Voting and Elections
Reasons accounting for low voter turnout:
1) expansion of the electorate: increase in the number of potential voters (26th Amendment) 2)failure of political parties to mobilize voters: negative campaigning, numberous elections, frequent elections, lack of party identification 3)no percieved differences between the candidates or parties: both parties and their candidates are seen as virtually the same
Who Votes? Several factors affecy the likelihood of voting:
1)education: the higher the level of education, the more likely a person is to vote. This is the most important indicator of voting behavior. 2)occupation and income: depend on education level. Those with white collar jobs and higher levels of income are more likely to vote than those with blue collar jobs or lower levels of income 3)age: older people are more likely to vote
Changes in voting requirements have included:
1)elimination of religious qualifications, property ownership, and tax payments 2)elimination of race disqualifications with the passage of the 15th Amendment 3)elimination of gender qualifications with the passage of the 19th Amendment 4)elimination of grandfather clauses, white primaries, and literacy requirements with the passage of federal civil rights legislation and court decisions (Civil Rights Act, Voting Rights Act)
Forms of Political Voting
1)voting in elections 2)discussing politics and attending political meetings 3)forming interest groups and PACs (political action committees) 4)contacting public officials 5)campaigning for a candidate or politcal party 6)contributing money to a candidate or political party 7) runing for office
Reasons accounting for low voter turnout:
4)mistrust of gov't: a belief that all candidates are untrustworthy or unresponsive, due in part to the Watergate and Iran-Contra scandals 5)apathy: a lack of interest in politics; a belief that voting is not important 6)satisfaction with the way things are: a belief that not voting will keep the status quo
Who Votes? Several factors affecy the likelihood of voting:
4)race: minorities such as African Americans and Hispanics are less likely to vote than whites, unless they have similar socioeconomic status 5)gender: at one time, gender was not a major predictor, but today women are more likely to vote than men 6)religion: those who are more active within their religion are more likely to vote
Changes in voting requirements have included:
5)allowing residents of Washington DC to vote in presidential elections with the passage of the 23rd Amendment 6)elimination of poll taxes in federal elections with the passage of the 24th Amendment (all poll taxes were ruled unconstitutional in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections) 7)lowering the minimum age for voting in federal elections to 18 with the passage of the 26th Amendment
Reasons accounting for low voter turnout:
7)lack of political efficacy: people do not believe their vote out of millions of votes will make a difference 8)mobility of electorate: moving around leads to a lack of social belonging 9)registration process: differences in registration procedures from state to state may create barriers; the National Voter Registration Act of 1955 (Motor Voter Law) was designed to make voter registration easier by allowing ppl to register at drivers license bueraus and some public offices
Who Votes? Several factors affecy the likelihood of voting:
7)martial status: married people are more likely to vote 8)union membership: encourage participation and vote regularly 9)community membership: ppl who are well integrated into community life are more likely to vote than those who moved recently 10)party identification: those w strong idenfitication are more likely to vote 11)geography: residents of states with interparty comp and close elctions may be more likely to vote than one party states
Federal Election Commission
After the Watergate scandal, Congress amended the FEC to enforce the FECA, and established public financing for presidential candidates in primaries and the general election. The measure also restricted contributions by prohibiting foreign contributions, limiting individual contributions, and restricting the formation of PACs and their contributions. It was further amended in 1976 and 1979
Issue or Policy Voting
Although recall, referendum, and initiative do not not exist at the national level, several states allow voters to approve or disapprove ballot initiatives on specific issues
Campaign Finance
Campaigning for political office is expensive. For the 2000 elections the Republican and Democratic parties raised more than $1.1 b
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
Congress passed BCRA in 2002, banning the use of soft money in federal campaigns and increasing the 1974 limits on individual and group contributions to candidates. A result of the BCRA in the campaign of 2004 was the formation of "527" political organizations- a largely unregulated interest group that focuses on a single policy and attempts to influence voters. After the 2004 election, new rules governing 527 organizations regulated their use of soft money and allowed the FEC to examine their expenditures
Federal Election Campaign Act
Congress passed FECA, restricting the amount of campaign funds that can be spent on advertising, requiring disclosure of campaign contributions and expenditures, and limiting the amounts candidates and their families can donate to their own campaigns. It also allowed taxpayers to designate a donation on their tax return to the major political party candidates, beginning in the 1976 presidential election.
