Western Civilization Exam 1

Manfred Korfmann

- (1942-2005) - began excavations in 1988 - Korfmann and a team of German and American archaeologists began excavations at Troy not only to examine Greco-Roman remnants, but also Bronze Age/Ancient Troy levels as well. - Korfmann and his team, unlike Schliemann, Blegen et al, had access to radio-carbon dating technology, which can better date archaeological finds. He also had magnetometer technology which can trace out material culture below the ground before digging. While Korfmann did some re-examination of the levels already found around the mound where the citadel was located, he also investigated "the lower city." - Korfmann found that the city was quite prosperous, covered 50-75 acres, and possibly had about 4,000-10,000 inhabitants. At one point their technology mistakenly led them to believe that there was a fortification wall when in actuality it was a defensive ditch, so the technology wasn't exactly perfect. - Korfmann did find evidence of a massive stone wall in Troy VI (first found by Dorpfeld), which replaced a wooden palisade used to defend the settlement. He also found a water cave, under Troy, which gives historical credence to Troy thanks to the Alaksandu Treaty that "Wilusa (Troy)" had with the Hittites. - Korfmann also found that with Troy VIIa that, like Blegen and Dorpfeld, he believed that there was no real interruption in the culture between Troy VI and Troy VII (save for the earthquake). - Korfmann found much more evidence of war and destruction in the Troy VIIa level, such as arrowheads, weapon fragments, sling pellets, skeletons, and more burn destruction, which he dated to 1180 BC/E. However, Korfmanncould not pinpoint whether this destruction was the work of the Mycenaeans, or if this was done by the Sea Peoples during the time of the Bronze Age Collapse (as the evidence is contemporary with Rameses III's account of fighting the Sea Peoples, many have argued for this). - In any case, it's not conclusive, and Korfmann's own colleague, Frank Kolb, disagreed with him to the point that the two got into a fistfight during a university debate!Germans take archaeology VERY seriously

Sargon of Akkad

- (2340-2280) - Ended conflicts between Mesopotamian cities - History's first conquerer - Sargon was born in Akkad, a region to the north of Mesopotamia. He was most possibly an illegitimate child from an aristocratic family. Legend says that his mother, fearful that he would be killed due to illegitimacy, put him in a basket and placed it in the river, hoping for someone to find and raise him. He was raised by the royal gardener. - Sargon was the cupbearer to the King of Kish, and spread rumors while the cupbearer that he was secretly the (extremely talented and virile) lover of Ishtar, goddess of Love and War. When the King of Kish dies, he was able to use this reputation to gain a large following. - With an army of 5,000 strong, Sargonis able tomarch into Mesopotamia, take advantage of in-fighting between cities there, and conquer them one by one, creating the first ever empire in World History - Sargon would conquer cities, but leave the elites who ruled before in charge of those cities in return for loyalty and tax money. - These cities, despite such treatment, were resentful, as Sargon would destroy their city walls and ritually humiliate them. - Sargon's empire tended to leave previous arrangements in place (although he did create the first messenger service, as well as attempt to create a standardized calendar). - Although described as having "no rival or equal," Sargon was not considered to be a well-loved ruler, and ruled through force of will.

Alexander's Generals

- (The Companions) - Ptolemy - Cleitus the Black - Cassande -Hephaestion - Perdiccas - Parmenion - Antigonus - Antipater - Seleucus - Craterus - Lysimachus

The Fates

- (moira) - Clotho: The Spinner (child) - Lachesis: The Apportioner (woman) - Atropos: The Inflexible One Who Cuts (crone) - Predestined - Non-moral - Unavoidable - Luck or Fortune (the goddess Tyche) might intervene, but fate wins 99.9% of the time.

Spartan Agoge

- (upbringing) trained Spartan children to be tough and self-reliant so that they could successfully defend and perpetuate the state. - Weakness in boys was not acceptable, and the agoge was meant to ensure that all Spartan male citizens would be strong. - Possibility of exposure at birth - Self-reliance, heavy training - The weaker boys better find a use quickly! - Exercises such as that at the Shrine of Artemis Ortheia were meant to weed out the weak. - Those who fail the agoge are labeled "tremblers" and lose their citizenship. - Girls are not subject to the same training, although their exercise regimen is just as tough. While they receive a set of privileges, they are ultimately expected to serve primarily as child-bearers.

Greek Dark Ages

- 1150- 750 BCE - 90% depopulation of sites in Greece (save for Athens). No writing. - Settlements move away from the sea, are situated further inland (very little trade with others). - Communities of 100-200 people at most. Most of these communities were led by a (basileus) or "big chief." These leaders had little more than their followers. No central authority. - Individual households (oikos/oikoi) tended to be self-sufficient. - The basileus (originally qasireu) was usually advised by a council (boule) who were made up of his leading followers (hetaroi),ruling over the demos. Much of the time, the chief and his followers engage in low-level raiding/warfare (such as described by Odysseus) with other demos communities. - The basileus and boule usually met with their community to announce policies in their meeting place (agora). Members of the population would either shout their approval or be silent to disapprove. - Religiously, the basileus is no "priest-king." - Legal disputes and crimes usually carried punishments that concerned restitution, as using violence as punishment would have promoted feuds which could get out of control fast. - While these various chiefs were independent of one another, one chief was usually recognized to have the most power and influence in the area. - The main archaeological sites in Greece that give us a glimpse into the Greek Dark Ages are Nichoria in the region of Messenia, and Lefkandi in Euboea.

Bronze Age Collapse

- 1200- 1100 BCE? - The "Sea Peoples" are a collective group of invaders who, according to different sources, were said to have hailed from Sardinia, Sicily, or Crete (or all three). While they were known mainly for their attacks from the sea (hence the name), they also were known to make attacks inland. - Between about the years 1200 and 1170, the Sea Peoples attacked cities in Greece, the Hittite Empire, Egypt, and Syria. They were known for their hit-and-run attacks, and few knew where they would strike next. - Traditionally, the Sea Peoples have gotten most of the blame for the "Bronze Age Collapse." During the time of their invasions, several cities completely disappeared. These included powerful cities such as Byblos, Kadesh, Hattusa (the Hittite Capital), as well as the Mycenaean Greek cities of Mycenae, Thebes and Pylos (as well as others). Some sources have even blamed the destruction of Troy on the Sea Peoples. - The Sea Peoples, however, were not always successful in their raids. Most notable was the resistance put up by Rameses III of Egypt (1186-1155), who effectively organized defenses in Egypt against the Sea Peoples and BRUTALLY quashed any attacks by them in Egypt (I'm talking wholesale extermination here). - Nevertheless, after the Sea Peoples attacks subside (many of them settle in Canaan to become "Philistines"), Mycenaean Greece and the Hittite Empire are gone. As well as the Sea Peoples, other problems which led to the Bronze Age Collapse may have included: - Earthquakes and other major seismic events (one seems to have destroyed Troy at one point, before it was rebuilt). - The substantial Hekla 3 Eruption in Iceland, dated between 1150 and 1000 BC, may have had a substantial effect on the climate in the Northern Hemisphere. - A Bond Event, which is a major shifting of ice sheets, can cause significant climatic change. - These events could cause drought and famine in many areas, which can have a major effect on the comparatively high populations of the Bronze Age.They may have caused the leadership to be completely unable to deal with events, causing whole governments to collapse.The Sea Peoples may have been affected by these events, and responded by attacking others in order to survive

Rameses II

- 1279- 1213 BCE - Rameses II wanted to push an image of restored Egyptian values as well as glory, and heavily patronized the priestly cults as well as restored many festivals. - Rameses II built greatly all over the realm and always made sure to put his name to whatever he built, making him arguably the most self-promotional pharaoh in Egyptian history. - Militarily, Rameses II re-conquered Nubia, defeated desert raiders in the West, defeated Libyan pirates, and made incursions into Asia in order to take back formerly Egyptian possessions. - Rameses II built the (now lost) city of Pi-Ramesses, not only to create his own city, but also to keep an eye on his enemies' activity in the East. - Rameses II built many temples, including ones to glorify his family. This can be seen with his mortuary temple, the Ramesseum, and the double temple at Abu Simbal in the Sudan, dedicated to both he and his Great Wife Nefertari (the erection of this in newly reconquered Nubia also was a way of telling the Nubians that the Egyptians were here to stay!).

Akhenaten

- 1350s- 1330s BCE - The Egyptian Empire is seriously damaged by the reign of Akhenaten - At this time, Egypt was powerful enough and rich enough to pretty much run itself. Pharaohs ruled with help from their advisers, as well as with the approval of the various priestly cults, esp. the influential Cult of Amun-Ra. - With the accession of Amenhotep IV in the 1350s, this changed. Amehotep IV was the devotee of an obscure god, Aten (the god of the sun disk, an aspect of Ra). Amenhotep changes his name to Akhenaten ("servant of Aten") and decrees that this will be the new religion of Egypt. He gradually closes the temples, seizes their wealth in many cases, and uses the army to enforce his will. - To denote this new religious age, Akhenaten moves the capital from Thebes to the new city of Akhetaten ("city of Aten"). - This is a less than popular measure to say the least, but Akhenaten doesn't seem to care. - The new city of Akhetaten is dedicated to Aten, andwas known for its roofless temples. Akhenaten's piety, however, led him to neglect important affairs of state.

Hapshepsut

- 1478-1458 BCE - Not all pharaohs were about military conquest, though. Hatshepsut focused mainly on trade and diplomacy, as well as with building projects to promote her (tenuous) rule. - Hatshepsut's reign highlights new building trends by the pharaohs of the 18thDynasty. Instead of pyramid building, all tended to participate in construction of the massive temple complex at Karnak near Thebes. This complex was originally dedicated to the Theban triad of Gods (Amun, and his wife and son, Mut and Khonsu), but later came to be dedicated to all gods.

Thutmose III

- 1479-1425 BCE - Under Thutmose II, the 18th Dynasty creates an Egyptian empire which sees Egypt at its most powerful.

New Kingdom

- 1550-1070 BCE - The Hyksos are overthrown by the Kings of Thebes in the 1550s, who then unite Egypt and establish the New Kingdom - Under the King of Thebes, Ahmose I (1549-1525), the Hyksos are brutally driven out of Egypt. The consequent New Kingdom regime, with its capital at Thebes under the 18th Dynasty, was mainly preoccupied with military matters as a way to protect Egypt from future invasion. - Ahmose and his immediate successors re-conquer Nubia, laying claim to its valuable gold fields. To protect themselves from invasions in Asia, they began to fortify the Sinai as well as begin to make moves into Canaan. - Ahmose is notable for being the last ever pharaoh to have a pyramid built for him (Google it, it's rather sad-looking...).

2nd Intermediate Period

- 1650-1550 BCE - Egypt is invaded by the Hyksos, who use their superior technology to take over and rule Lower Egypt.

