us history to 1877 ch 7-8

The Bill of Rights

Madison believed the Constitution would protect liberty without the addition of a bill of rights. Still, to satisfy the Constitution's critics, Madison introduced a bill of rights to the first Congress. Some rights, such as the prohibiting of excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishments, reflected English roots, while others, such as the recognition of religious freedom, were uniquely American. Among the most important rights were freedom of speech and of the press, vital building blocks of a democratic public sphere.

Indians in the New Nation

Indian tribes had no representation in the new government. The treaty system was used with Indians, and Congress forbade the transfer of Indian land without federal approval. The U.S. victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers led to the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. Under this treaty, twelve Indian tribes ceded most of Ohio and Indiana to the United States. The treaty established the annuity system-yearly grants of federal money to Indian tribes that led to continuing U.S. government influence in tribal affairs. Some prominent Americans believed that Indians could assimilate into society. Assimilation meant transforming traditional Indian life.

The War of 1812

Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war. The government found it difficult to finance the war. Americans enjoyed few military successes. Andrew Jackson achieved the war's greatest victory at New Orleans in January 1815. Peace officially came with the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814, although news of it did not arrive until after the Battle of New Orleans.

The "Reign of Witches"

The Alien and Sedition Acts limited civil liberties. The main target was the Republican press.

Gabriel's Rebellion

A slave rebellion was attempted in Virginia in 1800. The conspiracy was rooted in Richmond's black community. Gabriel spoke the language of liberty forged in the American Revolution and reinvigorated during the 1790s. Virginia's slave laws became stricter.

The Election of 1796

Adams won with seventy-one electoral votes and Jefferson became vice president with sixty-eight electoral votes. His presidency was beset by crises. Quasi-war with France Fries's Rebellion

The Rights of Women

The expansion of the public sphere offered women an opportunity to take part in political discussions, read newspapers, and hear orations. Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Women Judith Sargent Murray

The Articles of Confederation

The first written constitution of the United States One-house Congress No president No judiciary The only powers granted to the national government were those for declaring war, conducting foreign affairs, and making treaties.

The End of the Federalist Party

A casualty of the war was the Federalist Party. Hartford Convention

The Anti-Federalists

Anti-Federalists, who opposed ratification, argued that the republic had to be small and warned that the Constitution would result in an oppressive government. "Liberty" was the Anti-Federalists' watchword. They argued for a Bill of Rights. Federalists tended to be men of substantial property, urban dwellers seeking prosperity, and rural residents tied to the commercial marketplace. Anti-Federalists drew support from small farmers in more isolated rural areas (e.g., New York's Hudson Valley, western Massachusetts, the southern backcountry). Federalists dominated the press, which helped them carry the day. Madison won support for the Constitution by promising a bill of rights later. By mid-1788, the required nine states had ratified. Only Rhode Island and North Carolina voted against ratification, but they eventually joined the new government.

Hamilton's Program

As secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton's long-range goal was to make the United States a major commercial and military power. His program had five parts: Create creditworthiness by assuming state debts Create a new national debt Create a bank of the United States Tax producers of whiskey Impose tariffs and provide government subsidies to industries

The Jefferson-Hamilton Bargain

At first, opposition to Hamilton's program arose almost entirely from the South. Hamilton argued the "general welfare" clause of the Constitution justified his program. Jefferson insisted on "strict construction" of the Constitution, which meant the federal government could only exercise powers specifically listed in that document. Jefferson agreed southerners would accept Hamilton's plan in exchange for placing the national capital on the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia.

"Extend the Sphere"

Madison had a new vision of the relationship between government and society in Federalist no. 10 and no. 51. Madison argued that the large size of the United States was a source of stability, not weakness. Madison helped to popularize the liberal idea that men are generally motivated by self-interest and that the good of society arises from the clash of these private interests.

