WIS 3401 Collation of ALL Exam 2 Questions on Quizlet
Survival
1. mortality.
Avian cholera
A bacterial disease of birds, especially waterfowl; poor coordination, hemorrhages around the heart, and liver necrosis; heavy annual mortality in local areas.
Lyme Disease
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially deer and rodents, transmitted by Ixodes spp. ticks; few signs or effects in wildlife; fever, joint pain, lameness, neurological problems, and possible death if untreated in humans.
Trauma
A distressful cause of disease.
Decimating
A factor that kills animals.
Abnormal
A form of mortality that a species did not evolve with.
Malnutrition
A lack of proper nutrition.
Harvest
A management tool that some consider natural.
Rate
A population's mortality _____ often changes as population density changes.
Mate
A sexual partner.
Chronic Wasting Disease
A spongiform encephalopathy of ungulates; weight loss, dehydration, incoordination, changes in temperament and other behaviors, brain lesions, and death.
Integrated Pest Management
A variation of _____ _____ _____ has been proposed to help quail populations.
Rabies
A viral disease of mammals, especially carnivores and bats; wandering, incoordination, lack of fear, aggression, convulsions, comma, and death; no cure once symptoms present; affects humans.
Distemper
A viral disease of mammals, especially carnivores; respiratory and intestinal problems, nasal and ocular discharge, diarrhea, and behavioral changes, and lack fear; often confused with rabies.
Quarternary
Adult sex ratio.
Structure
Age pyramids illustrate population _____.
Interact
All forms of mortality _____ in their effects.
Density
Allee Effects may occur when a minimum _____ of individuals is needed for any reproduction to occur.
Epizootic
An eruptive type of disease.
Depredation
Another word for predation, often referring to nests.
Struggle for existence
Because more individuals are born than can be supported by the environment, there must be a _____ _____ _____.
Stimulate
Certain reproductive behaviors are used to _____ copulation.
Synchronize
Certain reproductive behaviors are used to _____ copulation.
Enzootic
Chromic disease.
Protective refugia
Density-dependent weather effects.
Habitat
Disease tends to have greater effects as _____ quality declines.
Control
Diseases are sometimes used as biological _____ agents in wildlife management.
Accident
Drowning is a natural type of _____.
Starvation
Dying from a lack of food.
Imprinting
Early, permanent learning.
West Nile Virus
Egyptian virus often found in birds.
General Adaptation Syndrome
GAS.
Intrinsic flaw
Hereditary cause of disease.
Proximate
Immediate or actual cause of death.
Welfare
Issues related to food may or may not be this type of factor.
Cats
Kill billions of wildlife each year.
Parasites
Little critters that are a cause of disease.
Sex ratio
Male/Female.
Primary
Male/female ratio at the time of fertilization.
Rabies
Mammalian viral disease with no cure once symptoms present.
Timing
Many cues determine the _____ of breeding.
Polygyny
Many female partners.
Polyandry
Many male partners.
Natural
Many people would not consider harvest as a _____ form of mortality.
Biotic Potential
Maximum growth rate for a species.
Age
Middle _____ animals usually have the best reproductive rates.
Polygamy
Multiple mates.
Exposure
Negative effect of weather.
Natality
Number of births or hatchings.
Clutchsize
Number of eggs produced by a bird.
Fecundity
Number of gametes produced.
Fertility
Number of viable gametes.
Productivity
Often used to refer to the reproductive output or a population rate of change.
Predation
One animal eating another.
Monogamy
One male and one female.
Sucker
Only the naive are on the list.
Gizzard Worms
Parasitic nematodes of various birds; few signs, heavy burden can lead to reduced growth and emaciation, and damage to gizzard lining; rarely fatal.
Chance
Random predation.
Courtship Behavior
Research and management can often take advantage of this.
Secondary
Sex ratio at birth.
Endocrine
The _____ system is used to send chemical messages through the body.
Threshold of Security
The density of animals after which cover is limiting and mortality may increase.
Recruitment
The process of entering a breeding population.
Numerical
The response that occurs when the number of a certain predator changes as the number of its prey changes.
Pathology
The study of the structural and functional causes and effects produced by disease from the molecular to the population level.
Parental care
There is usually a trade between the amount of this and adult survival.
Nutrition
This can have dramatic effects on the condition of adults and subsequently reproduction.
Lyme
Ticks and deer play a role in this disease.
Toxicoses
Type of disease.
Sanitary
Type of predation where the weak, injured, and old are preyed upon.
Normal
Types of mortality that a species evolved with.
Photoperiod
Typically the most important environmental cue.
Ultimate
Underlying, possibly evolutionary causes of death/mortality.
Density Dependence
Usually leads to changes in reproductive rate.
Female
We are often only interested in _____ portion of the population when we study wildlife reproduction.
Age at sexual maturity
When breeding begins.
Vehicle
Wildlife-_____ interactions are major sources of mortality for some endangered species.
Density Dependence
_____ _____ affects mortality rates.
Habitat Management
_____ _____ may be the best approach to predator control for quail.
Food
_____ availability may be a cure used to time reproduction.
Survival
_____ of newborns has large affects on wildlife populations and annual reproductive success.
Exogenous
_____ poisons are a cause of disease.
Calling
_____ rate is often used to survey bird species.
Prenatal
_____ survival is offspring survival during pregnancy.
Collisions
_____ with anthropogenic structures are a growing cause of wildlife mortality.
Leopold Land Ethic
"A thing is right if it tends topreserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the bioticcommunity. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise."
Space
"The final frontier" and a habitat component.
Who does it (hunting)?
% of U.S. hunters; 2011 - Race - 94% White, 3% African American, 3% Other - Ethnicity - 2% Hispanic, 98% Non-Hispanic - Gender - 89% male, 11% female - Women: fastest growing segment of hunting comm. - Age - 27% 16-24, 62% 35-64, 11% >64 - Education - 22% 4+ yrs college, 23% 1-3 yrs college, 43% 12 yrs school (through HS) - Income - 12% < $25,000 - 56% $25K - 100K - 21% > $100 K - 11% Unknown income - Employment status - 70% FT, 2% homemaker, 2% Unemployed, 10% PT, 7% Ret., 9% student
How many people are harvesting?