Hammurabi

- 1792- 1750 BCE - The fall of the Akkadian Empire around 2150 BC/E leads to a situation similar to that of the Early Dynastic Age, with an attempt at a return to empire during the Third Dynasty of Ur. New invaders, the Amorites (Old Babylonians), take over Mesopotamia around 1800, and are led by Hammurabi (r. 1792-1750). - Despite being a conqueror, Hammurabi's reign is one which stimulates economic prosperity and growth, and general peace for the region once his enemies had been defeated. - Hammurabi didn't want to be simply seen as a conqueror, but also a shepherd and lawgiver to his people. He therefore issued the first ever uniform Law Code in history for his realm (before, each settlement had their own set of laws, but Hammurabi wanted all of his cities to be under the same set of rules).

The Middle Kingdom

- 2055- 1650 BCE - Egypt united once more under powerful pharaohs (esp. 12th Dynasty pharaohs such as Senusret III, 1878-1839), who rule first from Thebes in Upper Egypt then from the more centrally located Itj-tawyin the Fayyum region on the border between Upper and Lower Egypt. - Power of the nomarchs is first curbed, nomarchs put under surveillance, then office is ultimately done away with altogether. - Economic prosperity and expanded trade with the Levant, Red Sea, as well as Punt (Ethiopia/Eritrea). During this time, the Egyptians focused mainly on agricultural development (such as at their capital, located at Itj-tawy in the Fayyum. - First real military expansion, mainly into Nubia to the Second Cataract, where Senusret Iii built the massive fort at Buhen to create a major Egyptian presence in Nubia (the fort is now underwater). - When Pyramids are built, it's more as a cenotaph (memorial), and pharaohs are usually buried in rock cut tombs. - The Middle Kingdom pharaohs are buried in rock cut tombs at places like Thebes, Saqqara, etc. A renewed interest in Osiris (related to the preoccupation with the afterlife) means pharaohs and others get buried as well at Abydos, where festivals to Osiris are regularly held. - Rock cut tombs identify with Amun (the hidden god), and are built mainly to protect the pharaonic mummies from potential tomb robbers. More attention is given as well to the erection of the mortuary temples of the pharaohs. - Pyramids are still built, but usually as a memorial to the pharaoh. They were usually built in the same way later pyramids of the Old Kingdom were built.

1st Intermediate Period

- 2181-2055 BCE - Weak leadership, increasing independence of the nomarchs, and repeated failures of the Nile to flood lead to the fall of the Old Kingdom by 2181. - While the period has been presented as one of disorder, civil war, poverty and chaos by later generations (in part for propaganda purposes), it seems to not have been as bad as was thought. - Nomarchs tended to use their resources to take care of their own lands (Left: the tomb of Ankhtify). When conflict did happen, it tended to be between the larger nomes struggling to unite Egypt. - By the 2000s, the Nome of Thebes in Upper Egypt defeats the Nome of Hieracleopolis in Lower Egypt, uniting the realm once more under the Middle Kingdom.

Battle of Hydaspes River

- 326 BCE - Alexander's army progresses as far as the Hydaspes River (Jhelum River) in what is now the Punjab of Pakistan. - When Alexander took over the Persian Empire, not all of Persia's Indian satraps were willing to recognize his rule. This cause Alexander to campaign in the Punjab, meeting the forces of Porus at the Hydaspes River in May 326. - Alexander was highly outnumbered (between 3 or 5 to 1) against an Indian army that sported war elephants! Nevertheless, Alexander's men were more disciplined, had better armor, and possessed tactical superiority for most of the battle. By the end of the fight, Alexander boxes in the Indian infantry and cavalry in such a way that many of them get trampled to death by their own panicked elephants! - Alexander is merciful to King Porus, allowing him to rule as Alexander's subordinate, and Alexander gained control of what is now Punjab region.

Battle of Guagamela

- 331 BCE - With the Persians so heavily stacked upon to each other, they can't maneuver, and when Alexander punches a hole through the flank, Darius III panics, flees the battle, and his army falls apart. - With the defeat at Gaugamela, Darius III loses all credibility with his generals and satraps - After Gaugamela, Darius tried to raise another army to resist Alexander, but so tattered was his credibility that he was not able to do so again. His general Bessus, while the Persians were in retreat, wounds Darius and leaves him to die. - When Alexander comes upon Darius' dead body, he removes Darius' signet ring and declares himself lord of the Persian Empire, burying Darius with great honor and taking his daughter's hand in marriage. Bessus is later captured in 328 and tortured to death by Alexander for the crime of murdering his king. - During the late 320s, Alexander campaigns in Afghanistan and conducts mopping up operations before turning his attention to an Invasion of India in 327. By this time, he has taken the hand of Roxanne in order to cement relations with Eastern satraps.

Battle of Chaeronaea

- 338 BCE - Philip (with help from his son Alexander) was able to outmaneuver the Thebans and Athenians and effectively take over all of Greece (save for Sparta).

Darius I

- 521- 486 BCE - Darius was a distant relation of Cyrus (so much so that he was accused of usurping the throne after Cambyses' death, and married Cyrus' daughter to make his claim stronger). - Like Cyrus, Darius is referred to as The Great for his excellent job at ruling the empire. - Darius brings the Persian Empire to its greatest extent, moving into India as well as Europe, and held nominal sway over other lands - That being said, while Darius enjoyed military conquests, he was mainly concerned with consolidating and organizing what he already ruled in order to retain power. This includes a centralized administration at his capital city of Persepolis. - Darius tries to delegate authority to his governors (satraps) while at the same time keeping an eye on them and further integrating his empire. - Satraps for the 23 administrative/tax provinces are locally recruited, but Darius sends representatives from Persepolis to go with these men to make sure they don't pull any shenanigans while in office. - In case the people sent with the satrap are co-opted by him, Darius also has spies with military forces roving around the kingdom called "The Eyes and Ears of the King" to make surprise visits, examine job performance of satraps, and hear any grievances from locals. - Darius creates a uniform code of laws for all the empire, as well as a uniform currency. - He builds a huge road network (including the Persian Royal Road) to improve communication and trade, and this road network also has a postal system. - Darius follows Cyrus' policy of religious toleration. - Darius followed Zoroastrianism, which was the main religion of Persia from his rule all the way to the 600s AD. It was founded by Zoroaster, who claimed to receive visions from a supreme deity called Ahuramazda. (The Wise Lord) - According to Zoroaster, Ahuramazda is currently locked in a seemingly endless battle with the Destructive Spirit Ahriman. However, Ahuramazda will emerge victorious, then bring about a Day of Judgement that will punish the good with paradise, and the wicked with damnation. - Live this life in moderation, enjoy your life as a gift from Ahuramazda. Treat people as you would be treated. Good thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds. - This religion may have had an influence on the Jews as well as the Christians with regards to the End of Days (eschatology) as well as the idea of salvation in the afterlife for virtuous souls.

Cyrus the Great

- 558- 530 BCE - While Nebuchadnezzar was ruling, a group of people called the Medes (who helped overthrow the Assyrians) had set up an empire to the east of the Chaldeans. They ruled with a Great King on top, who held sway over several lesser kings and lords. One of these subject peoples were the Persians, based in Persis in what is now Southern Iran. - The leader of the Persians by the beginning of the 550s was Cyrus, a wily, brave, charismatic, intelligent ruler who ruled from the mountain town of Pasargedae. Cyrus rises up in revolt against the Medes and in doing so makes himself king of the new Persian State, the Achaemenid Empire, by the end of the decade. - Despite being fearless in battle, Cyrus is known for his mercy towards defeated rulers. This is seen with the story of Croesus, King of Lydia, who attacked Cyrus' lands but was defeated. - Cyrus' efforts at conquest are hugely successful, and he subdues not only Persia but much of Central Asia and Asia Minor. He captures Babylon by the 530s, giving Nabodinus a job in his gov't after defeating him! - Cyrus is not only kind to defeated rulers, he also is known for being a benevolent ruler. He recruits local governors to administrate on his behalf - His empire is known for religious toleration, and Cyrus respected the customs of all of his peoples. Some have argued that, upon capturing Babylon, that he authored the first declaration of human rights (although this was probably more a declaration that most Sumerian Kings made of reforms at the beginning of their reign). - Cyrus ends the Babylonian Captivity of the Jews, and returns them to Israel. He even offers to rebuild their Temple for them, but doesn't get around to this. Nevertheless, he is seen as a hero in the book of Isaiah, where that prophet calls him "The Lord's Shepherd." - Things go sour for Cyrus when the barbarian Queen Tomyris of the Messagetae starts raiding the borders of his empire... - Despite a hard-fought battle, Cyrus dies in 530. His body is brought to Tomyris, who beheads him and puts his head in a bag filled with blood...

Nebuchadnezzar

- 605-562 BCE - Nebuchadnezzar completely rebuilds Babylon, with its famous Ishtar Gate as an entrance, as well as a great Temple to Marduk (the chief god). He surrounds the city with thick walls that run 8 miles in length. - While unsuccessful in conquering Egypt, he has a firm hold over his subjects and rules one of the largest empires in the world up to that time. - Nebuchadnezzar make Babylon extremely prosperous, and the most beautiful city in the ancient world. - Not least because Nebuchadnezzar built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon for his homesick wife, which ended up being one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. - Nebuchadnezzar features heavily in the Book of Daniel, where he has his dreams interpreted by the eponymous protagonist. Nebuchadnezzar also is the one to persecute Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, before setting them free when they are rescued by the power of God. - Daniel also supposedly predicted the king's onset of madness during his reign (supposedly a punishment for his pride), when it seems that Nebuchadnezzar suffered from porphyria, syphilis, or clinical lycanthropy. This bout of madness ended after, it was said, seven years.

The Laws of Draco

- 620 - Draco may have been an individual, or a group, commissioned to draw up a new set of laws for Athens - First written laws in all of Greece - Introduced the idea of the state, rather than private parties or households, providing punishment for criminal acts. - Punishments were harsh (usually ending in death), hence the modern word draconian

Spartan Government

- A "mixed constitution" - The Spartan government has a "mixed constitution" in which no one man or interest gets too much power. It resembles somewhat our own constitution. - Dual Kingship - Upper legislative house (Gerousia) for citizens 60 years and up. - Lower legislative house (ecclesia) for citizens 30-59 years. - Ephors serve as judicial watchdogs, ensure the king is not abusing his power, serve as overseers of the Gerousia, and deal with foreign emissaries. They ca only serve once in this position during their lives, and their own conduct during their time of service is subject to review at the end of their one-year term.

Greek Religion in the Dark Ages

- A mix of Mycenaean, Doric/Ionic, and Near Eastern deities. - Reached its final formation during the Greek Dark Ages. - Polytheistic. No creator god. Rather, everything procreated itself into existence. - Unlike Egypt or Mesopotamia, no real priesthood ("clergy" are usually prominent members of the community).Observing religionwas seen asintegral to the good fortune of community

Hieroglyphics

- Advances in hieroglyphics, esp. with the creation of a standardized, simplified script, means the first appearances of fictional literature. The stories told highlight a lack of Egyptian knowledge of other lands.