Participation Through Voting
Democratic gov't is "gov't by the people". In the US, participation through elections is the basis of the democratic process. According to democratic theory, everyone should be allowed to vote. In practice, however, no nation grants universal suffrage; all nations have requirements for voting.
Buckley v Valeo
In 1976 the SC ruled that spending limits established by the FECA amendments of 1974 were unconstitutional, finding those restrictions were in violation of the First Amendment's guarantee of freedom of expression. It also declared that the FECA ban on self-financed campaigns were unconstitutional
McCutcheon v. FEC
In 2014 the SC ruled that the gov't cannot prevent citizens from giving campaign contributions to as many different candidates and political parties as they want. Previously, they had been limited under the "aggregate limit" rule
presidential primaries and caucuses
In the past, state party officials would meet in a caucus to endorse the party candidate prior to presidential primaries. Abuses of the caucus system led to many states abandoning its use. Iowa still uses them to nomiate presidential candidates; however, they are open to all members of the party
When Elections Are Held
Local, state, and federal laws determine when elections are held. Congress has established that congresstional and presidential elections will be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Congressional elections are held every even-numbered year, and presidential elections are held every fourth year
Forms of Political Voting
Most of those behaviors would be considered conventional or routine within the acceptable channels of representative gov't. Less conventional behaviors have been used when groups have felt powerless and ineffective. Although, Americans are less approving of unconventional behaviors, those tactic are sometimes effective in influencing gov't decisions:
Voting and Elections
Most people think of political participation in terms of voting; however, there are other forms of political participation, and sometimes they are more effective than voting. Political participation includes all the actions people use in seeking to influence or support gov't and politics
Types of Elections
Primary elections are nominating elections in which voters choose the candidates from each party who will run for office in the general election. There are several major types of primaries:
Campaign Finance Regulations and Reforms
Prior to the 1970s candidates for public office recieved more donations from businesses labor organizations, and individuals to finance campaigns.
Congressional Elections
Since congressional elections are held every even-numbered year, off-year elections (mid-term elections) occur during the year when no presidential election is geld. Voter turnout in off-year elections is generally lower than during presidential election years. During presidential election years, the popularity of a presidential candidate may create a coattail effect, allowing lesser-known or weaker candidates from the presidential candidate's party to win by riding the "coattails" of the nominee
Expansion of Suffrage
Suffrage: The right to vote. It is a political right that belongs to all those who meet certain requirements set by law. The US was the first nation to provide for general elections of representatives through mass suffrage. The issue of suffrage is left to the states-- the only stipulation found in Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution is that individuals who could vote for "the most numerous branch of the state legislature" could also vote for their congressional representatives.
Issue or Policy Voting
The Progressive Movement of the early 20th century was a philosophy of political reform that fostered the development of mechanisms for increased direct participation. These included:
Citizens United v FEC (2010)
The SC ruled that limiting the ability of businesses, unions, and other groups to fund their own efforts to elect or defeat candidates for office is unconstitutional. As a result, critics of the decision worried that the financial influence of big corporations on campaigns would be able to overpower the influence of citizenry.
electoral college
The candidate who recieves a majority of electoral votes (270), the House of Representatives chooses the presidewnt from the top three candidates. If no candidate for VP recieves a majority of electoral votes, the Sentate chooses the VP from the top two candidates
electoral college
The candidate who wins a majority of popular votes in a state in the general wins all the states' electoral votes in the electoral college (winner-take-all). Although the electors are not required to vote for their party's candidate, only rarely do they cast a vote for someone else. The votes cast in the electoral collefe are then sent to Congress, where they are opened and counted before a joint session.
Expansion of Suffrage
The composition of the American electorate has changed throughout history. Two major trends have marked the development of suffrage: the elimination of a # of restrictive requirements and the transfer of more and more authority from the states to the federal gov't
Forms of Politcal Voting
The often-violent protests against the Vietnam Conflict discouraged Lyndon Johnson from running for reelection in 1968. In the modern era of the Internet and other forms of "instant news", a single verbal gaffe can cause major problems for a candidate; mistakes by candidattes are often quickly spread by supporters of the opposing candidate.