% of U.S. population; 2011 - Fishing: 10% (increased 11% since 2006) - Hunting: 6% (increased 9% since 2006) - Trapping: < 1% % of FL population; 2011 - Fishing: 12% - Hunting: 1% - Trapping: <1%
4 Characteristics of harvested populations
*Population size & stability *Fecundity *Life span *Death from other causes
Leopold's Tools
- "Game [wildlife] can be restored by the creative use of the same tools which have heretofore destroyed it - Axe, plow, cow, fire, and gun (harvest mgmt.)" - Other 4: population management - Axe: mechanical treatments, timber harvest - Plow: agriculture, crops - Cow: agriculture, crop mgmt. - Fire: prescribed and wild fire, imp. to ecosystems - Can be beneficial tools if properly applied
Brucellosis
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially big game; lameness from infected joints, scrotal enlargement, aborted fetuses, small and weak calves; little adult mortality; can infect humans with flu like symptoms; domestic livestock can have it.
Anthrax
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially herbivore; naturally occurring at low levels in the environment, with occasional outbreaks; fever, weakness, breathing difficulty, hemorrhaging and blood loss, swollen lymph nodes, and death.
Exploitation competition
2 species compete for the same resources
Interference competition
2 species interact with each other directly
ratio to maximize polygyny
25:75
Kcal/g for carbs
3.9-4.2
ratio to maximize monogamy
50:50
kcal/g of Fats
9.5
Wetlands Reserve Program
A Farm Bill program that benefits wetlands.
Land Owner Assistance Program
A Florida-specific landowner program.
Gun
A Tool that can prevent habitat degradation.
Field Border
A _____ _____ surrounds units on a farm and can provide habitat (often herbaceous plant cover), edge, and fire breaks.
Botulism
A bacterial disease of birds, especially waterfowl; muscle paralysis and inability to walk or fly, and limberneck; acute in some years and locations.
Tularemia
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially rodents and lagomorphs; lethargy, swollen lymph nodes, liver and spleen necrosis, and occasional death; can be life threatening to humans.
Sylvatic Plague
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially rodents; enlarged spleen, hemorrhaging of lymph nodes, liver, spleen, and lung necrosis; can be acute or locally chronic.
Tuberculosis
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially ungulates; emaciation, depression, trouble breathing, nasal discharge, and lymph node necrosis; transmitted to and from livestock.
Leptospirosis
A bacterial disease of mammals; effects on wildlife rare; in humans it can lead to fever, weakness, kidney problems, meningitis, and possible death.
Animal Rights Ethic
A belief that can lead to wildlife community problems.
Diversity
A benefit of older family farms for wildlife.
Deficiency
A cause of disease.
Living Organisms
A cause of disease.
Tumors
A cause of disease.
Succession
A change in community composition through time.
Disease
A condition of the body in which there is an incorrect function resulting from the effect of heredity, infection, diet, or the environment.
Trapping
A consumptive use of wildlife that is not prevalent today because of a lack of demand.
Predator Control
A controversial practice thought to boost prey populations.
Food plot
A cultivated field used to feed wildlife.
Chronic wasting disease
A deer disease of concern that is like Mad cow Disease.
Quality Deer Management
A system of managing deer for higher quality deer, habitat, and hunting experiences.
Island Biogeography
A theory explaining how the distance between and size of habitat units affects species composition in the units.
Boophilus
A tick that carries a protozoan parasite causing cattle fever or Babeosis in mammals; typically few signs or effects on wildlife; severe fever, fatigue, and possible death in livestock; largely eradicated from U.S.
Boophilus
A tick that carries a protozoan parasite causing cattle fever or babeosis in mammals; typically few signs or effects on wildlife; sever fever, fatigue, and possible death in livestock; largely eradicated from U.S.
No Till
A type of cultivation that has less soil disturbance and more residual vegetation.
Cow
A type of livestock and a Tool.
Microhabitat
A very small, specialized habitat, such as a clump of grass or a space between.
West Nile Virus
A viral disease of birds and some mammals; depression, weight loss, neurological problems, incoordination, weakness, lack of awareness, and sometimes death.
Avian Pox
A viral disease of birds; vision and respiratory problems, and lesions on unfeathered areas and oral cavity.
Hemorrhagic Disease
A viral disease of ruminants, especially deer; depression, fever, emaciation, respiratory distress, internal hemorrhaging, stomach and other necroses, sloughing of hooves, and possible death; epizootic; can cause severe local outbreaks and death.
Duck Virus Enteritis
A viral disease of waterfowl; bloody feces, cloaca, and nares; slow movements, reduced wariness, internal hemorrhaging, convulsions, and rapid death; can be acute but rarely found in North America.
Eqip
A voluntary conservation program for farmers and ranchers that promotes agricultural production and environmental quality as compatible national goals.
Conservation Stewardship Program
A voluntary federal conservation program that encourages producers to address resource concerns in a comprehensive manor.
Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program
A voluntary federal program for conservation-minded landowners who want to develop and improve wildlife habitat on agricultural land, nonindustrial private forestland, and Indian land.
Conservation Reserve Program
A voluntary federal program to conserve cover.
Food
A welfare factor and habitat component.
Artificial feeding
A wildlife management tool to resolve a problem with a welfare factor that may be detrimental in the long run.
"When the game manager asks himself whether a given piece of land is suitable for a given species of game, he must realize that he is asking no simple question."
A. Leopold - Habitat requirements and management; requires lots of pieces to come together to be suitable for wildlife - Much of habitat goes unseen/hard to see (soil, climate, temperature, etc.) and understand effects/importance to wildlife
Intrinsic Flaws
Abnormal conditions existing at birth and passed from parents to young through the genes (missing toes, albinism).
Botulism
Affect particularily waterfowl. Causes muscle paralysis and inability to fly or walk"limberneck" due to paralysis of neck muscles, paralysis of inner eyelid.
Tuberculosis
Affects Ungulates, such as white tailed deer. Emaciation, depression, intolerance of movement, large abscesses in the lymph nodes of the neck, necrotic foci head neck .
Duck Virus Enteritis
Affects Waterfowl. Causes bloody feces, cloaca, nares. Internal hemorraging lesion on intestines. Scab covered ulceration in mouth under tongue, convulsion followed by rapid mortality.
West Nile Virus
Affects birds, horses, primates, chipmunks, and squirrels. Causes depression, weight loss, neurological signs such as abnormal posture. In coordination, impaired vision, weakness, lack of awareness
Sylvatic Plague
Affects mammals, especially rodents. Causes enlarged spleen, hemorroagic nodules in lymph system, death within 3-5 days when virulent
Lyme disease
Affects white tailed deer, reptiles, rodents. Few signs or effects in wildlife. Painful joints, fever, behavior changes, possible death if not treated in humans
Management Units
Alaska, Canada, Mexico
Trophic Level
All animals here get food the same general way.
Hard
An abrupt edge.
Parasite
An animal or plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and from whose body it obtains nutrients.