Tutenkhamen

- Akhenaten's successor Tutenkhamun rolls back some of his father's reforms, but does not rule long himself due to severe health problems. He is effectively the last ruler of the 18th dynasty.

Alexander the Great's bad qualities

- Alexander LOVED war, and had no problem with killing people (this is what you get when your role model is Achilles). This is not good for those who get in his way. - Impulsive and rash, sometimes to the point of violent and destructive behavior. - Thanks in part to Macedonian views of masculinity (and possibly as a way to control his epilepsy), Alexander was a complete alcoholic (a functioning one, but still...). This led him to make REALLY BAD decisions. For example, Alexander and his men burn Persepolis to the ground while in a drunken stupor, believing that they were avenging Xerxes' burning of Athens. Moreover, Alexander killed Cleitus the Black while blackout drunk, and immediately regretted doing so after realizing his crime. - Alexander was EXTREMELY insecure, feeling that he was just his father's tool in realizing the conquest of the Persian Empire. This led to bouts megalomania (as well as paranoia) in which Alexander felt the need to enhance himself and keep fighting and fighting, to the point where Alexander was only competing against himself.

Alexander the Great Death

- Alexander becomes ill at Babylon in 323, either from malaria or typhoid fever, and dies at the age of 33. - After Alexander's death, his empire is divided up by his generals (Diadochi), who become rulers of their own kingdoms. Most of Alexander's family is finished off by his one-time friend Cassander.

Phalanx

- Another problem for the oligarchs lies in the fact that the phalanx formation they used, which they previously monopolized, was now utilizing middle class farmers as well. Advantage: The main advantage of the Phalanx is the fact that it's impossible to attack from head on (hence its success at the Battle of Marathon in 490, and its effective use as a delay tactic at Thermopylae in 480). Disadvantages: - It moves very slowly because of the full kit of military commitment as well as the need to keep formation. This leaves it open to attacks by light troops. - It's easily flanked from the sides and esp. the back (bad if the enemy has a cavalry force). - It can become dispersed if marching over broken terrain. - You have to be disciplined for this, you can't go all useless if the guy in front of you takes an arrow to the face. You can't cry about your feelings, you need to take that man's place and work out your grief via extreme violence against the enemy... - Middle class hoplite farmers (or the "hoi mesoi" as Aristotle calls them) are increasingly present in phalanx units due to the fact that they can afford the full kit of military equipment. - What if a regular old farmer (we'll call him "Joe Damocles") manages to acquit himself in battle, while an oligarch shows cowardice? They can't exactly make a claim to being the "best" people. - Moreover, the newly empowered "hoplite farmer" class might not necessarily want to preserve the status quo, and there are individuals who may take advantage of such a situation. This leads to the rise of tyrants in several city-states throughout the 6th century.

Mycenaean Religion

- At first, like the Minoans, Mycenaeans venerated a Mother Goddess, who was seen assuperior to all other deities. - By 1600, they seem to have made the switch to worshiping gods and goddesses such as Zeus, Hera, Athena, Poseidon, etc. - The religious centers are at the palaces, and do not seem to have had their own specific location, as was the case with the Minoans. - The king probably tied his rule to the support of the gods in order to give himself legitimacy.

Macedon before the 360s

- Before the 360s, the Kingdom of Macedon was seen as barbarous and backward by the Greek city-states to the south. Macedon had no real central capital, and seemed to have a culture that was more in line with that of the Greek Dark Ages than with any of the poleis of the Classical Era. - Macedonia is largely semi-nomadic, with herders or farmers owing allegiance to local aristocrats, who in turn owe allegiance to the king. - Macedonian Kings are polygamous, and their system of succession is fluid (they can pick a successor one day, then change their minds and pick a successor from another wife the next day!). - Macedonians like to drink, and drink, and drink to show their manliness. - Macedonian aristocrats are all about individuality and showing off their skills to their king (basileus). - With this type of individuality comes a sense of competition, and with alcohol comes....conflict. - The King is needed to preserve the peace amongst nobles, negotiate with foreign powers, expected to listen to advisors, and lead men in battle.Consequently, the lifespan of a Macedonian king usually ends in non-natural causes (19 out of 21 kings at one point either died in battle or were assassinated by their nobility).Consequently, the city states to the south try to take advantage of this and keep Macedonweakvia intrigue

Solon'e Reforms

- Beginning of 500s - Solon has to take a moderate course to avoid angering all parties. - He initiates the seisachtheia to address debt slavery and the plight of tenant farmers. - He issues reforms to stimulate trade and create industries at Athens to create goods that can be sold for food. - He issues a wealth based, tiered system for participation in the political process. - All adult male citizens can serve on juries. - Creates tribal council to counter the Council of Areopagus. - Leaves Draco's homicide laws in place. - His reforms largely mean that women's lives are confined to the home. - Wrote and published poetry to support his reforms. - These reforms aren't enough, and ensure that people only vote according to the interests of their own groups. - The reforms of Solon only mean the fracturing of Athenian Society, who are divided up into the men of the Hill, Coast, and Plain.

Hittites

- Both the Egyptians and the Hittites controlled their foreign territories via a form of governance known as vassalage. That is, a form of indirect rule in which a foreign overlord gives power to a local ruler to rule a given land on the overlord's behalf. In return for military protection, the vassal provides tribute to the overlord. - In previous years, the New Kingdom Egyptians ruled all of Syria, but lost control of much of it to the Hittites, who brought Egyptian vassals under their sway. Under Rameses II (1279-1213), Egypt tried to bring some of the vassals in Syria back into the Egyptian fold. This caused conflict between the Hittites and the Egyptians, culminating in the Battle of Kadesh (1274). While this battle was basically a tie, a treaty was brought up to bring peace, mainly because new powers such as Assyria were threatening both Egypt and the Hittites.

Zeus

- King of the Gods, is the third generation of rulers of the earth - Zeus overthrew his father Cronus to become King of the Gods, then had to fight an array of Titans, Monsters and Giants in order to solidify his rule. - Powerful, but not omniscient, omnipotent (beholden to his promises, the Fates, some say to Aphrodite!). - In some myths a seducer of women and men, in others, a lawgiver and judge.

Who is God- Israelites

- Creator of all the universe and everything in it. - All other gods are merely idols, or demons/fallen angels pretending to be gods (esp. Baal) who want to lead the righteous astray. - God is subject to NOTHING. All people are his servants, whether they know it or not. - Though God created nature, he is not in nature. The stars, moon, sun, wind, rivers, mountains, are not divinities, they are merely creations of God. They can be admired, but are not to be worshipped. - Unlike old Mesopotamian deities, God actually loves his people (although he can be a stern father at times). God is good, just and compassionate, and he expects people to act good as well. Don't obey God, and things will go badly. Obey God, and you will be rewarded. - Despite being beyond the most intelligent human's comprehension, God can have a personal relationship with each and everyone of His people.

Minor Greek gods and goddesses

- Eris: goddess of Discord. - Thetis: goddess of the water, sea nymph. - Iris: messenger goddess (sent mainly by Zeus). - Scamander: god of the Scamander river. - Aeolus: god of wind. - Proteus: Old Man of the Sea. - Circe: Witch goddess (daughter of Helios, god of the Sun). - Calypso: Sea goddess, nymph, daughter of Atlas.

Siege of Gaza

- Gaza was on a heavily fortified hill, and Alexander's engineers tell him that a siege would be impossible, as any mound built to breach the defenses would be too high. Alexander says "yeah, whatever" and assaults the hill four times, taking it and killing the governor in a rather creative fashion.

Henry Schliemann

- Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) is the father of modern archaeology. - Born to a Lutheran Pastor in what is now northern Germany, Schliemann was poor, and never had enough money for a proper education. His father taught him Latin and Greek, and about the Iliad and the Odyssey, which Schliemann loved from a young age. - Schliemann never had enough money for university, and was mostly self-taught. He had a gift for languages, learning how to speak 13 of them fluently by adulthood (he claimed it took him six weeks to learn any given language). - During his teenage years he began working for import-export firms in the Russian Empire. - Successful speculator who made money speculating on the California Gold Rush, opening one of the first banks in California. - Successful stock investor. - Cornered the Indigo market. - Cornered the munitions market as a military contractor during the Crimean War. - By 37, he was a multi-millionaire, and retired so he could use his money to find Troy! - Most academics (who Schliemann tended to come into conflict with), thought the site was at Pinarbasi, a hilltop on the south end of the Trojan plain in Western Turkey). Frank Calvert, a local expert, dug there and found nothing. He contacted Schliemann and suggested he excavate the nearby site of Hissarlik, which was on land owned by Calvert's family. - After (very questionably) getting a PhD from the University of Rostock to give his excavation legitimacy, he started digging at the Eastern part of Hissarlik in 1871 with Calvert. - Archaeology was not an exact science at this time, so Schliemann, after identifying the site using descriptions from the Iliad, started digging with his workers. Thinking that Troy would be on the lowest level of the site, he dug through several of the upper levels of remains to get to what he thought to be fortifications. This method led him into conflict with Calvert, and the two fell out over this by 1872 (Calvert had also published an article without Schliemann's knowledge arguing that there was no "Trojan War" level of the site). - Later, Schliemann excavated the site another three times, with the help of Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who emphasized the importance of the levels to say the site was occupied more than once. - This led Schliemann and Dorpfeld to believe that , with these levels, that six or seven cities had occupied this site throughout antiquity. It was just a question of which "city" was actually Troy. - Schliemann found burn deposits at the second lowest level (the Burnt City) which led him to believe that this level (Troy II) was the city of Troy in the Iliad. Later, he thought it was the third level, but changed his mind back to believing it the second where the city was located. - Schliemann also makes excavations around the same time in Greece, to find remains that are contemporary with that of what he has found. - Schliemann found that there were ruins dated to the same time in areas such as Mycenae in Greece, to show that there was evidence for Troy. His finds led him to make outlandish claims. - Schliemann's accounts of his claims aren't entirely true, and he wasn't necessarily aboveboard in all of his dealings. He was known to make great claims which were later found to be untrue (such as the supposed presence of his wife at the dig site when finding "Priam's treasure," or digging on parts of the site without the Turkish government's permission!). - Moreover, he later found that his assertions that the second and third levels of the city were not the "Trojan War levels." but rather (on the advice of Dorpfeld) on either the sixth or seventh levels. It seems that the Romans (who were the last to occupy the site), had shaved off the levels enough that the top levels were probably the "Trojan" levels, and the second and third levels (where Schliemann found all of the artifacts), was the remnant of a civilization that had been around 1000 years previously. Consequently, Schliemann and his workers had accidentally destroyed the "Trojan War" finds! - After Schliemann's death in 1890, Wilhelm Dorpfeld continued to excavate Hissarlik. Dorpfeld dug around the outskirts, giving attention to the Troy VI level, examining sublevels of the Troy VI level, and found that there were major breaches in the fortifications there!

