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and describe how the endocrine system responds to stress and is affected by aging

Aging may alter the rate of hormone secretion, breakdown and excretion, or the sensitivity of target cell receptor. It can also be affected by the chronic illnesses common in old age.

Summarize the effects of aging on the nervous system

Alzheimer's Disease progressive changes in the neurons of the brain due to a lack of neurotransmitters in the brain, trauma, and genetics. The neurons degenerate until they can no longer carry an impulse. causes: genetics, unspecified environmental factors (possibly aluminum), and other unknown causes. symptoms: memory loss, forgetfulness, and difficulty learning new information, deterioration in personal hygiene and appearance, and an inability to concentrate, personality could change, Physical disability progresses and death usually results from infection Parkinson's Disease dopamine (neurotransmitter) deficiency that prevents brain cells from performing their normal inhibition or stopping nerve impulses within the CNS. symptoms: Muscle rigidity; Death usually occurs within10 years after the disease is diagnosed cause: unknown. . no cure for this disease

Give examples of interactions between the nervous system and each of the other organ systems

Bones provide calcium that is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system. The skull protects the brain from injury. The vertebrae protect the spinal cord from injury. Sensory receptors in joints between bones send signals about body position to the brain. The brain regulates the position of bones by controlling muscles. Interaction with endocrine system : Hormones provide feedback to the brain to affect neural processing. Reproductive hormones affect the development of the nervous system. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland and other endocrine glands.

Classify bones according to shape - Irregular Bones

Bones that don't fit into the above categories Consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior Shape is irregular and complicated Vertebrae and pelvis

Describe the structure of the large intestine, including its regional specializations, and list its absorptive functions

Cecum: Where waste enters from the small intestine (liquid form) Colon: Absorbs excess water Rectum: Feces accumulates here Anus: feces is excreted

Describe the two major anatomical divisions of the nervous system, and list their general functions

Central Nervous System includes brain and spinal chord largest part of nervous system White matter = one of the two components of the CNS + consists mostly of glial cells and myelinated axons that transmit signals from one region of the cerebrum to another and between the cerebrum and lower brain centers. appears pinkish white to the naked eye because myelin is composed largely of lipid tissue veined with capillaries. Its white color is due to its usual preservation in formaldehyde. White matter, long thought to be passive tissue, actively affects how the brain learns and functions. white matter modulates the distribution of action potentials, acting as a relay and coordinating communication between different brain regions. grey matter (actually pinkish tan due to blood capillaries) is primarily associated with processing + cognition. contains neural cell bodies, in contrast to white matter, which does not and mostly contains myelinated axon tracts. The color difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a grey-brown color, which comes from capillary blood vessels and neuronal brain is the control center of the nervous system Peripheral Nervous System includes all of the nerves that lay outside the CNS sensory division: carries messages from sense organs + internal organs to the CNS motor division: carries messages from the CNS to internal organs + muscles somatic nervous system: carries messages that control body movement autonomic nervous system: carries nerve impulses to internal organs

Contrast the major categories of joints, and link their structural features to joint functions

Contrast the major categories of joints, and link their structural features to joint functions Immovable Joint: bones are connected by dense connective tissue, which is usually collagen have edges that tightly interlock, and do not allow movement. connective tissue at immovable joints serves to absorb shock that might otherwise break the bone Partly Movable Joints (or cartilaginous joints) bones are connected entirely by cartilage Cartilaginous joints allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint does, but much less than the highly mobile synovial joint. Ex: the ribs, the sternum and the vertebrae, Partly-movable joints also form the growth regions of immature long bones. Synovial joints (movable joints) the most mobile and common joints contain a space between the bones of the joint (the articulating bones), which is filled with synovial fluid (a thick, stringy fluid that has the consistency of egg albumin) the fluid reduces friction between the articular cartilage and other tissues in joints and lubricates and cushions them during movement

Describe the three meningeal layers that surround the central nervous system (hint: p.a.d.)

Dura: the outer layer Arachnoid: in between layer Pia: inner

Discuss the functions of the hormones, produced by the heart

Heart: The heart produces atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP decreases the amount of sodium in the extracellular fluid thereby reducing blood volume and blood pressure.