Inherent
An edge type that is a relatively permanent part of the landscape.
Border Edge Cut
An edge-softening practice.
Moralistic
An ethical concern for animal welfare.
Achievement
An individual hunting motivation.
Fence Row
An often shrubby, diverse strip of vegetation, usually around a field, that can be tremendous habitat for wildlife.
BMR
Basal metabolic rate.Minimum amount of energy an animal needs. The rate of energy expenditure by humans and other animals at rest.
Conservation Tillage
Better cultivation methods.
Reproductive Physiology and Behavior
Biological clocks - All go through brain and endocrine system to produce certain developments - Implications - Space as a welfare factor - Crowding, disturbance, and other stressors - General adaptation syndrome (GAS) or non-specific stress response Stressor --> pituitary gland -ACTH-> Adrenal Cortex --> Corticoid Hormones --> Disease resistance, water balance, glucose metabolism; growth, development of sex organs and behaviors, other
" it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place. If you want to get somewhere else you must run at least twice as fast!"
L. Carroll, Queen in Alice In Wonderland - Habitat is always changing - Will get worse if nothing is done/managed - Takes large amounts of work just to maintain to meet status quo
Density
Can be a misleading indicator of habitat quality.
Fertilizer
Can help plant growth, plant can also be detrimental to wildlife and habitat.
Habitat
Cannot have wildlife without it.
Utilization
Carbohydrates>Fats>Proteins
Distemper
Carnivores and omnivores. Nasal and ocular discharge. Anorexia, lack of fear, aggresivenes, convulsive movements of head and feet, aimless wandering, dehydration, and excessive thirst.
Home ranges
Carnivores>Herbivores Gregarious>Solitary
Integrated Pest Management
Combining biological, chemical, and cultural methods of controlling pests.
Important of Predators
Communities - Stability and diversity Prey - Buffer species - Why predators don't usually wipe out prey - Once levels of prey are so low, make them hard to find - When primary prey low in abundance, switch prey (buffer species) - Cycles and regulation - Some predators and prey, in simple systems, track each other and lead to cycles ( "Thinking like a mountain" - Removes wolves, deer come up and destroy vegetation
Exploitative
Competition where one species obtains resources faster or more efficiently than another species.
Tradition
Consumptive uses of wildlife are deeply ingrained in the culture and _____ of many parts of the world.
Herbicide
Controls weeds.
Landscape
Large scale habitat.
Cover crop
Crop planted after the primary one is harvested to conserve the soil.
Plow
Cultivation Tool.
What 2 things decrease population?
Deaths, Emigration
Proper Nutrition
Diverse dier (many different option) - Much more important to herbivores Carnivore vs. herbivore - Carnivore could probably live off one species, but herbivores are harder to provide for (from mgmt. POV) because quality is more important than quantity; suffer from welfare side of food - Food for herbivores may not have all vitamins/minerals needed - Energy - Other components - Parts of food not the same - Selectivity: no plant exists that will provide all needed nutrients - Protein and vitamin issues for herbivores - B12 found in no plants - Also problems w/ protein (getting enough) - Need large amounts during breeding season (i.e., 24% protein for quail in breeding season)
Diminishing Returns
Do we need strict regulations or is the harvest self-regulating? - The Law of Diminishing Returns - Northern Bobwhite - When there's more to see, more hunters in field - When there's less to see, less hunters in field - Don't drive populations to extinction - Don't harvest as many when many aren't present - Abundance and harvest proportional - Can't keep up with population growth when population is very large
Bailey's Ecoregions
Domains (Broadest) - Ecological climate zones - S. FL: Humid Tropical - E. U.S.: Humid Temperate - W. U.S.: Dry - W. Coast: Humid Temperate - Alaska: Polar - Hawaii, Puerto Rico: Humid Tropical Divisions (More narrow) - Ecological climate zones and rainfall patterns - NC, SC, GA: majority Subtropical, northern parts mountainous hot continental - TN: Hot continental with some mountainous hot continental - AL, MS, LA: mostly subtropical with some Hot continental in N. AL - AR: mostly subtropical with some hot continental in the N and mountains in the N and W - OK: E side of state is prairie and W side of state is tropical/subtropical steppe with the N. being temperate steppe - TX: W/C state tropical/subtropical steppe and E part of state some prairie - N. FL: Subtropical - S. FL: Savanna Provinces (Most narrow) - Ecological climate zones and macrovegetation - First introduce broad scale vegetation types - FL: N is Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest and S is Everglades - GA:Mix between Southeastern Mixed Forest, Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest, and some Central Appalachian Broadleaf Forest - Meadow in the N - SC: Mix between Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest and SE Mixed Forest with small part of Central Appalachian Broadleaf Forest - Meadow in NW corner - NC: Mix between Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest and SE Mixed Forest - TN: Contains SE Mixed Forest, E Broadleaf Forest (Continental), E Broadleaf Forest (Oceanic) - AR: Contains Ozark Broadleaf Forest - Meadow, Lower MS Riverine Forest, Ouachita Mixed Forest - Meadow, SE Mixed Forest, and E Broadleaf Forest (Continental) - OK: Contains E Broadleaf Forest (Continental), Praire Parkland (temperate), Prairie Parkland (Subtropical), Great Plains Steppe and Shrub, and some Great Plains- Palouse Dry Steppe - MS: Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest, SE Mixed Forest, Lower MS Riverine Forest - LA: Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest, SE Mixed Forest, Lower MS Riverine Forest - TX: SW Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe and Shrub, Prairie Parkland (Subtropical), SE Mixed Forest, Great Plains Steppe - AL: E Broadleaf Forest (Continental), SE Mixed Forest, Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest
Bots
Larvae of flies found in mammals, especially deer (nasal area) and Scurids; only a nuisance to wildlife; aesthetically unpleasing to hunters.
Bots
Larvae of flies found in mammals, especially deer (nasal area) and sciurid's; only a nuisance to wildlife; aesthetically unpleasing to hunters.
Important Fats
Meat, legumes. Amino acids and enzymes
Cover
Often confused with habitat.
Edge
Often measured as a linear distance.
What act affected the MVP?
National Forest Management Act of `796
Stopover sites
National wildlife refuges. Ex: Mississippi flyway Canada geese
What are some managment practices that will benefit large carnivores in Africa?
Needs to focused on management of livestock.Allow sport hunters to remove problem animals. Open sanctuaries. In more developed regions;synchronizing calving, the use of portable electric fences, increased vigilance by shepherd during breeding season, the use of livestock guard dogs, frightening devices(sirens, strobe lights), taste averse conditioning.