Alexander the Great's good qualities

- Highly intelligent, Aristotle taught him well and they were on good terms for most of his life (he helped found Aristotle's Lyceum at Athens). Alexander LOVED to read, and read anything he could get his hands on. Highly inquisitive, and always eager to learn, esp. with regards to his visit to Jerusalem or his conversation with Diogenes (that being said, he hated sports, thinking of them as boring and distracting). - An excellent general, Alexander was a brilliant tactician, and could read the geography of land so quickly that he would be able to deploy his troops in battle as to gain them an advantage despite being completely outnumbered. Alexander was a hard taskmaster, but loved by his troops, shared in their labors, rewarded them, and NEVER lost a battle. - Alexander was known to be stubborn and fight with his advisors, but was open to reasoned debate, and usually ended up listening to those advisors' advice. This indicated good leadership. - Was able to think outside the box, not only via fighting battles, but also when faced with personal challenges (i.e. the training of Bucephalus, as well as the Gordian Knot). - Not really into carnal pleasures (but wrote love poetry to his wife Roxanne. Was unique in seeking out friendship with women as well as...ahem... - Charismatic, had a force of personality that was overwhelming

Trojan War

- Homer, of course, states that the Trojan War occurred because of Paris' abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus. There may have been other reasons for a possible Mycenaean-Trojan conflict. - Initially, Troy had been a neutral party, and its facilities served both Mycenaeans and Hittites. The Hittites made efforts at first to conquer the Trojans, but were rebuffed by them (with Mycenaean help). - When the Trojans officially allied with and became vassals of the Hittites, the balance of power had shifted in favor of Hatti, which probably didn't make the Greeks happy (and they evidently made attempts to gain the upper hand by attacking Troy). - The Trojan War may have happened because of existing bad blood between the Trojans and the Greeks, and if the Paris/Helen episode isn't true, it may have been an allegory for the Trojans hoping to score points off of the Greeks, thinking they could do so with impunity thanks to their relations with the Hittites. - The Greeks, for whatever reason, believed they had a legitimate excuse to attack the city (and acquire its wealth!) Could there have been a Trojan War - All of our sources and evidence certainly make this event possible. There was evidence of friction between the Mycenaeans and the Hittites over Troy, and the Trojans themselves seem to have helped foment further conflict with the Mycenaeans through their actions. - Regarding the idea that Helen was carried off, this is not out of the question. Women were viewed as commodities by the Great Powers of the Bronze Age, so to carry off a woman (while in the process of attacking an enemy) was considered to be a pointed insult to an enemy, one meant to attack that enemy's credibility. - If Helen was involved, then she was only part of the cause. It seems that the Greek response, as well as beginning a war to regain the credibility of Menelaus (Helen's husband) and Agamemnon (Menelaus' brother as well as the most powerful king in Greece), was to finally resolve the question of Troy through violence (and gain its wealth!). - Relying on Homer as an historical source, however, is dangerous. The Iliadmay be more of an amalgamation of events, showing more how later generations viewed Bronze Age relations between major states. - In any case, the "Trojan War" was not just a war between the Mycenaeans and Trojans, but also the Hittites who were defending a loyal vassal! Viewing the Trojan War before the 19th century - Both the Greeks and Romans viewed the Trojan War as (more or less) historical fact. Accounts in Herodotus and Thucydides vary, but both of them believed the war to be a major event. - The Romans also believed the Trojan War to be real, as their history depended on the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, as being descendants of the Trojan Prince Aeneas, who fled to Italy with his family after the Fall of Troy. The Julii clan (esp. Julius Caesar), believed themselves to be direct descendants of Aeneas and Venus, and this belief was especially pushed by Augustus Caesar in his sponsorship of Virgil's Aeneid. - After antiquity, however, the Trojan War was derisively dismissed as myth. Indeed, Medieval and Early Modern views of Greek history were such that no civilization whatsoever existed in Greece before 776 BC/E, the year of the first Olympiad. - What one needs to remember is that the people of the early 19th century and before had access to only the existing literary sources. - Archaeology did not exist as a field of study. Those who did study the material culture of the ancient world were referred to as "antiquarians" who tended to be hobbyists. They came across artefacts and tended to collect them, butdidn't really study them with the aim of dating them or putting them into context. - There were no dating systems, cataloguing systems, or any sort of methodology. People may have just "dug stuff up," without any rhyme or reason, and as a result may have come to conclusions that weren't entirely correct. -No dating systems -No Epigraphy -No Pottery Studies -No Numismatics -No Archaeology - When your only evidence of the Trojan War is the Iliad, a work where gods and goddesses fight alongside demigod heroes, then yeah, you're going to see the Trojan War as something that probably didn't happen.

Mummification

- In order to reach Duat, one's body needed to be mummified. - Mummification was necessary, as it was believed that one's tripartite soul (ba, ka, akh) was tied to their body even after death. - The body was embalmed, and a priest said prayers over the body, opening the eyes and the mouth so one could see, speak, and eat in the afterlife. Shabti dolls (representations of spirits and animals) were supplied so that they could escort the soul through Duat. - Egyptian tombs were usually stocked with food to feed the ka, which guarded the body while the bamade the journey to Duat via a false (spiritual) door in the tomb. They were also stocked with weapons, which would be needed by the soul to navigate the perilous journey through Duat. - Coffin texts gave directions on how to navigate Duat and what to do there. - Initially referred to as Pyramid Texts (because they were found in the Pyramids of the Pharaohs), coffin texts were prayers and directions one needed to say in order to successfully travel to Osiris' Hall of Judgement. - These texts have been collectively referred to by Modern Egyptian historians as The Egyptian Book of the Dead. - The journey through Duat is a perilous one, but it is one that even the gods take. Ra, during the nighttime, has to navigate Duat each night before he rises in the sky again in the morning. - Once at the Hall of Judgement, the Egyptian's heart was removed and placed on a scale by Anubis, with a feather on the other side of the scale (the monster Ammit sits next to the scale). He/she was then presented in front of Osiris by Horus, and expected to give a Negative Confession (a confession of all of the things they didn't do). If it was decided (via the scale) they gave an honest answer, they would be welcomed into the afterlife.

Assyrian Military

- Is made up of 120,000 soldiers who can be quickly mobilized. - Standing army, disciplined, made up of infantry accompanied by cavalry and chariot squadrons (which have mobile platforms). - Fully equipped by iron weapons, which is bad for enemies who still have bronze ones. - Experts at set battles, mountain warfare, and counter-guerrilla warfare. - VERY GOOD at besieging cities (use battering rams, siege towers, and sappers). One of the main ways that the Assyrians are able to get enemies to surrender is their "Terror Policy," a calculated policy of violence and destruction meant to literally scare others into surrender. - Scorched Earth Policy - Put captives to the sword, burn them alive, or mutilate them. - Capture settlements, pillage them, rape everybody. - Capture nobles, flay them, put the bodies in front of an enemy city, then set it on fire. This usually resulted in the enemy city's surrender.

Israelite Religion

- Israelite religion evolved over time. At first they were polytheistic like everyone else, but over time (especially, it is said, after the time of Abraham), the Hebrews put one God, Yahweh (or Jehovah) above all other gods. - Indeed, when one reads the part of Exodus when God gives the Ten Commandments to Moses, God specifically states that "Thou shalt worship no other gods but me," implying that he realizes that there are other gods, but that Yahweh can whoop all their posteriors without breaking a sweat! - Even during their wanderings in the desert, the Hebrews believed in other spirits they had to appease, such as Azazel, the demonic desert spirit who took the scapegoat as tribute (he was later killed by Sam and Dean Winchester in the Season 2 finale of Supernatural...). - Over time, it is said that God will not brook any competition, and will only ensure that Israel will prosper if its people worship only Him. When they turn away from his worship to idolize gods such as Baal, God then "turns away " from Israel, leaving it to its own devices. - This is used to explain the almost immediate breakup of the United Israel because of Solomon's idolatry. The fall of the northern kingdom is explained by Ahab's dependence on the idolatrous and wanton Jezebel. The fall of Jerusalem and Babylonian Captivity is blamed on the people of Judah caring more about worldly affairs than their worship of God. - After the end of the Babylonian Exile, Jews (as they are now called) are steadfastly monotheistic.

Alexander's Bravery/Wounds

- Leading at the front of his armies, Alexander was extremely brave, almost to the point of recklessness. This is despite being wounded eight times in battle, which include: - A stab wound to the thigh. - An arrow through the leg. - An arrow to the shoulder. - An arrow in the ankle. - Stone blows to the head and neck. - A catapult missile to the chest. - A cleaver blow to the head. - An arrow through the lung. - In short, and excuse my language here, but Alexander was an undoubtable badass.

Human Morality in Greek Mythology

- Major crimes such as murder or rape were seen to taint the person, who would then be shunned from society. It would then be up to a god or a king of a city to purify that person so that they would be cleansed of their past crimes and transgressions (example: The Twelve Labors of Hercules). - The truly unforgivable crimes laid out by the gods were 1) The breaking of promises; 2) incest; 3) cannibalism; 4) tricking the gods (i.e. the myth of Sisyphus).

Marriage In Sparta

- Male-Female relations are pretty distant in Sparta, mainly because there can be no diversions from state priorities. - Men are encouraged to get married at 20, although some don't want to, so incentives have to be provided (these incentives extend to having children). - The marriage ritual is utilitarian, and not exactly what one would call romantic. - Husbands rarely see their wives between ages 20-30 (when they do, more about physical need, less about romance. - Marriage was about reproduction at Sparta, and if a couple couldn't bear children, there were alternatives. - The lack of male/female "relations" contributed in part to same-sex relations at Sparta, and in some cases, pederasty. - Due to these factors, Sparta actually ended up having an endless problem in keeping numbers up with regard to Spartan hoplites.

Battle of the Granicus River

- May 334 BCE - The Persians were led by a Greek mercenary called Memnon, who advises them to raze all villages to which Alexander is travelling, so he can't resupply (they don't). The numbers on each side are evenly matched. - Regarding the battle itself, accounts tend to contradict one another, but the bottom line was that Alexander, with help of his general Parmenion, was able to deploy his units faster and use a wedge-shaped charge to send the Persians into disarray and flee the battle. Alexander himself was wounded by a Persian nobleman in this battle, but was saved by his friend Cleitus the Black. Alexander kills 6,000 of the Persian forces. - This victory gave Alexander control of Western Asia Minor, and he portrayed himself as the liberator of the Ionian Greeks.