Presidential Elections
The road to the Wh and the presidency begins months and even years prior to the election. Some candidates begin the process as soon as the previous election is over. Phases of a candidacy include:
Candidate Voting
Voting for candidates is the most common form of political participation. It allows citizens to choose candidates they think will best serve their interests and make public officials accountable for their actions. In the US voters only elect two national office holders- the president and VP. All remaining candidates represent state or local constituencies
Low Voter Turnout
Voting has been studied more closely than any other form of political particiaption in the US. Voter turnout in the US has decreased when compared w other nations and the US as a whole over time. Voter turnout is higher if the election is seen as important; voter turnout is higher in presidential elections than in off-year elections
The most common form of political participation in the US is
Voting; However, Americans are less likely to vote than citizens of other countries
campaigning and the general election
after the conventions are over, each candidate begins campaigning for the general elections. Generally, candidates travel to swing states (those in which neither major party has overwhelming support) and often appear more moderate in an effort to win the largest possible number of votes. Since 1960, the candidates have faced each other in televised debates. The general election is then held to determine which candidate wins the electoral college vote for that state
Direct Primary
allows citizens to nominate candidates
Referendum
allows citizens to vote directly on issues called propositions (proposed laws or state constiutional amendments) *used to vote on when to remove a law
Initiative
allows voters to petition to propose issues to be decided by qualified voters *voting on something that doe not exist yet
General Election
are elections in which the voters choose from among all the candidates nominated by political parties or running as independents
Special elections
are held whenever an issue must be decided by voters before a primary or general election is held, for example, to fill a vacancy in the Senate
nominating conventions
each political party holds a national nominating convention in the summer prior to the general election. The convention is composed of delegates from each state, with each party determining its method of selecting delegates. The purpose of the nominating convention is to choose the party's presidential and vice presidential nominees, write the party platform, and bring unity to the party in support of their chosen nominees
Soft Money
in 1996 new questions arose over the use of "soft money", donations to politucal parties that could be used for general purposes. Orginially, the money was supposed to be used for voter registration drives, national party conventions, and issue ads. Political parties were allowed to raise unlimited amounts of money bc it was not to be used for campaigning. However, soft money has generally been spent in ways that ultimately help individual candidates. By the 2000 election, soft money donations had exceeded $400 m between 2 major parties
exploration
in deciding whether to run for president, individuals must determine whether they have enough political and financial support to win against other possible candidates. Often a possible nominee will form an exploratory committee to begin lining up support and finances, as well as to attract media coverage and gain widespread political recognization
Critical elections
indicate sharp changes in existing patterns of party loyalty due to changing social and economic conditions
Recall
is a speical election initiated by petition to allow citizens to remove an official from office before a term expires
presidential primaries and caucuses
most states today use the presidential preference primary (usually just known as primary) to determine whom the state delegates to the national party convention will support. Voters in a primary election and party delegates to the conventions support the winner of the primary election
Partisanship in Elections: Maintaining elections
occur whem the traditional majority power maintains power based on the party loyalty of voters
Dealigning elections
occur when party loyalty becomes less important to voters as may be seen with the increases in independents and split-ticket voting
Deviating elections
occur when the minority party is able to win with the support of majority-party members, independents, and new voters; however, the long-term party preferences of voters do not change
Realigning elections
occur when the minority party wins by building a new coalition of voters that continues over successive elections. This is usually associated with a national crisis such as the Great Depression, when FDR was able to create a new coalition of southerners, African Americans, the poor, Catholics and Jews, labor union members, and urban dwellers
announcement
once a candidate has decided to run, an announcement is generally made in a press conference. This annoucement is a formal declaration that the candidate is seeking the party's nomination
closed primary
only voters who are registered in the party may vote to choose the candidate. Separate primaries are held by each political party, and voters must select a primary in advance
blanket primary
voters may vote for candidates of either party, choosing a Republican for one office and a Democrat for another; used only in Alaska and Washington
open primary
voters may vote to choose the candidates of either party, whether they belong to that party or not. Voters make the decision of which party to support in the voting booth
runoff primary
when no candidate from a party recieves a majority of the votes, the top two candidates face each other in a runoff
electoral college
when voters go to the polls on election day they are casting the popular vote. This vote is actually for electors. Each state has a number of electors equal to its sentors and representatives in Congress. Also, Washington D.C., has three electoral votes. The entire group of 538 electors is known as the electoral college. After the general election, the electors meet in their respective state capitals on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December.