Unit 6: Learning

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

personal control

the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

what did pavlov and watson have in common?

they both denounced "mentalistic" concepts (like consciousness) and believed that all animals had the same basic laws of learning

delayed reinforcer

a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

observational learning

learning by observing others

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

little albert

subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response is called a. acquisition. b. spontaneous recovery. c. discrimination. d. operant conditioning. e. classical conditioning.

b. spontaneous recovery

in classical conditioning, a person learns to anticipate events by associating a response with its consequence. a. avoiding spontaneous recovery. b. using operant behaviors. c. associating two stimuli. d. employing cognitive learning.

c. associating two stimuli

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

behaviorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

acquisition (operant conditioning)

Associating a response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher).

b.f. skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

antisocial effects

Definition: possible response of observational learning Researcher: Albert Bandura (1961) Example: watch abusive parents and become abusive when you are a parent OR kids watching tv learn bad habits and get idea that violence is acceptable

unconditioned response (ur)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

basic idea (classical conditioning)

Learning associations between events we do not control.

basic idea (operant conditioning)

Learning associations between our behavior and its consequences.

discrimination (operant conditioning)

Learning that some responses, but not others, will be reinforced.

biological influences (classical conditioning)

Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.

bandura

Observational learning; Bobo dolls; social-cognitive theory

robert koelling

Ran experiments with John Garcia on Taste Aversion in species using rates, loud sounds, and bad tasting water.

john garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

extinction (operant conditioning)

Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.

edward l. thorndike

Widely known for the law of effect- the principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is unlikely to recur. This principle was the basis for BF Skinner's behavioral technology.

response (operant conditioning)

voluntary, operates on environment

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

the shin family is eager to train their new puppy a couple of tricks. explain how the Shins could use the following in their training: positive reinforcement schedules of reinforcement shaping

-The Shin family could use dog treats as enticement for performing tricks. This would be a form of positive reinforcement. -If the family wants their dog to perform the trick frequently and consistently they should use a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement, giving their dog a treat after a random number of performances. -The family could reward the puppy for successive approximations of the desired trick (i.e. "shaping"). If they want the puppy to shake hands before eating, for example, they could at first give him food for slightly raising his paw off the ground, then only later require him to fully extend his leg for a shake.

acquisition (classical conditioning)

Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS.

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

cognitive influences (classical conditioning)

Organisms develop an expectation that a CS signals the arrival of a US.

cognitive influence (operant conditioning)

Organisms develop an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

biological influences (operant conditioning)

Organisms most easily learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

when is prosocial modeling most effective? a. when the model acts in a way consistent with the prosocial lesson b. when the model verbally emphasizes the prosocial lesson but acts as she chooses c. when the model is predisposed to the prosocial conduct d. when the observer has a close personal relationship with the model e. when the model is well-known

a. when the model acts in a way consistent with the prosocial lesson

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

a family uses the microwave to prepare their cat's food. The cat comes running into the room when the microwave timer sounds, but not when it hears the oven timer. The cat is demonstrating the concept of a. generalization. b. discrimination. c. spontaneous recovery. d. extinction. e. habituation.

b. discrimination

which of the following is the most likely consequence of the brain's tendency to vicariously experience something we observe? a. actual physical injury b. the risk of misremembering our own actions c. interference with associative learning d. the elimination of classically conditioned responses to stimuli e. a confusion between reinforcers and rewards in an operant conditioning setting

b. the risk of misremembering our own actions

john b. watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

practice frq: carter's romantic friend has worn plaid shirts on all their special dates. now, when seeing a plaid shirt, carter automatically feels happy and a little excited. identify what each of the following terms would be in this example. - conditioned response (CR) - conditioned stimulus (CS) - unconditioned stimulus (US)

cr: happy, excited response cs: plaid shirt (it was originally the ns but it became the cs) us: the friend

neutral stimulus (ns)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (us)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus (cs)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

conditioned response (cr)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

response (classical conditioning)

involuntary, automatic

bobo doll experiment

nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively

skinner's experiment

operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping); rats would press a metal bar to receive a food or water reward

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

successive approximations

small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

association

the connection or relation between ideas, feelings, or sensations; how we learn; our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

nish has received a new bike for his sixth birthday. Explain how each of the following terms can be applied as he learns to ride the bike. shaping reinforcement generalization

Shaping: Nish's parents should reinforce each small step that moves Nish toward riding the bike successfully. For example, first he might receive reinforcement for sitting on the bike, then for pedaling a small distance, and then finally, only after he rides the bike for a greater distance. Reinforcement: Nish's parents could give him a small reward or praise when he successfully rides the bike. Reinforcement will be most effective if it is immediate. Generalization: Having learned to ride his own bike, Nish will be able to transfer what he has learned to other bikes.