Minoan Civilization

- Minoan Civilization on Crete gets its name from the mythical King Minos, who was King of Knossos, as well as the Minotaur, who was created after Minos angered the god Poseidon - Minoan Civilization on Crete was made up of independent palace settlements, city-kingdoms which employed a "redistributive system" to run things. - The largest palace site on Crete was located at Knossos,and was partly reconstructed by Sir Arthur Evans and his team. - From what we can glean from the information we have, Minoan Civilization was highly religious, with a largely matriarchal priesthood that performed a variety of rituals - The Minoans used a language known only to us as "Linear A." Discovered, by Arthur Evans, it is completely indecipherable, and remains so today. Whereas we cannot read this language, we CAN read Linear B, the written language of the mainland Mycenaeans who conquered Crete after the fall of the Minoans. This is thanks to Michael Ventris (1922-1956), who it seems was also trying to decipher Linear A but never completed this task thanks to a freak automobile accident in which he died. - Other than palace ruins, the remains of buildings found on Crete are usually remains of temples and, during later Minoan times, underground tombs

Mycenaean Greeks

- Mycenaeans were a people who originated in the Caucasus region of Russia who migrated from that land into the Greek mainland in the mid-second millennium BC/E. - Once arriving in Greece, they set up city-kingdoms on sites such as Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes, Tiryns, and Athens. - Not content to control this region, they seem to have conquered the island of Crete, subjugating the Minoan cities there. - In their culture, while they kept much of their own religious practices, when it came to their society they shared many similarities with the Minoans who they conquered. - Like the Minoans, the Mycenaeans had a palace society of city-kingdoms independent of one another, who engaged in a redistributive system, collecting taxes from the countryside in kind and then redistributing them to the populace when needed. Farmers probably doubled as laborers for any building projects. Each city was ruled by a king (wanax). - The megaron was the center of the palace, serving political, diplomatic, and religious purposes. - Polytheistic. Though they did not worship the entirety of the Pantheon of Greek Gods, we know that they worshipped some. Tomb burial. - The Mycenean city-kingdoms, despite sharing a common culture with one another, were NOT the United States of Mycenae. Unlike other states at this time, the government was not centralized, and much of the time these city-kingdoms were at cross purposes. - Consequently, there was a lot of low level warfare between the kingdoms. During peacetime, any sort of leadership of the land was done by recognizing the most powerful king as a "first among equals" who may have been able to use his influence to convince the other kings to engage in major ventures, such as major raids into foreign territory. - It has been argued that Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, launched the war against Troy to conduct a gigantic raid, and used his influence to get the other Mycenaean kings in Greece to help him out. - For the most part, the Myceneans did not wage war outside of their region, andtraded with states such as Egypt or the Hittites.

Problems with Alexander's reign

- Not all of Alexander's reign was about victory. During his campaigns, the Spartans (in response to rumors that Alexander wished to be worshipped as a living god) tried to rise up in revolt in Greece, and were defeated only by Alexander's experienced general Antipater. - Parmenion was killed on Alexander's orders after his son had been implicated in a plot on Alexander's life. - Many of Alexander's governors and satraps were misbehaving in his absence and engaging in corrupt behavior. Alexander was forced to execute many of them as an example on his way back to Susa. - During this time, in order to please the Persians, Alexander adopted Persian customs (proskynsesis), dress, and introduced Persians into the army. This creates conflict with his Greek/Macedonian soldiers that Alexander had to smooth over. - While on his way to India, Alexander, while drunk, got into a fight with his best friend Cleitus the Black, and ended up killing him in the process! - During the return to Susa from India, Alexander's general, best friend (and possibly lover) Hephaestion dies, throwing Alexander into a depression.

The Ten Commandments

- You shall worship no other god but ME. - You shall not make any graven images. - You shall not take the name of the LORD GOD in vain. - Remember the Sabbath, keep it holy. - Honor thy father and thy mother. - Do not kill. - Do not commit adultery. - Do not steal. - Do not lie. - Do not covet your neighbor's goods. - As well as these commandments, there are 613 supplementary laws created by the Hebrews collectively called Mosaic Law, which reflects things like Mesopotamian influences (i.e. Hammurabi's Law Code).

Battle of Issus

- November 333 BCE - Victory at the Granicus led Darius III of Persia to take personal command of his forces to march against Alexander. This march surprised Alexander, who was forced to countermarch and meet Darius in battle. Alexander had roughly 40,000 men, the Persians possibly 108,000 - While at first having the numerical and strategic advantage (the Persians were able to cut off Alexander's supply lines), Darius saw that Alexander picked the battlefield before he could, and it was one that Darius' army was too large for (this gave Alexander a distinct advantage despite having a smaller army). - Darius tries to charge Alexander's left wing at the beginning of the battle, and Parmenion was able to hold the line long enough for Alexander to charge Darius' left flank. Alexander has his foot soldiers punch a hole through this flank, and Alexander comes flooding in with his Companion Cavalry. Alex loses 452 men, the Persians over 20,000.

Cylon of Athens

- Olympics winner Cylon, with help from his father Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, seizes the Acropolis along with his supporters. - The oligarchs surrounded the Acropolis, and while Cylon was able to escape, his supporters clung to the statue of Athena in her temple for protection. - Megacles, one of the archons, slaughters the lot and puts them in a mass grave, but he and his family are exiled for sacrilege.

Mycenaeans

- Originally migrants from Southern Russia, the Mycenaeans appeared in Greece in the 1700s BC/E, and occupied the area from 1600-1150. The largest settlement was Mycenae, which was thought to be the seat of the legendary King Agamemnon. - The Mycenaeans may have been influenced by the Minoans to a degree, and also had a "palace society." However, their palaces weren't as well built, and their settlements were protected by extensive city walls. It is thought that the king (wanax) and his nobles lived inside the walls, with everyone else living outside of them. - Unlike the Minoans, the Mycenaeans were very warlike and militaristic. - The Megaron Ruling Mycenaean States - Some Mycenaean kings divided their kingdom into provinces and districts, administered by a governor (korete) and his subordinate (prokorete). - Tenant farmers were told what to grow, worked the land, and provided food and goods to the elites. - Elites usually have better quality houses, so there is a class hierarchy. - Palace oversees the military, food production and storage, crafts production, and maintains a road network. - Mycenaeans also produce goods for trade with the wider world (Hittites, Egyptians, Assyrians, etc.).

Phalanx Under Philip II

- Philip also makes great changes to the Greek Phalanx unit, which he adopts as the unit for his new army... -

Alexander the Great

- Philip is succeeded by his 20-year old son, Alexander III - Alexander is highly intelligent, handsome (albeit short) and was one of Aristotle's best students. He knows Greek culture, art, customs, languages, as well as its politics and history like the back of his hand. His dynasty claims direct descent from Heracles. - Alexander has military experience already (he commanded his father's shock cavalry, The Companions, at the Battle of Chaeronea), and wants to continue his father's plans to invade Persia. - That being said, Alexander was highly insecure, feeling that he could never get out of his father's shadow, and having unresolved issues with Philip once he died almost certainly had an effect on his psyche. - Alexander was educated (along with the Companions) by Aristotle at the Temple of Nymphs at Mieza. - One of the most famous stories about Alexander as a youth has to do with his training of his horse Bucephalus. At the beginning of his reign, Alexander moved against his rivals. - Philip had A LOT of possible successors, so Alexander had to move against many of them. - He has his cousin, Amyntas IV executed, as well as two other Macedonian princes executed as well. - He orders the murder of Philip's general Attalus, who supported the son of his niece Cleopatra Eurydice, another of Philip's wives, for the kingship. Attalus was also considering defecting to Athens at the time of Philip's death, and had a history of regularly insulting Alexander to his face, so... - Olympias joins in and on her own initiative has Cleopatra Eurydice and her daughter by Philip, Europa, burned alive. Alexander isn't happy about this (neither the action or the way it was done!). - Alexander has his challenges when invading Persia. That empire is huge, but not without its problems. Upon becoming king, Alexander had to make sure Greece stayed loyal to his rule. - With Alexander's succession, the city of Thebes rose up in revolt. The Thebans believed that with Philip dead, they would be able to take advantage of what they believed to be Alexander's inexperience. Alexander disabuses them of this notion by defeating the Thebans, and burning the city to the ground (save for the house of his favorite poet, Pindar). - After some fighting to secure his northern borders, Alexander leaves his general Antipater in charge of Greece. - Alexander invaded Persia with a strike force of 37,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, as well as artillery. His plan is to live off whatever lands he comes across, as well as use speed to get to a chosen battlefield before the Persians do.

Corinthian League

- Philip, while hated in cities such as Thebes, is well-loved in other poleis such as Athens and Corinth, as he is seen as a liberator from the high-handed behavior of Thebes up to this point. - By 337, he forms the Corinthian League. This imposes peace upon all city-states in the League, who have domestic autonomy while at the same time have to look to Philip for their foreign policy. - As well as ensuring peace in Greece, Philip wants to make sure no trouble is happening there, as he has plans to invade the Persian Empire (he even gets the league to approve a war with Persia), and has been planning an invasion for years.

Egyptian Time Periods

- Pre-Dynastic Egypt (3400-3100) - Old Kingdom (3100-2181) - 1st Intermediate Period (2181-2055) - Middle Kingdom (2055-1650) - 2nd Intermediate Period (1650-1550) - New Kingdom (1550-1070) - 3rd Intermediate Period (1069-525) - Late Kingdom (525-332) - Hellenistic Period (332-30)

Egyptian gods and goddesses

- Ptah (God of creation) - Thoth (Scribe God, god of wisdom) - Ma'at (Goddess of truth, justice, order) - Amon-Re (God of the sun and wind, combined to become more powerful. King of the gods until Osiris became king) - Shu (Shu, god of wind and air, father of Geb and Nut. Remember that gods' duties can depend on successive generations) - Tefnut (lion goddess of water and fertility) - Hathor/Sekhmet (In Hathor form, she is goddess of love and beauty and magic. In Sekhmet form, she is the goddess of fire, lions, and vengeance). - Geb (god of the earth) - Nut (Goddess of the sky and stars) - Khonsu (god of the moon) - Osiris (bringer of Egyptian civilization, god of the underworld and the afterlife) - Set (Lord of Chaos. God of deserts, storms, and foreigners). - Isis (Goddess of magic, marriage, healing, protection) - Nephthys (Funerary goddess) - Anubis (God of dead, embalming, funerals, Jackal-headed) - Horus (God of war, the sky, and falcons) - Bast (Cat goddess, protector of pregnant women and children, protector of Ra)

Qualities of Greek gods and goddesses

- Seen as the forces of nature as well as human activities. - Anthropomorphic: Exhibited human qualities and feelings, both good and bad. - Humans were expected to honor the gods, who could show favor (or disfavor) to them (although more often than not the gods could be rather arbitrary). DO NOT challenge the identity of the gods! - People used the actions of the gods to etiologically explain the nature of the world (i.e. myth of Hades and Persephone).