Congress, Settlers, and the West

Congress established national control over land to the west of the thirteen states and devised rules for its settlement. In the immediate aftermath of independence, Congress took the position that by aiding the British, Indians had forfeited the right to their lands. Congress faced conflicting pressures from settlers and land speculators regarding western development. Peace brought rapid settlement into frontier areas. Leaders feared unregulated flow of settlement across the Appalachian Mountains could provoke constant warfare with the Indians.

The Final Document

Delegates signed the final draft on September 17, 1787. The Constitution created a new framework for American development.

The Haitian Revolution

Events during the 1790s underscored how powerfully slavery defined and distorted American freedom. A successful slave uprising led by Toussaint L'Ouverture established Haiti as an independent nation in 1804.

Shays's Rebellion

Facing seizure of their land, debt-ridden farmers closed the courts in western Massachusetts. They modeled their protests on those of the Revolutionary era, using liberty trees. Shays's Rebellion convinced many of the need for a stronger central government to protect property rights (a form of private liberty) from too much power in the hands of the people.

The "Revolution of 1800"

Jefferson defeated Adams in the 1800 presidential campaign. A constitutional crisis emerged with the election. Twelfth Amendment Hamilton-Burr duel Adams's acceptance of defeat established the vital precedent of a peaceful transfer of power from a defeated party to its successor.

Slavery and Politics

Jefferson's election as president was aided by the three-fifths clause, which gave a disproportionate number of electoral votes to southern states. The First Congress received petitions calling for emancipation, which set off a long sectional debate in that body. In 1793, Congress adopted a law to enforce the Constitution's fugitive slave clause.

Jefferson, Slavery, and Race

John Locke and others maintained that reason was essential to having liberty. Many white Americans did not consider blacks to be rational beings. Jefferson's Notes on the State of Virginia claimed blacks lacked self-control, reason, and devotion to the larger community. Jefferson did not think any group was fixed permanently in a status of inferiority. Some prominent Virginians believed black Americans could not become part of the America nation.

Jefferson's inaugural address was conciliatory toward his opponents. However, he hoped to dismantle as much of the Federalist system as possible.

Judicial Review John Marshall's Supreme Court established the Court's power to review laws of Congress and of the states (judicial review). Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the precedent of the Court's power of judicial review relative to federal laws. Fletcher v. Peck (1810) extended judicial review to state laws. The Louisiana Purchase To purchase Louisiana, Jefferson had to abandon his conviction that the federal government was limited to powers specifically mentioned in the Constitution. Jefferson's concern with the territory was over trade through New Orleans. Jefferson asserted that the additional territory would allow the republic to remain agrarian and therefore virtuous. Lewis and Clark Lewis and Clark's object was both scientific and commercial. Their journey from 1804 to 1806 brought invaluable information and paved the way for a transcontinental country. Incorporating Louisiana In 1803, New Orleans was the only part of the Louisiana Purchase territory with a significant non-Indian population. Louisiana's slaves had enjoyed far more freedom under the rule of Spain than they would as part of the liberty-loving United States. The Barbary Wars Jefferson hoped to avoid foreign entanglements. Barbary pirates from North Africa demanded bribes from American ships. Because Jefferson refused to increase payments to the pirates, the United States and Tripoli engaged in a naval conflict that ended with American victory in 1804. The Embargo War between France and Great Britain hurt American trade. The Embargo Act resulted in a crippled U.S. economy. Replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act Madison and Pressure for War Macon's Bill no. 2 allowed trade to resume. The War Hawks called for war against Britain. Wished to annex Canada

Nationalists of the 1780s

Nation builders like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton called for increased national authority. The concerns voiced by critics of the Articles found a sympathetic hearing among men who had developed a national consciousness during the Revolution. At a meeting in Annapolis (September 1786), delegates called for a convention to amend the Articles of Confederation in order to avoid anarchy and monarchy.

The Federalist

Nine of the thirteen states had to ratify the document. The Federalist was published to generate support for ratification. Hamilton argued the Constitution had created "the perfect balance between liberty and power."

The Emergence of Opposition

Opposition to Hamilton's plan was voiced by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton's plan depended on a close relationship with Britain. Opponents believed the United States' future lay westward, not with Britain.