Lungworms
Nematode worms of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; common but typically few signs in wild animals; heavily infected animals show weakness, weight loss, and respiratory distress; may lead to secondary infections and overall health decline in heavily infected animals.
Lungworms
Nematode worms of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; common but typically few signs in wild animals; heavily infected animals show weakness, weight loss, and respiratory distress; may lead to secondary infections and overall health decline in heavily infected populations.
Meningeal worms
Nematodes of mammals, especially ungulates (deer); incoordination, paralysis, cranial inflammation, and death; no effects on white-tailed deer but deadly to other cervids.
Psoroptes
Ear mites (parasites) affecting primarily deer; lesions of the ears, with heavy infestations leading to secondary bacterial infections; few effects except with heavy infections, which may reduce overall health.
Biodiversity
Often only refers to species richness.
Yield
Often used synonymously with population growth rate.
Meningeal Worms
Nematodes of mammals, especially ungulates; incoordination, paralysis, cranial inflammation, and death; no effects on white-tailed deer but deadly to other Cervids.
Regulated Hunting
No species has ever gone extinct as a result of _____ _____.
Ecofallow
Not growing a crop in a field for a period of time specifically for environmental benefits.
Poaching
Not hunting, but often called a form of hunting.
How do people get involved in hunting, fishing, etc.?
On their own Family * - As children - Remain active - "Traditional hunters" Friends - As young adults - More likely to quit
Cover
One aspect of habitat. A place that enhances survival and/or reproduction, and protects. Leopold calls it a shelter for wildlife.
Gun
One of Leopold's Tools.
8 factors that influence wildlife reproduction
Onset and length of breeding season, litter/clutch size, prenatal survival, survival of newborns, parental care, age at sexual maturity, population structure, sex ratios/ mating habits.
Psoroptes
Ear mites (parasites) affecting primarily deer; lesions on ears, with heavy infestations leading to secondary bacterial infections; few effects except with heavy infestations, which may reduce overall health and condition
Prenatal Survival
Gestation and incubation (how well do you survive; most mammals don't incubate) - Fertility vs. natality Environmental factors and implications - Nutrition and habitat (condition of parents, especially mom) - If mom is in good shape, less likely to leave nest (habitat related) - Sex ratios (e.g. deer) - Manageable
Second law of thermodynamics
Explains why carnivores are scarce by comparing a wolf & a moose.
Mange
External parasites (various mites) of many mammals; hair loss, dry skin, and skin damage from scratching and biting; mortality rare but may weaken heavily infested animals
Set aside
Government programs, such as parts of the Farm Bill, that divert cropland from production for conservation purposes or to adjust commodity production and prices.
Metapopulations
Groups of local populations - Subpopulations or demes: more localized, discrete populations - Size, quality, connectivity, and distance (I & E important) - Affects small and big picture - Island Biogeography and Conservation Biology - Matrix: unusable space between local populations
Mange
External parasites (various mites) of various mammals; hair loss, dry skin, and skin damage from scratching and biting; mortality very rare but may weaken heavily infested animals.
Exposure
Extreme cold or heat, blowing snow, or intense rain or hail - Direct (DI) and indirect (DD) effects of weather - DD vs. DI factor - Periphery of range - DI have most effect on edge of species distribution because transitioning into less favorable conditions on edge Food, cover, and water - Proximate vs. ultimate Welfare or decimating factor? - Killed with hail stone to head: decimating - Wasn't considered originally by Leopold Density-dependent? - Protective Refugia Management implications
"Imagine that you are six inches tall, weigh six ounces, and would you rather walk than fly. Your view of the world would change. A knee-high shrub would become a small tree, a dense stand of bluestem would become an impassable jungle, and a one-mile jog would telescope into a half-marathon."
F. Guthery - Imagine view/conditions for animals to understand environment
Fence
Farmers use a lot of this; it can disrupt wildlife movements but provides habitat if managed properly.
Content
Fat>Protein>Carbohydrates
USFWS
Federal agency that manages wildlife.
Carrying Capacity (K)
Habitat Resources and Conditions - Welfare Factors - Decimating Factors: conditions What about: - Soil: affect plants that could be food or cover - Weather: affect climate ALL FACTORS CHANGE THROUGH TIME AND SPACE! Variation - Spatially - Temporally
What types of stochastic events are there?
Genetic Stochasticity Environmental Stochasticity Natural Stochasticity Demographic stochasticity(only affects the smallest of populations, involves the BBDBDD v.DDDBBB)
Use
Habitat _____ can be deceiving when trying to understand what is best for wildlife.
Life Spans
Harvested populations typically have shorter average _____ _____.
Market Hunting
Harvesting animals for sale.
Predation: Case of Quail
Have we failed as managers fi we must control predators to have quail to hunt? - Literature review - Weak or lack of data - Habitat management = predator management - IPM: Integrated Pest Management (increase quail = increase habitat, if need more = target primary pests) - Sympatric (overlapping), parapatric (adjacent but not overlapping), allopatric (space used doesn't touch or overlap) - Proximate vs. ultimate factors - Irruptions
Trophic levels
Help us to understand how many resources are available ○ rarely make it higher then the 3rd level.
Warm Season Grass
Herbaceous plants used in pastures and hay fields that like it hot.
Anthrax
Herbivorous animals mainly ruminants such as white-tailed deer. Causes weakness, fever, blood loss from body openings, septicemic disease, engorgement of the spleen. Lymph nodes swollen and bloody, rapid mortality.
Trial and Error
Historical method of determining harvest regulations.
Johnsons Level: Second order
Home range within geographic range (landscape/macrohabitat)
Density independent
Horizontal line.
Connectivity
How interlocked habitats are.
Carrying Capacity
How many animals the environment can support.
Interspersion
How mixed habitats are.
Safety
Hunter _____ has improved dramatically in recent decades making it better than most popular sporting activities.
Education
Hunter _____ programs have led to a safer experience.
Fund
Hunters _____ most wildlife conservation, even that of nongame.
Decimating
Hunting is a _____ factor.
Fair Chase
Teddy's Bear - FDR didn't harvest bear because thought it didn't have a fair chance to get away from him
Community Baboon Sanctuary
The _____ _____ _____ in Belize does not protect the species in its name.
Pleistocene Overkill
The _____ _____ may be the first example of overharvest.
Plow
The agricultural Tool.
Sedimentation
The detrimental filling of aquatic and wetland habitats.
Women
The fastest growing segment of the hunting community.
USDA
The federal farm agency.
Climax
The final successional stage.
Axe
The forestry Tool.
Cow
The grazing Tool.