Solomon

- Solomon (r. 970-930) became king after the death of David, and purged his government, replacing them with those loyal to him in military, civic, and religious positions. He expanded the military greatly, especially his cavalry and chariot squadrons, and founded numerous colonies which served as military and trading outposts. - While David's reign was military in nature, Solomon's focused on trade. As Israel is in the middle of a major trading network (it can trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt, etc.), Solomon makes A LOT of money for his kingdom. - Solomon was also known for his wisdom, and was said to have been the author of many books of the Bible (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, etc.), and was rumored to be a magician as well as an exorcist. - Solomon is known for using his power and money to build the First Temple of Jerusalem, which housed the Ark of the Covenant (and the Ten Commandments). - Solomon at the end of his reign had many enemies at court, and left his son Rehoboam as king. Rehoboam, against the advice of his advisors, took a high-handed approach towards his people, and even tries to raise taxes on them. This makes him unpopular. - Taxes were already high what with Solomon's building projects such as the Temple at Jerusalem. Moreover, the Temple's existence ensures that the religious shrines (and the priests who run them) will take a backseat when it came to money coming into the Temple. As well as this, the 10 tribes in the north have always felt like they were not properly represented by the kings. Consequently, they seceded from Rehoboam's kingdom, creating the kingdom of Israel in the north (with its capital at Samaria), while Rehoboam's kingdom became Judah in the South (Jerusalem as capital). Rehoboamwould 've liked to invade the north, but an Egyptian invasion prevented this and Judah became a vassal state of Egypt.

New knowledge of Trojan War

- Surviving written records that might imply or indirectly reference goings on in the region (Egyptian, usually; or phenomena such as the description of an eclipse) - Previously living material such as bones, shells, minerals. - Radiocarbon dating- This is a process in which the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon - 14 is used to determine the age of carbonaceous materials. Measurements can be done up to about 58,000-62,000 years. This can be used for archaeology dating. Radiocarbon dating can get something down to about 75-100 years but not to an exact year (for example, you can't say that a certain dish was used by Julius Caesar at breakfast on the day that he decided to meet with a bunch of senators at the Theatre of Pompey and ended up getting stabbed 23 times - Neutron Activation analysis- process that does not destroy the sample of pottery/art, etc. and at the same time can analyse the sample. - Dendochronology- Using the rings of trees to measure what may have been going on at the time of an event, usually in the environment. This process proved that a BIG explosion happened on the island of Thera where there was a Minoan colony in 1628 BC (also known as Santorini). There are nevertheless weaknesses to this process. Dendochronology requires a number of comparative ancient tree samples as well as nearby living trees with identical ring patterns to analyse the sample in question

The 19th Dynasty

- The 19th Dynasty, especially under the rule of Rameses II, was determined to restore Egyptian fortunes after Akhenaten. - The 19th Dynasty, whose patron god was Set (due to the family's predominance of pale skin and red hair), finished the work of dismantling Akhenaten's reforms and going so far as to remove as many references of him as possible. - Akhetaten was dismantled as a city, and the building materials were used for other projects. - Rameses II wanted to push an image of restored Egyptian values as well as glory, and heavily patronized the priestly cults as well as restored many festivals. - Rameses II built greatly all over the realm and always made sure to put his name to whatever he built, making him arguably the most self-promotional pharaoh in Egyptian history.

Egyptian Religion

- The Ancient Egyptians above all else held their religion to be of utmost importance. The gods had created Egypt out of primordial chaos as part of a cosmic plan. It was therefore important for the Egyptians to honor the gods who had created their land and given them civilization. - The importance of religion in Egypt meant that there were temples all over the realm, each with a priesthood meant to serve that temple's deity. Temples and their lands and estates constituted not only an important part of Egypt's religious life, but also an important part of their economy ("Temple Economy"). - The most important gods of Egypt were Amun, who was the "hidden god," and the patron of Upper Egypt, and Ra, who was the sun god and patron of Lower Egypt. To symbolize the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, these two gods were usually combined into one god, Amun-Ra. - As well as Amun-Ra, Egyptians gave special importance to Osiris, the bringer of Egyptian civilization. While Osiris was well loved, he was hated by his brother Set, Lord of Chaos. - After the murder of his brother, Set cuts Osiris' body into 14 parts and tosses them into the Nile. These are recovered by Osiris' wife Isis, who takes them to Anubis to resurrect Osiris. - Anubis states that Osiris can be resurrected, but only after Set, who has usurped rulership of Egypt has been overthrown. Isis must first conceive the child Horus with Osiris' body. - The "mother and child" depictions of Isis and Horus serve as iconographic influences for the later depictions of the Virgin Mary and infant Christ. - When Horus reaches adulthood, he is able to challenge Set's position. - Horus the Falcon god fights Set in a violent battle. During the fight, Set rips out Horus' eye. - Horus eventually defeats Set, who is then banished to the desert. Horus uses his lost eye (the Wadjet Eye) to revive his father. - Osiris is resurrected, now serving as the judge of the Dead in Duat (Afterlife). - Anubis' embalming of Osiris allowed for his body to be repaired and preserved during the interval between the birth of Horus and Horus' victory over Set. Horus uses the Wadjet Eye's magical power to resurrect Osiris, who was now the judge of the Dead. - Egyptian religion taught that, just as Osiris was resurrected, the souls of Egyptians could be resurrected and have access to a Paradise-like afterlife. - At first this afterlife was only available to pharaoh and later his nobles, but by the Middle Kingdom, the belief in an afterlife became democratized, and was available to all Egyptians.

Assyrians

- The Assyrians, despite being responsible for much of Israel's troubles, are also a Semitic people. - Absolute monarch, runs his administration by choosing merit based candidates over his nobility (nobility doesn't have much to do). The king is seen as the main representative of the chief god Ashur. - No such thing as "loyal opposition." You're with the king or against him, and if you oppose him, your end will be...creative. - HUGE empire

The Epic of Gilgamesh

- The Epic of Gilgamesh, first published around the time of Hammurabi, concerned the legendary King of Uruk, Gilgamesh, and his exploits. - After angering the gods for spurning Ishtar, Gilgamesh attempts to find the secret of immortality. He fails, but performs great feats never the less (so he at least "fails well"). - The Epic is a reflection of how the Mesopotamians viewed the gods, as well as what was important to them (i.e. The prevalence of Fate, the impermanence of human life, but at the same time the importance of standing firm in the face of adversity, being willing to suffer death before dishonor).

Hebrew People Origins

- The Hebrews first came from Mesopotamia, where they were considered to be a nomadic people. Under the leadership of the Patriarch Abraham, they left Mesopotamia and migrated to Canaan, where they resided under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. - At some point, the Hebrews experienced a drought or famine while in Canaan, and left to go live in Egypt. It has been theorized (although not proven) that this happened thanks to the fact that this may have been the time of the 2nd Intermediate period of Egypt (1650-1550 BC), when that land was ruled by the Hyksos. - As the Hyksos were Semites as well, they probably were welcoming of the Hebrews . This is recounted in the Book of Genesis, with the story of Joseph (he of the amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat). - The Bible goes on to state that the Hebrews spent a time in Egypt before being enslaved by the Pharaoh. Little reason in the Bible is given for this, other than "Pharaoh did not remember Joseph." It is also unclear as to who may have been Pharaoh at the time (some have theorized Seti I, others tend towards Rameses II). - If this is historically accurate (remember, the Bible is more of a spiritual than a historically accurate work), then the enslavement may have related to the overthrow of the Hyksos in the 1550s BC. The Egyptians may have seen the Hebrews as "Hyksos collaborators" and consequently enslaved them out of revenge. - Enter Moses, who (via the use of 10 plagues), forced Pharaoh's hand, causing the Hebrews to escape over the Red Sea and wander the desert for 40 years, during which time they received the 10 Commandments. - After the death of Moses, the Hebrews (organized into 12 tribes) come into Canaan, and the land is ruled for a time by "judges" before being ruled by the first Kings of Israel.

The Dark Age

- The Hittite Empire disappears completely (it may have been hit by plague as well as the other said problems, and might have already been dealing with infighting at court). - Mesopotamia (up to this point ruled by the Kassite Dynasty) is gone. - Mycenaean Greece disappears, and only a couple of settlements survive (Athens, most notably). Many flee to Cyprus, or end up as refugees in lands such as the Kingdom of Israel. New peoples, the Dorians and Ionians, invade or migrate to Greece, but the land is heavily depopulated. - New Kingdom Egypt defeated the Sea Peoples, but the drought and famine had an effect on the pharaohs, who now could not be seen as the providers for their people. Consequently, the New Kingdom ends, Egypt fragments and falls into the Third Intermediate Period. - The Assyrians hold out for another 100 years, but end up disappearing around the year 1050. Civilization has collapsed, and this Bronze Age Collapse is said to have been worse than events such as the fall of the Western Roman Empire

Peisistratus

- The division of Solon's reforms is taken advantage of by the popular general and politician Peisistratus, who is especially backed by the Men of the Hill. - Peisistratus decides to make himself tyrant, claiming tyranny in a number of interesting ways. - While his first two attempts at tyranny fail, his last attempt was successful and he ended up becoming tyrant of Athens from 546 to his death in 527. - Peisistratus, whom Aristotle writes, was a "tyrant who obeyed the law," was known for his popular initiatives. He gives lands and loans to the needy, he stimulates Athenian farming and industry, expands overseas trade, mints the first Athenian coinage, makes water free, and creates the art of Drama!

Spartan Population Shortage

- The helots outnumber the Spartans anywhere from 10 to 20:1 at any given time. - In order so that the helots "know their place," the Spartans subject them to calculated abuse. - Every year, Spartans "declare war" on the helots, using their krypteia to thin out helot numbers and kill helots (esp. the most talented, smartest, best looking, most charismatic, etc.). - The helots, consequently, hate the Spartans and usually take advantage of whatever opportunity arises to get their own back against the Spartans (i.e. the 464 earthquake). - However, the constant problem of making sure the Spartans can meet their army requirements actually causes Sparta to give rights to the helots, as well as create a class of mothax (half-Spartan, half-helot) soldiers. - The whole irony of this is that this is a self-created crisis by Sparta!

The Old Testament

- This work is said to have been written during the Babylonian Captivity in the 500s BC. - Its purpose was to teach essential beliefs about God after the Babylonian Captivity, as well as preserve the history and identity of the Jewish people as well (however, as it was written several hundred years after many events, it's not entirely reliable). - The first five books of the Bible are called the Pentateuch, which covers the time from the beginning of the World to the time of the Hebrews' arrival in Canaan after their departure from Egypt. It focuses on one important theme: OBEY THE LORD THY GOD! - The book of Exodus is considered to be the most important book of the Bible, as it contains the Torah, or Law Code. This includes the Ten Commandments.

Valley of the Kings/ Mortuary Temples

- To facilitate their own burial, the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes. Pharaohs such as Hatshepsut built massive mortuary temples meant to maintain their cults after they died. - Despite not having pyramids anymore, the pharaohs were buried in ornate hidden tombs meant to protect them in the Valley of the Kings. Their tombs were built and regularly maintained by the nearby community at Deir el-Medina. This community was made up of artisans and their families and give us the only real glimpse into life for non-royal Egyptians. - Egyptian parchment (papyrus) was expensive and hard to come by, so Egyptians tended to write on broken pieces of pottery (ostraca). We find a lot of this at Deir-el Medina.