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

immediate reinforcer

a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

little albert experiment

a study in which a white rat was paired with a loud sudden noise in order to condition a fear response in an infant; the infant associated anything white and furry with the rat and had the response to that stimuli in the same way

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

taste aversion

a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely to be repeated is known as what? a. law of effect b. operant conditioning c. shaping d. respondent behavior e. discrimination

a. law of effect

which ability is likely to predict good adjustment, better grades, and social success? a. self-control b. an external locus of control c. problem-focused coping d. learned helplessness e. emotion-focused coping

a. self-control

violence-viewing effect

after you view so much violence you become de-sensitized to it and you begin to imitate it

practice frq: a researcher paired the sound of a whistle with a puff of air to the eye to classically condition ashley to blink when the whistle alone was sounded. explain how the researcher could demonstrate the following. - generalization - extinction - spontaneous recovery

ashley may generalize it to piercing sounds and blink also when a recorder was blown, and then eventually other woodwind instruments. After a while, this response may go extinct from lack of practice, but a 1-more tries after a dormant period could bring about spontaneous recovery.

which of the following is the best advice to give parents whose young children refuse to eat their dinner? a. do not allow them to watch television for a week for each day they do not eat dinner. b. give the children a small reward at the end of a week in which they have eaten dinner each night. c. give the children a small reward each day that they eat their dinner. d. require that the children do extra chores if they do not finish dinner. e. allow the children to have dessert, even if they do not eat their dinner, in the hopes that they will eat dinner the next day.

b. give the children a small reward at the end of a week in which they have eaten dinner each night

a woman had been pondering a problem for days and was about to give up when, suddenly, the solution came to her. her experience can be best described as what? a. cognitive mapping b. insight c. operant conditioning d. classical conditioning e. unconscious associative learning

b. insight

the purpose of reinforcement is to a. cause a behavior to stop. b. cause a behavior to diminish. c. cause a behavior to continue. d. strengthen the spontaneous recovery process. e. cause a behavior to occur for only a limited amount of time.

c. cause a behavior to continue

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

primary reinforcers

innately reinforcing stimuli, such as food or warmth, that have reinforcement value without learning

why was pavlov's work so important?

pavlov's study was the first to show that a process can be studied objectively proved that classical conditioning and responses can be conditioned in other organisms his work laid the foundation for behaviorism

your calculus teacher wants her students to be more diligent in completing their homework and, since you are taking ap® psychology, she has asked for your help. give an example of how she could use each of the following to help her increase homework completion. shaping negative reinforcement fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement

-The calculus teacher could use shaping to promote homework completion. For example, she could privately praise or reward (with candy or extra credit) students who do not usually complete their homework when they do. At first, she could reward even half-completed work assignments and then require full completion later. -She could also institute a policy wherein students are allowed to opt out of pop quizzes if they have turned in all of their homework assignments without major mistakes or omissions. This would be an example of negative reinforcement, as the teacher removes something undesirable (the anxiety of having to take a pop quiz) as a reward for the operant behavior (completing homework). -If the teacher rewarded a certain percentage of homework completion (say 85%) at the end of the month (say, with a pizza party at lunch), she would be using a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement. This method may not be optimal, however, because many students would likely slack off on homework assignments at the beginning of every month, while scrambling to meet the quota toward the end of the month.

describe how each of the following can show the impact of cognition on operant conditioning. latent learning insight learning intrinsic motivation

1. Latent learning can reinforce or disencourage observed behavior. For example, if you are observing your coworker deal with a difficult customer, your learning depends on the outcome. If the situation escalates, then you are less likely to repeat what your coworker did if you are in that same situation. If the situation de-escalates, you are more likely to repeat your coworker's actions when in the same situation. 2. Insight learning sort of goes against operant conditioning, because there is no stimulus that induces the realization of a problem's solution. 3. Intrinsic motivation shows us the limits of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is based on rewards and punishment, but if someone is doing an action, such as reading, solely for the reward that comes with it, they are less likely to perform that action once there is no more reward.

extinction (classical conditioning)

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.

discrimination (classical conditioning)

Learning to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US.

missy studied for several hours before taking her history test, motivated by the goal of achieving a good grade that would get her a scholarship. she failed the test and now refuses to study for other tests. explain how the following terms relate to this scenario. extrinsic motivation learned helplessness

Missy was extrinsically motivated to study for her test. She wanted the good grade in order to get a scholarship. After failing to get the good grade, Missy demonstrates learned helplessness: She now believes there is no use studying and that studying won't help her succeed.

explain how Bandura's Bobo doll experiment illustrates each of the following. modeling antisocial modeling

Modeling can be described as observing and imitating a specific behavior. In Bandura's study, the children replicated the behaviors they witnessed the adult perform. Antisocial modeling occurs when a person models behaviors that are not positive, constructive, or helpful. In Bandura's study, the children were replicating these kinds of antisocial behaviors (hitting, kicking, throwing), which they had seen the adult display.

generalization (operant conditioning)

Responses learned in one situation occurring in other, similar situations.

mom is frustrated because 3-year-old maya has started to spit frequently. she has decided to temporarily put away one of maya's toys every time she spits. mom is going to continue to do this until maya has stopped spitting. explain whether mom's plan uses reinforcement or punishment. explain whether mom's plan is a positive or negative form of reinforcement or punishment.