Macrohabitat
The immediate, largescale environment, as can be seen with the naked eye; flora, fauna, topography, climate in the broad sense, as an animal would experience it.
First order
The level of habitat selection dealing with the distribution of a species.
Maximum Sustainable Yield
The maximum number of animals that are available for sustainable harvest.
Juxtaposition
The minimum amount of habitat mixing.
Bag Limit
The number of animals that may be legally harvested.
Food Security Act
The original Farm Bill.
Subsistence
The original reason for hunting.
Vegetation Association
The plant community portion of a habitat.
Realized
The portion of a niche that a species actually exists in.
Harvestable Surplus
The portion of a population that can be harvested.
Epizootiology
The science that deals with the frequency, distribution, character, ecology, and causes of outbreaks of animal diseases.
Scale
The scope or relative area of consideration.
Etiology
The study of the cause or origin of disease
Parasitology
The study of the structural and functional causes and effects produced by parasites from the molecular to the population level.
Agrochemicals
Their increased use since the 1950s in the U.S. is a leading cause of wildlife and habitat decline in farmlands.
NRCS
They administer many Farm Bill programs.
Farm Service Agency
They administer part of the Farm Bill.
Do wildlife typically select the plant species or particular growth pattern?
They look for growth form.
Land ethic
This belief may or may not include consumptive wildlife use.
Soil
This has tremendous affects on habitat, especially the plants.
Clean Farming
Tidiness that ruined farms for wildlife.
Tertiary sex ratio
Time after hatching to sexual mature adults. Juveniles, your next breeders.
Types of Disease
Toxicoses (poisons) - Organophosphate an carbamate pesticides - Organochlorine pesticides and PCB compounds - Aflatoxicosis - Lead poisoning - Oil toxicosis
Chronic Wasting disease
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy. Affects Deer, elf, moose. Progressive weight loss, changes in temperament. Nervousness, hyperactivity, teeth grinding, repitive walking patterns, excessive thirst and urination, drooping of head and ears. excessive salivation.
Liver Flukes
Trematode parasites of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; liver cysts and mild anemia; little affect except at high levels, which reduces health, and in sheep, where it can be deadly.
Liver flukes
Trematode parasites of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; liver cysts and mild anemia; little affect except at high levels, which reduces health, and in sheep, where it can be deadly; often obtained from cattle.
Migration
Two(multi-way) movement, usually between seasonal home ranges. Not all species. Benefits: access to predictable resources.
Wildlife Habitat Ecology and Management
What goes on within ecoregion/major habitats? - Finer levels * - Remember broader ecosystem and resources that determine ecosystem - Processes and dynamics - Components and conditions
Basics of Population Ecology
What is a population? - Group of same species living in a particular place at a particular time Why not deal with individuals? - Hard to manage individuals, but do manage endangered species individually
Available
What is out there for wildlife to use as habitat.
Useable Space
What is really available for wildlife to use as habitat; a method of considering habitat availability.
Fair chase
What society believes is a necessity for hunting to continue.
Ecological Sacrifice
What some people think should happen to agricultural lands because they are so bad as wildlife habitat anyway.
Intraspecific
_____ competition exists within species.
Contour
_____ farming is beneficial in hilly areas to conserve soil.
Linear
_____ habitat features such as roadsides are valuable wildlife habitat.
Trophy
_____ hunting is a reason some people hunt that may not be viewed favorably.
Macrohabitat
_____ is a vague term referring to a moderate-to-large scale.
Dispersal
a one way movement, where an animal abandons its home range in search of a new one. Often called migration but not by wildlife people.
Leptospirosis
affects mammals such as raccoon. Asymptomatic. Chronically infected individuals may have kidney damage detectable microscopically.
Ectotherm
animal that is dependent on external sources for body heat.
Endotherm
animal that is dependent on internal heat generation. Warm-blooded.
Home Range
areas transversed by animals during normal activities. Not space used temporally
Numerical Response
as number of prey increases, so does predator density until it becomes constant; other factors eventually begin to impact predators.
Ecological trap
attracts wildlife b/c it looks good but its not.
How do Jaguars select prey?
based on their abundance and risks. They will pick an armadillo over tapir.
Edge
biologically diverse patches of land where edge species (gray catbird, cottontail) benefit the most.
Poikilotherms
body temperature changes with environment.
Prey
buffer species, benefits cycles and regulation
K
carrying capacity, the max number the environment can support.
Aggregated dispersion
clumped, contagious, individuals are closer together
Ultimate
contributed to its death, underlying things, often related to welfare factors.
Biological clocks
control wildlife activity patterns, includes circadian rhythms(time), circannual cycles(day/season), photo period(daylight).
Critical area
core or key area place with the most limiting place or conditions
Direct
dealing with the disease wildlife themselves
Food digestibility
different adaptations in digestive systems.
Why do wildlife need water?
digestion, metabolism, excretion, cooling, and cover
Scale-dependant
dispersion looks different at different scales broader scales are almost always clumped
Starches and sugars
easy to digest
Coprophagy
eating feces.
Digestible energy
energy after energy lost in feces is subtracted
Metabolize energy
energy amount after energy lost in urine in methane is subtracted
fundamental niche
environments in which an organism can thrive in the absence of inter-species interactions
Random dispersion
equal probability of an organism occurring anywhere in space.
Vitamins
essential in small amounts. Lack of A in quail can cause reproductive failure.
Uniform dispersion
even spaced individuals based on chance.
Polyandry
female mates with a lot of males
Energy reserves
food cash where animals stores food
Habitat management is the manipulation of
food, cover,water, and space (quantity, quality, & distribution)
Population
groups of individuals together.
Metapopulation
groups of local population, population of populations. Smaller populations that collectively make up a species.
Cellulose
hard to digest
Fats
have the most gross energy but not useable
Fidelity
how much home range changes from year to year
How does age affect herps and fish?
increases reproductions, size is what matters not age.
Type III pattern of survival
innermost line. huge losses at young age. Ex:Fish
r
instrinsic rate of increase of births-deaths.
Soft fragmentation
is more biologically diverse then hard fragmentation thus it is more beneficial to wildlife being that it will provide a more lush habitat.
Food Availability
isthe quantity, accessibility, and digestibility.
Chronic stress on an animal
leads to reproductive decline because of effects on cortoid hormones; which affect the development of sex organs, growth, disease resistance, water balance, glucose, metabolism. (Stressor-Pituitary gland -adrenal cortex - cortoid hormones)
Generalist
live anywhere, can be a pest(coyote)
Bird digestive systems
made of: crop(stores food), 2 stomachs, Proventriculus(breaks down food w/enzymes), Gizzard(grinds food, seeds)
Homeotherms
maintain body temperature internally for the most part. Generally use or need more energy than Poikilotherms.