Greek gods and goddesses

- Zeus: King of the gods, thunder and lightning. - Hera: Queen of the gods, goddess of women, marriage and childbirth. - Poseidon: god of the sea, earthquakes, horses, and city walls. - Demeter: goddess of the harvest. - Hades: Lord of the Dead, ruler of the Underworld. - Hestia: goddess of the Hearth. - Apollo: god of archery, the arts, medicine, prophecy, and plague. - Artemis: twin sister of Apollo, virgin goddess of hunters. - Hephaestus: god of blacksmiths, beneficial fire. - Aphrodite: goddess of love, sex and beauty. - Ares: god of war and carnage. - Athena: goddess of wisdom, handicraft, just warfare. - Hermes: Messenger god, god of trade (and thievery!). Trickster god. - Dionysus: god of wine. - Persephone: goddess of Spring.

Alexandria

- founded 331 BC after Alexander had a dream.

Pyramids and Mastabas

- To reach this afterlife, Egyptian Kings were first buried at Abydos, the city of Osiris. Later, they were buried in more ornate tombs called mastabas. - Depending on one's station, mastabas could vary in quality, but usually had the same layout. There would be a chapel above ground where offerings could be made for the deceased's soul, while the tomb itself would be below ground and protected by a sealed burial shaft. - During the reign of the Pharaoh Djoser, the Vizier Imhotep devises the idea to put smaller mastabas on top of a large mastaba, creating the first Steppe Pyramid at Saqqara. The Pyramid has a mortuary temple with its own priests to Djoser's memory, and is the capstone of a necropolis (City of the Dead). - Beginning in the 4th dynasty (2600s-2500s BC/E), pharaohs beginning with Sneferu began to attempt to construct a "true pyramid." In many cases there as a bit of trial and error. The Pyramid of Meidum (above) collapsed during construction, and the "Bent Pyramid" of Dahshur (below), to avoid collapse, had the building angle changed mid-construction! - The Pyramids of Giza contain that of the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure. The smallest "satellite" pyramids are reserved for wives/princesses. - The Pyramids of Giza were located in Lower Egypt, a land which had Ra as its main god. Consequently, the white limestone of the pyramids, with a "pyramidion" on top, was also meant to glorify Ra by harnessing the power of the sun. - Looking at the Pyramids of Giza from a bird's eye view, their layout is meant to mirror that of the constellation of Orion, where Duat, and Osiris, were located. This serves to highlight the concept of both death and resurrection. - The Great Sphinx, with the head of a man and the body of a lion, also at Giza, portrays either Khufu or Khafre. It was meant to "guard" the mortuary temples of Khufu and Khafre, and had its own cult temple. The Sphinx was seen as a guardian spirit (it seems to have had a detachable beard as well). - Pharaohs spent most of their reigns building their pyramids, calculating how much stone, wood and other supplies, as well as manpower (and related supplies) were needed. Subjects were recruited from all over the kingdom to come build the pyramids. It was seen as public service, andcarried with it many benefits. - After the 4th dynasty, many pharaohs, in order to show their piety to Ra, build solar temples instead of pyramids. The pharaoh Shepsekaf, Menkaure's successor, built a solar temple and only a mastaba for himself, which might reflect a more conservative building program. - During the 5th and 6th dynasties, pyramids were not as well built, perhaps not only because of the large amount of resources it demanded, but also the unwillingness of the nomarchs to send such supplies to pharaohs who were not as strong in their rule as previous ones.

Troy

- Troy seems to have been an occupied settlement since 3000BC/E, and was an ally/vassal/trading partner of the Hittites which traded regularly with the Mycenaeans. - We know of Troy mainly because it was called Wilusa by the Hittites. It was referred to as WilusaàWilionàIlionàIlium. This same city was referred to at the same time by the Greeks as "Troia" or Troy. - The city and its immediate surrounding territory took up 75 acres, and had between about 4,000-10,00 people. Its hinterland, referred to as "The Troad" (where there were about 28 small towns dependent on the city). It had freshwater rivers, good farmland and land for grazing, but for the most part was rainy. The winds on the coast favored ships for trading. While Troy was not on the coast, it did have a harbor and any shipping that came in was usually taxed. It served more or less as a station for goods from all over. - The only thing the Trojans were famous for trading were horses. In all other cases, they were essentially a trading middleman. - Despite being wealthy and having a rich culture, Troy was a relatively weak power located between two of the most powerful states in the Mediterranean: The Hittite Empire and the Mycenaean Greeks. - As the Trojans were located near the Dardanelles, which connected trade between the Black Sea and Aegean/Mediterranean Sea, they were certainly of political and economic importance. Despite this, militarily they were relatively weak. While they certainly had a land force to defend their city, they probably didn't have much of a navy. - We know that the Hittites (as well as the Mycenaean Greeks (called Ahhiyawa in the text) had relations with Troy, which the former referred to as Wilusa. This is thanks to Hittite sources, which can be found on clay tablets in cuneiform script, written in Akkadian. - According to these sources, we know that the Trojans (Wilusans) at first resisted Hittite efforts to control them in a revolt known as the Assuwan rebellion, and that the Mycenaeans. This rebellion was crushed. After this, the Trojan-Hittite relations alternated between peace and hostility, mainly due to infighting at the Hittite court during this period (circa 1450). - While there was continued conflict with the Hittites after this, it seems that they later allied with them and enjoyed a close relationship with them. By the 1200s BC/E (the proposed time of the "Trojan War") they were almost certainly a vassal state (that is, a state not necessarily owned or run by the Hittites, but one which recognized their overall authority over the region as well as paid tribute to them in exchange for military support). - Hittite support of Troy (Wilusa) can be seen in a couple of instances. - One of the Hittite texts (circa 1280) states that the Trojans had a treaty with the Hittite King Muwattalireferred to as the Alaksandu Treaty, which was essentially a renewal of a mutual defense treaty between the Trojans and the Hittites. The name Alaksandu is interesting, as it has been argued by some scholars to be a form of "Alexander" which was another name for Paris. Some argue that this could be the Trojan Prince who served as a diplomat for the kingdom, and was, of course, the man who precipitated the Trojan War by stealing Helen. While this is plausible and would give Homer's work some historicity, it can't be proven. - According to another Hittite text, (circa 1267-37) the Mycenaeans seem to have attacked Troy at some stage, although they were driven off by the Hittites. - Another text (1237-09), states that the Trojan King, Walmu, had been deposed by an unnamed enemy force, but this enemy had been defeated by the Hittites and Walmu was reinstated. In any case, the Trojans depended heavily on the Hittites for their defense.

Carl Blegen

- While Dorpfeld believed that he had found the destruction level that solidified Schliemann's claims that Hissarlik was the site of Troy, Carl Blegen, who dug at Hissarlik during the 1930s, argued that Troy VI was destroyed not by Greeks, but by an earthquake which destroyed a whole lot of the city. - Scholars tried to argue that this earthquake was explained by Homer (who doesn't mention an earthquake) via the Trojan Horse (Poseidon was the god of earthquakes, city walls and horses, so this can be explained by the horse being a metaphor for the earthquake which the Greeks then took advantage of). - This is a tad far-fetched, and shows the very real danger of using archaeology to try and (rather forcefully) fit the historical and literary account. Historians and archaeologist HAVE to be careful not to shoehorn the evidence to fit their chosen account. - Troy VIh, thought by Dorpfeld to be the "Trojan War level," but argued by Blegen to be an "earthquake level," was dated to between 1300 and 1100 BC/E. Nevertheless, the Trojans rebuilt and reused materials from this level to build the top level, Troy VIIa. There seems to have been many more people in the city during this period (the settlement was extremely well supplied with pithoi), and the citadel was greatly expanded. - Blegen found that a well-supplied city, an expanded citadel, and domiciles that had been subdivided to turn the single family houses into multi-family houses. Blegen also found remnants of skeletons in the street areas of the VIIa level, as well as arrowheads, fragments of weapons, and evidence of fire damage EVERYWHERE. - This led Blegen and others to conclude that Troy VIIa level was the Trojan War level, dated between 1260-1240 BC/E. - When comparing Mycenaean sites around the same time, Blegen was convinced Troy VIIa was the Trojan War level. - To correspond VIIa period of destruction as being part of a "Trojan War," Blegen looked at the time of destruction or abandonment of Mycenaean sites around the same time. These sites in Greece fell out of use around 1225 BC/E. In a literary sense, this would correspond to the fallout faced by many of the returning Greek kings after the end of the war (i.e. the Deaths of Agamemnon, Idomeneus, Little Ajax, etc.), and the breakdown of Mycenaean authority afterwards. - Blegen also found that there was a Troy VIIb level, which seemed to have been occupied by the survivors of this war. The second phase of Troy VIIb, Blegen argued, indicated that the inhabitants were not the same as Troy VIIa, and that perhaps the settlement had been abandoned and then resettled by different groups of people (here there is material culture in the second phase far different than the first phase). - Blegen's theory is definitely attractive, but there are some weaknesses to it. First, while the "siege" version of Troy VIIa does make it a good candidate for a city at war, it doesn't indicate a wealthy city, but one which is in economic decline (unlike Troy VI, and here Dorpfeld may have come to a similar conclusion). Blegen responded by saying that cities under siege are not really 100% opulent, while Penelope Mountjoyargued that Troy VIIa was still recovering from the earthquake of Troy VI, which explains the lack of opulence. Critics argued that, in any case, the state of the city was such that it wouldn't take 10 years to capture and that epics wouldn't have been written about it. However, it is possible that a poet like Homer would have conflated the opulence of Troy VI with the destruction of Troy VII to contrast a city's height of glory with its destruction. - The only true argument for Blegen's theory is that Troy VIIa was destroyed by war, but here many have had problems with his dating, which is seen as too early or too late for a Mycenaean destruction (some have attributed destruction to the Sea Peoples).

Good Cases for Troy

- Wilusa=Wilion=Ilium=Troy - The Hittite Treaty of Alaksandu might refer to Alexandros/Paris of Troy (the guy who was said to have stolen Helen of Troy and begun the whole mess). - A king of Troy, Walmu, was forcibly overthrown by enemy forces in the 1200s BC/E. - Troy VI was destroyed by an earthquake/Troy VII was destroyed by warfare - Ahhiyawa= Mycenaean Greeks. - While the Iliad , which may have first been transmitted via the oral tradition, can certainly be argued to allow future generations to recall what it was like during the time of Troy VI and VII, is not necessarily meant to be a history book, and is meant to be used as a subject to communicate wider concepts such as bravery, loyalty, love, glory, and honor. - As we shall see when we look at the Greek Dark Ages and examine Greek Religion, this was also a way to highlight the values of Dark Age Greeks, as well as how they viewed their past.

Greece in Disarray

- With Greece in disarray after continuous wars amongst city-states, her neighbors look to exploit this situation - The main problem that the Greek city states have after the Peloponnesian war is that they constantly vie with each other over who will be hegemon after Athens loses this title. Sparta gets too big for its britches , and starts bullying other poleis until their power is challenged by Thebes, who defeat the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra in the 360s (one of the results of this is that the helots gain their freedom). - The problem is, Thebes ends up becoming as insufferable as Athens or Sparta was when they held the title of hegemon, and fighting breaks out once more amongst the city-states, who are anything but united in purpose. - To the north, neighbors, such as the Kingdom of Macedon, are looking to take advantage of this infighting.