The plan uses punishment, because it is designed to reduce the frequency of spitting. This is negative punishment because toys are being taken away from Maya.

insight learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known

spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR.

spontaneous recovery (operant conditioning)

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response.

generalization (classical conditioning)

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

superstitious behavior can be produced by a. placing a conditioned response (CR) before a conditioned stimulus (CS). b. the accidental timing of rewards. c. possession of a large number of traditionally lucky items. d. cognitive awareness of superstitious behavior in others. the change in a reinforcement schedule from ratio to interval.

b. the accidental timing of rewards

shea bought 10 tickets for the raffle for free homecoming entry, but she did not win. Months later she also buys 10 tickets for the senior prom raffle, hoping this will be the time she wins. Which schedule of reinforcement is best used to explain this scenario? a. fixed-ratio b. variable-ratio c. fixed-interval d. variable-interval e. continuous

b. variable-ratio

operant behaviors

behaviors designed to operate on the environment in a way that will gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant

elephants appear to have excellent _____ because they can remember large sections of their territory. a. latent learning b. insight c. cognitive maps d. extrinsic motivation e. mirror neurons

c. cognitive maps

students in a school are accustomed to moving to the next class when music plays. After a period of time, the principal replaces the music with a bell to signal the end of class. If one day he plays the music by mistake and the students leave class, which of the following is being shown? a. acquisition b. generalization c. habituation d. spontaneous recovery e. operant conditioning

c. generalization

all of the following are examples of primary reinforcers except a a. rat's food reward in a Skinner box. b. cold drink on a hot day. c. high score on an exam for which a student studied diligently. d. hug from a loved one. e. large meal following an extended time without food.

c. high score on an exam for which a student studied diligently

the perception that we control our own fate is also called what? a. self-control b. learned helplessness c. internal locus of control d. external locus of control e. emotion-focused coping

c. internal locus of control

when parents offer good-grade rewards to children who already enjoy studying, they may find that the children no longer enjoy studying and only enjoy the rewards. which of the following have the parents accidentally removed from their children? a. latent learning b. extrinsic motivation c. intrinsic motivation d. insight learning e. emotion-focused coping

c. intrinsic motivation

in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus a. naturally triggers a response. b. is a naturally occurring response. c. is initially neutral, and then comes to trigger a response. d. prompts spontaneous recovery. e. is a reward offered for completing a behavior.

c. is initially neutral, and then comes to trigger a response

after observing his sibling walk across a balance beam, Joe's brain reacts in a way that will enable him to imitate the action later. Which part of his brain may be responsible for this? a. reward system b. somatosensory cortex c. mirror neurons d. motor cortex e. aggression areas

c. mirror neurons

which of the following processes is the best term for explaining how we learn languages? a. biofeedback b. discrimination c. modeling d. insight e. creativity

c. modeling

which of the following is the best example of learning? a. A dog salivates when food is placed in its mouth. b. a honeybee stings when the hive is threatened. c. a child cries when his brother hits him. d. a child feels ill after drinking sour milk. e. a child flinches when he sees lightning because he is afraid of thunder.

d. a child flinches when he sees lightning because he is afraid of thunder

which of the following best describes negative reinforcement? a. john stops shooting bad free-throws because his coach benches him when he does. b. brian studies hard because it earns him "A" grades in math. c. lillian used to walk to school but does not do so anymore because she was attacked by a dog last month. d. charles smokes because his anxiety is reduced when he does so. e. osel wears his seat belt because his driving teacher cited accident statistics in class.

d. charles smokes because his anxiety is reduced when he does so

paola has been classically conditioned to fear a red light because it has been paired with a loud noise. if the light is repeatedly presented without the loud noise she will eventually stop being afraid of the light. In this instance, _____ has occurred. a. generalization b. discrimination c. spontaneous recovery d. extinction e. acquisition

d. extinction

students are accustomed to a bell ringing to indicate the end of a class period. The principal decides to substitute popular music for the bell to indicate the end of each class period. Students quickly respond to the music in the same way they did to the bell. In this example, the music is a(n) a. conditioned response. b. conditioned stimulus. c. unconditioned response. d. unconditioned stimulus. e. habituated response

d. unconditioned stimulus

ivan pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

bandura's famous bobo doll experiment is most closely associated with which of the following? a. latent learning b. classical conditioning c. operant conditioning d. cognitive maps e. observational learning

e. observational learning

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

provide an example: learned associations also feed our habitual behaviors

sleeping in a certain posture in bed, biting our nails in class, eating popcorn in a movie theater

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

what are the rules for the ns, cs, us, ur, and cr?

the ns and the cs are always the same the ur and cr are always the same the us does not match any other reponse

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.