The Structure of Government

Prominent wealthy and well-educated men took part in the Constitutional Convention. Delegates quickly agreed the Constitution would create a legislature, an executive, and a national judiciary. The key to stable, effective republican government was finding a way to balance the competing claims of liberty and power. A compromise over the shape of Congress emerged from debates over the Virginia and New Jersey Plans. Virginia Plan (favored by more populous states): two-house legislature where state's population determined representation in both houses New Jersey Plan (favored by smaller states): one-house legislature in which each state cast one vote Compromise: two-house Congress consisting of Senate (each state had two members) and House of Representatives (apportioned according to states' populations)

the Republican Party

Republicans were more sympathetic to France and had more faith in democratic self-government. Political language became more and more heated.

The Debate over Slavery

Slavery divided the delegates. The words "slave" and "slavery" did not appear in the Constitution, but it did provide for slavery. The South Carolinian delegates proved very influential in preserving slavery within the Constitution.

The Division and Separation of Powers

The Constitution embodies federalism and a system of checks and balances. Federalism refers to the relationship between the national government and the states. The separation of powers, or the system of checks and balances, refers to the way the Constitution seeks to prevent any branch of the national government from dominating the other two.

National Identity

The Constitution identifies three populations inhabiting the United States: Indians "Other persons," which meant slaves "People," who were the only ones entitled to American freedom

The Limits of Democracy

The Constitution left the determination of voter qualifications to the states. The new government was based on a limited democracy. Federal judges would be appointed by the president. The president would be elected by an electoral college, or, in the case of a tie in that body, by the House of Representatives.

Slavery in the Constitution

The Constitution prevented Congress from prohibiting the slave trade until 1808. The fugitive slave clause made clear that the condition of bondage remained attached to a person even if he or she escaped to a free area, and it required all states to help police the institution of slavery. The federal government could not interfere with slavery in the states. Slave states had more power due to the three-fifths clause.

Political Parties

The Federalist Party supported Washington and Hamilton's economic plan and close ties with Britain. Freedom rested on deference to authority.

The Impact of the French Revolution

The French Revolution became very radical by 1793, and France went to war with Britain. George Washington declared American neutrality. Jay's Treaty abandoned any American alliance with France by positioning the United States close to Britain.

The Land Ordinances

The Ordinance of 1784 established stages of self-government for the West. The Ordinance of 1785 regulated land sales in the region north of the Ohio River and established the township system there. Like the British before them, American officials found it difficult to regulate the thirst for new land. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established policy that admitted the area's population as equal members of the political system.

Principles of Freedom

The Revolution widened the divide between free Americans and those who remained in slavery. "We the people" increasingly meant white Americans.

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

The Sedition Act thrust freedom of expression to the center of discussions of American liberty. No other state endorsed the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions.

The Whiskey Rebellion

The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 proved to Federalists that democracy in the hands of ordinary citizens was dangerous.

The Indian Response

The period from 1800 to 1812 was an "age of prophecy" among Indians as they sought to revitalize Indian life. Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa tried to revive a pan-Indian movement and unite against white Americans. William Henry Harrison destroyed Prophetstown at the Battle of Tippecanoe (1811).

An Expanding Public Sphere

The political debates of the 1790s expanded the public sphere. Newspapers and pamphlets were a primary vehicle for political debate. Supporters of the French Revolution and critics of the Washington administration formed nearly fifty Democratic-Republican Societies in 1793-1794. The societies argued that political liberty meant not simply voting at elections but also constant involvement in public affairs.

Blacks and the Republic

The status of citizenship for free blacks was left to individual states. Crèvecoeur's Letters from an American Farmer described America as a melting pot of Europeans. Like Crèvecoeur, many white Americans excluded blacks from their conception of the American people. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited naturalization (the process by which immigrants become citizens) to "free white persons."

The War's Aftermath

The war confirmed the ability of a Republican government to conduct a war without surrendering its institutions.

The Confederation's Weaknesses

The war created an economic crisis that the Confederation government could not adequately address. With Congress unable to act, the states adopted their own economic policies.