Polygyny
male mates with many females
Promiscuity
males and females multiple mates.
Exogenous Poisons
Poisons introduced or produced outside the organism or system (not synthesized within the organism or system). These poisons produce injury to tissues, damage to liver and kidneys, and upset of metabolic activities.
Why Harvest?
Subsistence - Large amounts of protein come from hunting, rely on it to get enough meat (price, quantity, etc.) Management - Population stability - Overpopulation - Health of animals - Condition of the environment - Obtain population information Individual motivations
3 individual motivations for people that hunt
Subsistence, Management, Individual Motivations
why learn ecological principles?
So we know how the basic habitat components interact with wildlife
Humane
Society mandates that harvest methods be as _____ as possible.
Endocrine Disruption
Some chemicals may cause this in wildlife, which can be physiologically detrimental.
Nonhunter
Someone who does not hunt but is not against hunting.
Antihunter
Someone who is against hunting.
Types of mortality
Starvation, Malnutrition, Disease/parasites, Accidents, Exposure, Harvest.
Indirect
manipulate the environment, make the habitat better, used prescribed burning.
Why is density a misleading indicator of habitat quality for wildlife?
maybe it was the only thing available, even if they find alot of animals it could be an ecological trap. (Pine martins and fishers)
Dr.Geist kill cabbages
means its not about the kill its about the process
What provides the most protein?
meat
Type II pattern of survival
middle line. r-selected, unstable environment, have potential for population to explode.
antihunter attitude
moralistic, humanistic
inherent
natural edge (BETTER FOR WILDLIFE = MOREBIODIVERSITY) *Induced is a manmade edge
Specialist
need specific cover(black footed ferret)
Natality
number of births/hatchlings
Reproductive fecundity
number of gametes produced
N=
number of individuals
Recruitment
number of offspring that live long enough to reproduce. What managers are most interested in.
Primary succession
occurs in an environment in which new substrate, devoid of vegetation and usually lacking soil, is deposited in order to normalize the habitat
Secondary succession
occurs on substrate that previouslysupported vegetation before a disturbance destroyed the plantlife; most common, wildlife does best.
What varies digestibility?
plant defenses, and hard animal parts.
What lead to less offspring(50%) in white-tailed deer?
poor nutrition
K<N
population declines. ex:not enough resources.
dn/dt
populations growth rate. Based on r (but not r)
Depredation
predation on livestock.Ex: panthers eating livestock.
What foraging strategies do Jaguars use?
prey relative to its abundance
Habitat selection
process involving a series of innate & learned behavioral decisions made by an animal about what habitats it would use at different scales of the landscape; MOST IMPORTANT
Thermal neutral zone
range of temperatures for homeotherms in which it does not have to expend energy to stay warm or stay cool. Example: shivering costs energy.
Secondary sex rations
ratio at instance of birth, usually 50:50
Minerals
referred to as a nutrient, do not need alot but important
Protective Refugia Principle
refers to a threshold of security The more the prey, the less protective refugia available ■ Predation is often density dependent in this case
What 2 things can drive population size?
sex and age.
Quaternary sex ratio
sexual mature adults. Biggest influence on reproductive success.
Critical Habitat
specific areas within the geographic area occupied by a federally listed species on which are found physical and biological features essential to the conservation of the species, and that may require special management
Food selection
the most important for management. It is the ratio of food use to food availability. You have to determine which food is most important.
Habitat use
the observed distribution of animals among habitats
Proximate
the thing that actually killed it
Covert
thicket where an animal can hide
Theory of Island Biogeography
this theory attempted to predict the number of species that would exist on a newly created island.
Normal
those that a species evolved with, types or rates.
Abnormal
types or rates that they didn't evolve. They do not have an adaptation
Barriers to movements
unusable, habitat, thick covers, roads, water, fences.
1-N/K
unused portion of carrying capacity
Baiting
using artificial food used to hunt, is this fair chase?
Hunters attitude
utilitarian, naturalistic
Predators
very important to ecosystems, communities are more stable.Often when removed 1 or 2 prey species take over.
Fertility
viable gametes number
Is cover welfare or decimating?
welfare
Harvestable surplus
what Leopold referred to as the doomed surplus; they are going to die anyway so hunting didn't add additional deaths. Today it is any individual we can take.
Food use
what did the animal eat? Can be deceiving.
Net energy
what the animal gets after energy lost during digestion is subtracted.
Allee effect
when a small population grows faster when the organisms are at high population density than it would if the population was at low density.
Shooter stage
where most people start when hunting, motivation is the oppurtuniry
Starvation
you are not getting enough of everything
Malnutrition
you are not getting the diversity of things you need. Ultimate, weakening factor, underlying.
50/500 rule
you need at least 50 individuals for a population to exist short term. You need 500 to last 500 years. (not a good enough rule)
Leopolds Tools
● Ax: Forestry ● Plow :Agriculture ● Cow:Livestock ● Fire:Natural/Prescribed Burn ● Gun:Harvest
4 management strategies/regulations
● Set up seasons to prevent overharvest, year round ● Set bag limits ● Permits ● Sex/age to be taken
Niche
A set of resources and conditions describing where a species can exist.
Irrigation
Providing water.
Proximate vs. Ultimate Factors
Proximate (immediate cause) - Implications
realized niche
the actual space that an organism inhabits and the resources it can access as a result of limiting pressures from other species
Dispersion
the distribution of organisms in space. Can be bad if invasive.