Contrast the major structural classes of hormones, and explain the general mechanisms of hormonal action on target organs

Hormones can be classified as amino acid derivatives; peptide hormones; and lipid derivatives. Specific hormones affect specific cells. Target cells are the cells which the hormone has an effect on. Target cells are affected by hormones due to the receptors they have.

Explain the relationship between joint structure and mobility of representative axial appendicular articulations

Joints allow us to move our neck

Discuss the functions of the hormones, produced by the kidneys,

Kidneys activate vitamin D, which helps to maintain strong bones, and produce erythropoietin, a hormone that is vital for the production of red blood cells. Also makes calcitriol, which makes calcium. and renine,which regulates blood pressure.

Describe the effects of aging on the digestive

Muscle contractions that push the food through the body starts to slow down, and this can cause food to move more slowly through the colon. When things slow down, more water gets absorbed from food waste, which can cause constipation.

Name the cranial nerves, relate each pair of cranial nerves to its principal functions

Olfactory (s): smell Optic (s) Oculomotor (m) Trochlear (m): hearing Trigeminal (b): chewing Abducens (m): movement of eye Facial (b): facial expressions Vestibucochlear (s): hearing balance Glossopharyngeal (b): swallowing Vagus (b): speech, swallowing; heart, muscles Accessory (m): turning movements of the head Hypoglossal (b): tip of tongue; tongue movement Some say marry money but my brother says big brains matter more Ooh, ooh, ooh to touch and feel very good velvet. Ah heaven!

Summarize the effects of aging on the skeletal system

Osteoporosis breakdown of bone matrix by osteoclasts is greater than the building of bone matrix by osteoblasts. results in bone mass that is greatly decreased, causing bones to become lighter and more porous. Bones prone to breakage, especially the vertebrae and femurs. Compression fractures of the vertebrae and hip breaks occurs in older women and is linked to the decrease in production of sex hormones. However, poor nutrition, especially diets that are low in calcium and vitamin D, increase the risk of osteoporosis in later life Osteoarthritis a condition in which wearing and breakdown of the cartilage that covers the ends of the bones leads to pain and stiffness in the joint. Decreased movement of the joint because of the pain may lead to muscles that are attached to the joint to become weaker, and ligaments may become looser. most common form of arthritis. common causes include old age, sport injuries to the joint, bone fractures, and overweight and obesity.

Discuss the functions of the hormones, produced by the ovaries

Ovaries: oestrogen and progesterone, both important hormones in the menstrual cycle. Both hormones are important in preparing the lining of the womb for pregnancy and the implantation of a fertilised egg, or embryo.

Describe the structure and functions of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder, and explain how their activities are regulated

Pancreas: Produces digestive substances that are carried to the small intestine Liver: Produces digestive substances that are carried by ducts to the small intestine and gall bladder Gallbladder: Stores substances from the liver until needed by the small intestine

Describe the location, hormones, and functions of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas

Pancreas: is an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar. Produces insulin and glucagon

Describe the location, hormones, and functions of the parathyroid glands

Parathyroid glands: four tiny glands, located in the neck, that control the body's calcium levels. Each gland is about the size of a grain of rice (weighs approximately 30 milligrams and is 3-4 millimeters in diameter). The parathyroids produce a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Describe the location, hormones, and functions of the pituitary gland

Pituitary gland: is a pea-sized structure located at the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus, to which it is attached via nerve fibers. It is part of the endocrine system and produces critical hormones, which are chemical substances that control various bodily functions

Identify the organs of the digestive system and list their major functions

Salivary glands, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum, and Accessory digestive organs: liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

Describe the primary functions of the skeletal system (scroll down btw)