Alexander the Great in Egypt

- With Tyre (or its smoldering ruins) now under his control, Alexander now found himself as ruler of Syria and Canaan. He fights a hard fought siege of Gaza, but wins and treats that city in the same way he treated Tyre. He then goes to Egypt, where, after visiting the Oracle at Siwa he is welcomed as a liberator and is proclaimed Pharaoh in 332. - Alexander is hailed as a liberator, as he is adept at giving respect to the Egyptian gods, visiting the Siwa Oasis to give respects at the Temple to Amun there. He is identified with Amun and said to be his son. The Alexander Romance, however, state he is actually the son of the last native Egyptian pharaoh! - Alexander shows his pharaonic credentials by building a chapel at Karnak, where he is depicted as pharaoh, giving tribute to Isis and Osiris.

Alexander's Army wants to return home

- With the victory at Hydaspes, Alexander founds two cities on either side of the river (Bucephalia, after his horse, and Nicaea, meaning "victory"). Alexander initially wants to continue his invasion of India. However, when news of Porus' defeat reach the other local rulers, they threaten to band together and form armies that could number in the hundreds of thousands, and that was something that not even Alexander could defeat. - Moreover, his long-suffering army has been on campaign for years, missing their parents, wives and children and refuse to continue eastward. Alexander implores with them to continue, but finally relents, taking them back through the Gedrosian Desert (where many men are lost due to lack of water) before returning to the city of Susa in Persia in 324 BC. - Alexander returned with his army to Babylon, which he planned to make his capital city. He had plans for future military campaigns.

Darius contacts Alexander

- With ½ of the Persian Empire under his control, Alexander was contacted by Darius III - By this time, Darius is trying to negotiate with Alexander, who not only defeated him at the battle of Issus, but also took his entire family prisoner. - Darius implores with Alexander to stop fighting, offering him half of the empire and his daughter's hand in marriage. Alexander retorts by saying that he already has half of Darius' empire, and can take his daughter in marriage (as well as other things!) whenever he wants. - Darius nevertheless has a numerical advantage as well as the loyalty of his satraps and generals (who realize that they have A LOT to lose) when he meets Alexander at the battle of Gaugamela in Mesopotamia in 331.

Law Code of Hammurabi

- Written in Cuneiform, a pictographic/ideographic wedge-shaped form of writing, followed the principle of "Lex Talionis" or "law of retribution." - Hammurabi's code was strict, one where the punishment was meant to fit the crime. - His code tended to be more harsh towards those members of the population who were poorer, and his laws regarding marriage for the most part favored the husband over the wife. - Shirking of responsibilities by officials could result in them having to pay the penalties of the law, which could include death. - Hammurabi's Code was followed more than 250 years after he died around 1750.

Philip II

- ruled 359-336 BCE - Spent much of his early life witnessing the chaos both in Greece as well as his own kingdom. He spent two years (369-7) as a hostage at Thebes where he studies Greek culture, politics, philosophy, mathematics, and especially military tactics. - When he becomes king in 359, he has to both control his nobility, as well as keep the interference of the poleis (esp. Athens) out of his kingdom. - Philip controls the nobility by putting members of that body in high positions of government, while at the same time making their sons "Royal Pages" of the court, where they would personally serve the king and receive a Greek education as well (here, Philip II hires the philosopher Aristotle). At the same time, these pages serve as hostages to ensure good behavior. Philip also recruits nobles from the peasantry based on merit, and creates new jobs by draining marshlands and founding new colonies in the kingdom. This generates a lot of loyalty towards Philip's rule, and the kingdom attracts many outsiders who come to live in Macedon. - Philip funded much of these ventures based on mining resources he seized during his conquest of Thrace. At the same time, he conquers Thessaly, and allies with the kingdom of Epirus. Doing all ofthis hems in the Greek city-states, and it becomes obvious that Philip has an eye towards conquering them. - By the 340s Philip begins to intervene in Greece more directly, esp. when the city-states are fighting each other in war after war, and Philip forces peace. - Many are divided over Philip's interventionism. At Athens, some politicians such as Demosthenes want to oppose Philip's ambitions. Others, such as Isocrates, see Philip as a solution to all of the infighting amongst the city states that has gone on for over a century. - Wants to conquer Persia - Philip's plans to conquer Persia, however, are cut short by his assassination in 336, thanks to intrigue at court. - Philip is succeeded by his 20-year old son, Alexander III.

Cambyses II

-530- 523/2 BCE - Cyrus is succeeded by his son Cambyses, whose main claim to fame was conquering Egypt and Nubia. While in Egypt, he is said to have slain the VERY SACRED Apis Bull, which incurred centuries long enmity in Egypt against Persian rule. According to legend, this action drove Cambyses mad as punishment. - In reality, Cambyses "madness" may have related to the fact that he was a raving alcoholic, and a very violent drunk. It is said that he killed his brother and sister in a drunken rage, as well as others. Cambyses increasingly erratic behavior caused a crisis for his empire, and in 522 he died under mysterious circumstances (some say he died in battle, others say he was assassinated, others say he committed suicide due to the guilt he felt over killing his siblings.

Catal Huyuk

-The Neolithic site at Catal Huyuk seems to have been occupied between 7100 and 5600 BC/E. -All buildings were domestic, no public buildings such as temples or markets. Buildings were made of mudbrick. -No concepts of streets yet, and people traveled around the settlement by walking on the roofs of houses, entering each domicile via a hole in the roof. Town events were probably held on the rooftop, which could serve as a plaza -The settlement shows a diversification of food growth. 5,000 to 10,000 people may have lived here. -The heads of slain animals were mounted on the walls. -People were usually buried in the settlement beneath the floors, usually with grave goods (the goods denote occupations other than just hunting and farming, implying a diversification of labor).

Greek City-State Characteristics

All have 1) Acropolis 2) Agora 3) Chora 4) Intense civic pride.

Alexander's Legacy

Hellenistic culture - Alexander took Greek culture to places it had never gone before, and wherever this Greek, or Hellenic culture went, it fused with the cultures with which it came into contact, creating Hellenistic culture. - This means that, thanks to Alexander, the Greek cultural legacy persisted in places like India, Persia, the Near East, as well as Egypt, meaning that, while Alexander's empire was no more, such cultural exchange would help contribute to the development of not only western but also (in some cases) World Civilization.

Major Aspects

Major aspect #1: The Covenant between God and the Hebrews - The Covenant happens when Moses is bringing the Hebrews out of Egypt and to Mt. Sinai and into the land of plenty that was Canaan. - Canaan is the "Promised Land" that God agreed to give to the Hebrews as long as they worshipped him and obeyed his laws, the Ten Commandments. As well as this, God would take care of his Chosen People, the Hebrews, or Israelites. Major aspect #2: The Laws of the Hebrews Major Aspect #3: The Prophets

Greek Dark Age Values

Reciprocity - While the position of basileus could be hereditary, it was not a given, and based more in merit and what a chief could do for his followers (hetairoi). - The basileus was expected to be successful not only in running the community, but also as successful in war. The power and influence of this chief depended on how many followers he had, as well as how many communities looked either to him as the main power in the area, or even someone to ask for help. - War usually included low-level warfare which included activities such as cattle raids. Here, the basileus was expected to reward his followers first, and be fair in his rewards, which was a symbol of his recognition of his followers' service. If he was seen to not be fair in his rewards or recognition, he could lose followers and even his position as basileus. - In return for the above, the people who followed the basileus would recognize his rule and give him their loyalty. If he was greedy or cheapened his followers' accomplishments, those followers could leave him (i.e. the fight between Agamemnon and Achilles in the Iliad). Xenia - Hospitality, Guest Friendship - In the absence of any central authority/law enforcement, certain customs and traditions were recognized to keep people safe. - Xenia was a custom where someone who was in a foreign place would go to a person's home and knock on the door. The homeowner would then give the person food and lodging for a couple of nights, as well as company. When the guest left, gifts would be exchanged. - If the homeowner came to the guest's house in the future, the guest was required to reciprocate. - This custom was said to have been put into place by Zeus, who stated all should observe it lest they turn away a god in disguise. - While homeowners were expected to offer this service, guests had to be careful NOT to overstay their welcome. Agathos vs. Kakos - To be agathos (good) was to be brave in war, have great skill in athletics, loyal to friends, honored the gods, kept his promises, showed self-control, and possessed respect for women and elders. - To be kakos (bad) was to be cowardly in war, have no skill or use to the community, broke promises, abused women, disdained the gods, did not keep to xenia, or exuded hubris (either overweening pride, or the action of abusing a defeated enemy or a corpse). - Competition is encouraged, and jealousy of others accomplishments was seen as a motivator towards self-improvement. - Women (who had more rights than their counterparts in Classical Athens), were expected to be chaste, except when married, and could excel in activities which emphasized their intelligence or beauty. They could influence their husbands in politics, move freely throughout the community, voice their opinions in public, participate in festivals and priesthoods, and were seen overall to be more important than men.

Pan-Hellenic Institutions

The Oracle of Delphi - The Oracle was said to be a vessel through whom the god Apollo could give prophecies. - For a large fee, the Oracle would answer a question about the future. - The answers were usually so ambiguous that people usually heard what they wanted to hear. The Olympic Games - as well as Nemean, Pythian, and Isthmian), would be where athletes could display themselves as the new heroes of their city (including Plato!).

Minoan Decline

The Thera Eruption Theory - Although we don't know what caused Minoan decline, which happened around the 1600s BC/E, the one theory which people keep giving as the reason involves the nearby island of Thera (now Santorini). Around the 1600s, it seems that Thera experienced a major volcanic eruption which was four times the size of the Krakatoa eruption in 1883. The eruption caused a MAJOR climatic change in the Northern Hemisphere. We see evidence of the eruption and its effects as far as Sweden and California, and it may have caused crop failure in China, which caused the existing Xia Dynasty to fall. Some have argued that it may have caused the Biblical Ten Plagues of Egypt, although this is debatable. The theory goes that the eruption caused a tsunami which directly hit Crete. This is ONLY a theory, though, and has been argued against by some scholars. - The Thera Eruption also gets tied to the legendary story of Atlantis, but please note that ATLANTIS ISN'T REAL! (it was part of an allegory told by Plato in his works Timaeus and Critias! The legend of Atlantis stems from St. Thomas More's Utopia as well as the first discoveries of the Mayan ruins in Mesoamerica.

Phases of Troy

Troy I 3000-2600 BC Troy II 2600-2250 BC Troy III 2250-2100 BC Troy IV 2100-1950 BC Troy V: 20th-18th centuries BC Troy VI: 17th-15th centuries BC Troy VIh: late Bronze Age, 14th century BC Troy VIIa: c. 1300-1190 BC Troy VIIb1: 12th century BC Troy VIIb2: 11th century BC Troy VIIb3: until c. 950 BC Troy VIII: c. 700-85 BC Troy IX: 85 BC-c. AD 500