Gross energy
the energy lost in the digestion process
3 harvest management principles
1.Yield 2.Diminishing returns*Compensatory harvest mortality 3. Doomed surplus (Threshold of security,Harvestable surplus)
PETA
- "PETA is calling on the Boy Scouts of American to retire its "Fishing" and "Fish and Wildlife Management" merit badges" - "Promoting fishing teaches young people that hooking, maiming, suffocating, and killing is acceptable. This is a dangerous lesson, one that hurts not only the fish struggling for their lives at the end of a hook, but all of us." - "...cruelty to animals is a warning sign often seen in people who eventually direct violence toward humans. In fact, published reported show that in every single case of recent school shootings, there has been one consistent factor: All the young killers abused or killed animals before turning on their classmates. Of course, not every child who abuses animals will hurt or kill a human begin. But every child who picks up a gun or a rod and uses it to harm another living being must deaden a piece of his or her heart." - " Animal slavery (livestock) is still causing an amount of pain and suffering that can only be compared to with that which resulted form the centuries of tyranny by white humans over black humans." - Holocaust - Child abuse - The oppression of women - Native American genocide
Sex Ratios
- % males: % females (most commonly expressed); first number is always males and second is female - 36:64 - # males/#females - 1 buck/2 does - # males/100 females - 2 males/100 females
Mortality Rates
- %/time, #/time, or ind/ind*time (d) - Daily - Seasonal - Annual (most common) - Sex/age class - Different ones have different survival rates
Population Structure
- 2 degree factors (population ecology) - Age of population pyramid - graphically represent sex structure/age structure - Suggest things about a population - Left side: male, right side: female - Longer the bar, the more individuals - For most populations, large mounts of offspring (larger bottom) but decrease as age increases (healthy population; should look like this graph) - If larger area is in middle of age group, either there are reproductive values or were reproduced and had really high survival in the beginning weeks (may be declining if continues) - If blip every other year, could be natural or bad year for something (back bear populations have reproductive success every other year due to food, nutrition which for bears is acorns; oak trees have abundant crops every other year)
Carbohydrates
- 3.9 - 4.2 kcal/g - Cellulose, starches, sugars (quick) - Plants (opposed to meats) - Availability/digestibility - Sugars are easily digestible, get most energy from them
Protein
- 5.7 kcal/g - Amino acids (need for growth building blocks) - Meat and legumes (beans, peas, clover) - Availability/digestibility
" I tried but I can try no more I cried byt I can cry no more I failed to bring young chick's cry into this world Time now bids me say farewell The sun is setting and I must go But I will come again next year.. and try Until I die."
- A Curlew's Farewell, J.N. Allen - Seems that for many species, focus is to reproduce to carry on species and genetic traits
Dispersal
- A one-way movement, where an animal abandons its home range in search of a new one - Emigration (E): exit - Immigration (I) into - Migration = dispersal - Inter- (between species) and intra- (between individuals of same species) specific differences - Poorly understood - Active (move yourself [walk, run, etc.])vs. passive (hitch ride, i.e. move down stream) - Why disperse? - Greater access to rescues/mates, when benefits outweigh costs
Ideal Harvest Management
- Adaptive Harvest Management - Determine the status of the resource - Research and monitoring - Mandatory reporting, check stations, surveys, large scale studies - Use less quality, less data approaches - Determine the objectives and goals - Biological, social, economic, and enforcement considerations - Mgmt. increase, decrease, maintain, stabilize pop. size - Split wildlife mgmt. into population mgmt. and habitat mgmt. and both can help achieve goals (1 of 4 things) - Wildlife viewing, hunting, fishing, etc. - Wildlife damage - Wildlife disease (e.g. CWD, rabies) - Habitat and community effects (e.g. brain worm) - MSY or OSY - Quality vs. quantity - Establish management strategies - Seasons - Opening day phenomenon: have more hunters if on weekend, so higher harvest rate; doesn't matter when it is, but highest harvest rates will occur on opening day - Bag limits; Methods; Sex and age taken; Permits; Areas; effects on and of farming, timer, and non- consumptive wildlife uses; safety; enforcement - Determine how closely the management strategy achieves the objectives and goals - Adjust management strategies - Adaptive management - History, trial and error, and human dimensions - Typically two steps are skipped: monitoring and research because these two cost money - Without monitoring, don't know if harvest mgmt. plan had effect - Harvests can stabilize populations (mgmt. tool)
Compensatory
- Additive vs. Compensatory Mortality - Help understand why no effect but help determine number harvested without having effect - Additive: add harvested individuals to increase overall death rate - Compensatory: harvest individuals that wouldn't died anyway - Temporal Study (collect data year after year) - Determine what level when harvest switches from additive to compensatory - When introduce hunting, becomes additive - Waterfowl and intersex differences - Case Study: Ruffed Grouse - ACGRP (Wildlife Monograph #168) - First 3 yrs: all sites with hunting - Next 3 yrs: 3 sites closed to hunting - S(hunting) = S (no hunting) - Surivival didn't change with hunting, so hunting = compensatory - Not just # of individuals harvested that determines additive or compensatory, but also TIMING of harvest - Late season harvest = additive - Beginning of season = not additive - Management Implications - Harvest as compensatory mortality so no longterm effects - Doomed surplus: animals that would've died - Harvestable surplus includes doomed and any inidivudals that can be removed w/o causing problem - Predation is compensatory so doesn't improve survival
Nutrition
- Affects condition, mortality, and reproduction - Wildlife goal: control population size - Population Dynamics (i.e., N) - Food and water = welfare or decimating factors? - Depends on situation and how acting or affecting environment
Food (& Components) Availability
- Affects wildlife as management tool - Quantity - Accessibility/availability - Digestibility - Plant defenses - Hard animal parts - Effects on movements and distribution - Native - Food plots - Supplemental feeding
Home Range
- Area traversed by an animal during its normal daily activities (space where animal gets all of what it needs) - Fulfill all requirements: food, cover, water, space, mates, etc. - No sally's (temporary random movements [not part of normal daily activity]) or temporary movements (not considered part of home range) - Important? - Important because home range determines what kind of environment an animal prefers to live in and what type of environment supports it best - Movement rates species - Can have more than one home range - Why? - Summer vs. Winter - Migration route in-between doesn't count as HR - One space can't provide all that's needed all the time (seasonal) - Sexual segregation (differ between sexes) - Fidelity - Variation in size: why? - Larger > smaller - Gregarious > solitary - Carnivores > herbivores (trophic levels and energy transfer) - Males (more resource needs) > females - Age: Sometimes juvie > adult, adult > juvie - Season - Conditions - Population density - Hard to put general trend on age --> population density because situational - Spatial requirements - Habitat relationships
Types of disease (living organisms)
- Avian cholera - Tularemia - Brucellosis - Sylvatic Plague - Dick Virus Enteritis - Aspergillosis: fungal disease - Botulism - Leptospirosis - Anthrax - West Nile Virus - Lyme Disease - Rabies - Distemper - Avian Pox - Salmonella - Tuberculosis - Hemorrhagic Disease - Chronic Wasting Disease - List given: known name of virus and effects
"Cover is a magic word in wildlife management. It is, indeed, often a magic wand with which wild animals and birds are made to populate places formerly uninhabitable. ... It seems desirable that we should week to analyze the complex nature of cover more carefully."
- C. Elton
Types of Predation
- Chance - Habit* (one of most common) - Know what prey looks like, searches specifically for - Sucker list* (one of most common) - When predator takes unsophisticated, stupid (young) prey - Starvation of prey, no food source, venture out and die - Sanitary (only ever kill weak, old, and injuried) - All may be used by one species Depredation? - Technically same thing - Used when referring to predation of nests or livestock Jaguar case study - Which of these was most common for jaguar? -
"...as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must be a struggle for existence."
