us maintain physical and psychological well-being; our __________ needs by helping us achieve short- and long-term goals; our ___________ needs by helping us initiate, maintain, and terminate relationships; and our ___________ needs by allowing us to present ourselves to others in particular ways.
physical, instrumental, relational, identity
Communication Competence
refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts.
denotation
refers to definitions that are accepted by the language group as a whole, or the dictionary definition of a word.
Personality
refers to a person's general way of thinking, feeling, and behaving based on underlying motivations and impulses
connotation
refers to definitions that are based on emotion- or experience-based associations people have with a word.
Semantic noise
refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol.
self esteem
refers to the judgments and evaluations we make about our selfconcept. While self-concept is a broad description of the self, self-esteem is a more specifically an evaluation of the self
self efficacy
refers to the judgments people make about their ability to perform a task within a specific context
Arrangements
refers to the organization of speech, style refers to the use of language
self-concept
refers to the overall idea of who a person thinks he or she is.
grammar
refers to the rules that govern how words are used to make phrases and sentences.
social context
refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication.
Invention
refers to the use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways and is the most studied of the five canons
Delivery
refers to the vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker
Civic engagement
refers to working to make a difference in our communities by improving the quality of life of community members; raising awareness about social, cultural, or political issues; or participating in a wide variety of political and nonpolitical processes.
Phatic Communication
scripted and routine verbal interactions that are intended to establish social bonds rather than actually exchange meaning
norms
social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error.
displacement
specifically refers to our ability to talk about events that are removed in space or time from a speaker and situation
social comparison theory
states that we describe and evaluate ourselves in terms of how we compare to other people. Social comparisons are based on two dimensions: superiority/inferiority and similarity/difference
self discrepancy theory
states that people have beliefs about and expectations for their actual and potential selves that do not always match up with what they actually experience.
Communication study
studied as a distinct academic discipline with departments at univerisites and colleges has only existed for a little over 100 years
communication
the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.