Structural Support of the Body, Protection of Internal Organs, Attachment of the Muscles, Movement of the Body, Production of Blood Cells, Storage of Minerals Structural Support of the Body: The skeleton supports the body against the pull of gravity. The large bones of the lower limbs support the trunk when standing. Protection of Internal Organs: The skeleton provides a rigid frame work that supports and protects the soft organs of the body. The fused bones of the cranium surround the brain to make it less vulnerable to injury. Vertebrae surround and protect the spinal cord and bones of the rib cage help protect the heart and lungs. Attachment of the Muscles: The skeleton provides attachment surfaces for muscles and tendons which together enable movement of the body. Movement of the Body: Bones work together with muscles as simple mechanical lever systems to produce body movement. Production of Blood Cells: The formation of blood cells takes place mostly in the interior (marrow) of certain types of bones. Storage of Minerals: Bones contain more calcium than any other organ in the form of calcium salts such as calcium phosphate. Calcium is released by the bones when blood levels of calcium drop too low. Phosphorus is also stored in bones.

Describe how the structural and functional properties of synovial joints permits the dynamic movements of the skeleton

Synovial joints contain a space between the bones of the joint that is filled with synovial fluid. The fluid reduces friction between the articular cartilage and other tissues in joints and lubricates and cushions them during movement

Discuss the functions of the hormones, produced by the testes

Testes: testosterone, which is important in the first stages of developing the male reproductive organs in a foetus. It also causes the development of male characteristics such as growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice and the growth spurt that takes place during puberty. rom puberty onwards, testosterone provides the main stimulus for sperm production.

Give examples of interactions between the endocrine system and each of the other organ systems

The Endocrine System works with this system by sending hormones to cells and thereby causing a physical reaction. These hormones provide feedback to the brain and affect neural processing, which give your body instructions on how and when to react to certain extrema. Other hormones, such as reproductive hormones, affect the development of the nervous system.

Identify the bones of the pelvic girdles and the upper and lower limbs, describe their various functions

The Pelvic girdle consists of hip bones that connect the lower limbs (femur) to the axial skeleton

Identify the bones of the skull, discuss the differences in structure and function of the various vertebrae, and describe the roles of the thoracic cage

The bones of the skull are flat bones. The bones of vertebrae are irregular bones. The vertebrae protects the spinal chord and the thoracic cage protects the lungs

Describe the events involved in the generation and propagation of an action potential

The depolarization, also called the rising phase, is caused when positively charged sodium ions (Na+) suddenly rush through open voltage-gated sodium channels into a neuron. As additional sodium rushes in, the membrane potential actually reverses its polarity. During this change of polarity the membrane actually develops a positive value for a moment (+40 millivolts).

Discuss the anatomy of the oral cavity, and list the functions of its major structures

The oral cavity contains the teeth, tongue, and salivary glands. The teeth mashes the food while the tongue swirls the food around to mix with the saliva produced by the salivary glands

Describe the structures and functions of the pharynx and esophagus, and the key events of the swallowing process

The pharynx connects the mouth to the esophagus. During the swallowing process the tongue pushes the food back to the pharynx, which closes off the trachea to avoid choking on the food. Then peristalsis pushes the food down the esophagus and into the stomach

Describe the location of the pineal gland, and discuss the functions of the hormone it produces

The pineal gland is located in the epithalamus, near the center of the brain. It produces melatonin which makes us fall asleep

Describe the homeostatic mechanisms of the skeletal system

The skeletal maintains homeostasis by producing red blood cells as the old ones die off. It also helps maintain the level of calcium in the blood stream. Magnesium.

Explain the functional relationships between the skeletal system and other body systems

The skeletal system works with the nervous system by protecting the brain and spinal chord. It works with the muscular system by supporting the muscles why they contract. It works with the circulatory system by producing red blood cells from the bone marrow.

Describe the anatomy of the small intestine, including its histological features, and explain the functions and regulation of intestinal secretions

The small intestine contains the duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum. Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. Most nutrients are absorbed through the capillaries in villi that are located in the jejunum. In the ileum, Salts that formed from liver bile are absorbed with villi and microvilli

Describe the anatomy of the stomach, include a discussion of its roles in digestion and absorption

The stomach contains thick muscular walls that churn the food to mix it with stomach fluids. Digestive enzymes in the stomach further break down the food

Describe the structures and functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic, division of the autonomic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for intense physical activity and is often referred to as the fight-or-flight response. The parasympathetic nervous system has almost the exact opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high energy functions.

Describe the location, hormones, and functions of the thyroid gland

Thyroid gland: The thyroid gland is located at the front of the neck just below the Adam's apple (larynx). The thyroid gland produces hormones which regulate the body's metabolic rate as well as heart and digestive function, muscle control, brain development and bone maintenance. Its correct functioning depends on having a good supply of iodine from the diet. Produces thyroxine (T4),triiodothyronine (T3)

Explain how hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses,

antagonistic effects: When 2 antagonistic hormones are present, the observed effects are weaker than those produced by either hormone acting unopposed; example: PTH and calcitonin OR insulin and glucagon synergistic effect: When 2 hormones have additive effects so that the net result is greater than the effect that each would produce acting alone; example: glucose-sparing action of GH and glucocorticoids: permissive effect: One hormone can have a permissive effect on another. The first hormone is needed for the second to produce its effect. EX: epinephrine does not change energy consumption unless thyroid hormones are also present in normal concentrations integrative effects: Integrative effects means that hormones produce different but complementary results. An example is the differing effects of calcitriol and parathyroid hormone on tissues involved in calcium metabolism

Name the components and functions of the axial and appendicular skeletons

axial + appendicular skeleton

Give examples of interactions between the digestive system and each of the other organ systems

circulatory system: gets the absorbed nutrients distributed through your body. It also carries chemical signals from your endocrine system that control the speed of digestion. excretory system (kidneys and urination): filters compounds from the blood stream and collects them in urine. They are closely connected in controlling the amount of water in your body.

Classify bones according to shape - Sesamoid Bones

embedded in tendons Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the force of the muscle is increased ex: patella (kneecap)

describe axial skeleton

includes the bones of the head, vertebral column, ribs and sternum. There are contains 80 bones

describe appendicular skeleton

includes the bones of the limbs (arms and legs) + scapula + the pelvis. 126 bones Limbs connected to the rest of the skeleton by collections of bones called girdles. pectoral girdle— clavicle (collar bone) + scapula (shoulder blade) pelvic girdle— two pelvic bones (hipbones) vertebral column attaches to the top of the pelvis; the femur of each leg attaches to the bottom. humerus is joined to the pectoral girdle at a joint and is held in place by muscles and ligaments

List the nutrient required by the body, describe the chemical digestion of organic nutrients, and discuss the absorption of organic and inorganic nutrients

inorganic nutrients do not contain carbon and help the body regulate many chemical reactions. Carbohydrates, protiens, fat, vitamins, minerals, water. Salivary amylase - starches Lingual lipase - fats HCL - proteins Pepsin - proteins Gastric lipase - fats

Classify bones according to shape - Long Bones

longer than they are wide consist of a long shaft with two bulky ends primarily made up of compact bone but may also have a large amount of spongy bone at both ends include bones of the thigh (femur), leg (tibia and fibula), arm (humerus), forearm (ulna and radius), and fingers (phalanges) classification refers to shape rather than the size

Distinguish between neurons and neuroglia on the basis of structure and function

neurons: The cells of the nervous system; They transmit impulses from one part of the body to another. Demonstrate irritability and conductivity, and thus transmit electrical messages from one are of the body to another area Release neurotransmitters Are amitotic neuroglia: support, insulate and protect the neurons Able to divide; therefore are responsible for most brain neoplasms

Classify bones according to shape - Short Bones

roughly cube-shaped have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals)

Explain the role of cellular communication in homeostasis, and describe the complementary roles of the endocrine and nervous systems

the nervous system can respond quickly to stimuli, through the use of action potentials and neurotransmitters. Responses to nervous system stimulation are typically quick but short lived. The endocrine system responds to stimulation by secreting hormones into the circulatory system that travel to the target tissue. Responses to endocrine system stimulation are typically slow but long lasting.

Classify bones according to shape - Flat Bones

thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull (cranium)and the sternum (breastbone.

Discuss the functions of the hormones, produced by the thymus

thymopoietin and thymosin, which are immunity cells