- Charles Darwin - Natural process, most mortality forms are thought of as beneficial to population - Species evolve reproductive rates to balance mortality
Activity Patterns and Biological Clocks
- Circadian rhythms - What time is it? - Circannual cycle- What day/season is it? (more of calendar) - Environmental cues: photoperiod (when most active) - Diurnal (daytime), nocturnal (nighttime), crepuscular (dawn and dusk) - Sets clock for animals (food, temperature, etc., but photoperiod most important) - Photoperiod: length of the day (can tell roughly with time of day it is by looking at sunrise, sunset, etc.) - How much daylight, and if it's getting longer/shorter
Island Biogeography
- Closer habitat patches are together, easier access = higher colonization, use - When a corridor is applied, facilitates movement - Lower colonization rate further away from each other - Greater use and fewer extinctions in large islands that are close together - Smaller island patch that are further apart = less resources, more likely to go extinct
Critical Ares
- Core or key area - Part(s) of the home range where limiting resources or conditions are located - Concentrated movements - Important? - Provide information on what is used most by wildlife in that location as well as what is needed by wildlife in that area
Cover
- Cover vs. Habitat: when talking about habitat, typically mean cover - Covert: same thing as cover, just has extra letter (t) - Any estruture resource of the environment that enhances reproduction and/or survival of wildlife by provision for any of the natural functions of the species (Baily 1984) - A place that encase survival or reproduction (welfare factor) - Shelter for wildlife that consists of vegetation and topographic (could be more than vegetation and topographic features) features that provide places to feed, hide, sleep, play, and raise young (Leopold 1933) - Doesn't include artificial structures - Recognizing wildlife adaptations to cover to provide correct cover - Jack rabbit (hairless ears to dissipate heat) - Live in open range-land systems, eyes in front of heat, fast - Cottontail rabbit - Old field, scattered bushes, eyes on side of heat to see predator close, maneuverable - Management - Multi-dimensional and 360 degrees - Movement, shelter, and visibility - Might be able to see from some angles but not others
"Food shortage appears to be the chief natural factor limiting the numbers of many birds, of various carnivorous and herbivorous mammals, of many larger marine fish, and of certain predatory insects."
- D. Lack
"...starvation outside the breeding season is the most important density dependent factor in wild birds."
- D. Lack - For many species, particularly with birds
"All living things ew destined to die and be recycled as a part of the flow of energy through the life community. Which is to say, a creature must feed, and sooner or later it will be fed upon."
- D.L. Allen - Predation can be significant decimating factor
Aldo Leopold's Population Model
- Decimating factors: Include harvest, predation, starvation, disease, accidents; kills animals directly - Welfare factors: food, cover, water; indirectly affect population size, growth rate, makes more vulnerable to decimating factors if in small amounts - Other possibilities? - Exposure to very adverse situations (extreme) - Space: 4th factor; quality, quantity - Harvest = removal (not biological factor; any type of removal) - The limiting factor (link)? - Depends on species and situation - Arrow pulling most (affect K most) - Influences: land-uses, weather, fire - "Cover": enhance reproduction and survival - Special factors: wallow, dust, etc.
Deer Yards
- Deer can't exist without these in winter - Limiting type - Snow, wind, and temperature - Food (use more energy trying to get food vs. digesting) - Limting factor/link - Think about the brushy hillside
Other Patterns of Abundance
- Density-dependent vs. density-independent factors - Causes? A. More common; almost always reproductive lag - Factors have more influence B. Chaotic growth: grow due to density-independent factors C. Cycle: occurs when initial growth phase missed - Simple ecosystems - Caused by removing large limiting factor/effect D. Population hovers around K but then spikes and returns back to hovering around K; eruptive growth - Whatever most important limiting factor is = removed
Starvation and Malnutrition
- Difference? - Starvation: quantity issue (more important for carnivores; can still have malnutrition issues) - Malnutrition: quality issue, lack various nutrients (herbivores; can still starve to death) - How common are these forms of mortality? - More common than thought of - Welfare or Decimating factors? - Food can be decimating or welfare factor - Proximate or ultimate factor? - Can be either (weaken or starve to death [proximate cause]) - Artificial feeding v. Habitat improvement - Food is limiting for many species; some have to be fed or else they wouldn't exist due to habitat loss and degradation - Would like to provide food natural through wildlife management - Artificial feeding can often have bad consequences - Baiting and ethics - Attract with food to boost hunting - Management implications - Failed as managers? - If temporary, not big deal, but don't want to have to continue - Good intentions with bad results - If given too good food, can result in death due to starvation because can't be broken down
Water
- Digestion, metabolism, excretion, and cooling - Cover - Sources - Free water (drink): pond, puddles, dew, etc. - Foods (juicy foods): seeds (2-3%), animal tissue and succulent plants (up to 70%) - Metabolism (metabolic water): byproduct of food breakdown; fats (1.07 ml/g; provide plants high in fat because if can digest, get most water from fats), proteins (0.40 ml/g), carbohydrates (0.56 ml/g) - Size, sex, age, and season - Adaptations - Effects on distribution
Disease and Parasites
- Disease: any condition of the body in which there is an incorrect function, could be living organism (parasite, virus), genetic abnormality - Parasite: plant or animal that lives in or on an organism that causes some incorrect function - Pathology: study of structural and functional cause of disease - Etiology: study of disease origin - Parasitology: study how parasites work and cause disease - Epizootiology: science deals with frequency, distribution, etc. of diseases - Enzootic: chronic disease at low levels - Epizootic: rare but are devastation - Welfare or decimating factors? Decimating - Causes of disease - Intrinsic flaws (hereditary or congenital diseases) - Deficiency diseases (dietary)* - Exogenous poisons - Trauma - Tumors - Living organisms* - * most closely linked to habitat quality and most manageable How common are these forms of mortality? - Some think hyper virulent disease wiped out large amounts of animals Habitat affects - Stress response Density-dependence Population regulation Control & Management - Direct (go in and kill all animals, wipe disease out) - Indirect (affect environment to kill off animals) Use as biological control agents - European rabbits in Australia - Took over continent, introduce fungal disease to control - Red imported fire ants - All over S. U.S., release fungal disease - Done in FL: predatory, decapitating fly (predation) Management implications - Salt marshes have ditches put in to decrease bug pops.
Resolving Conflicts between Hunters and Anti-Hunters
- Education with emphasis on ecologistic attitude - Encourage greater governmental recognition of different attitudes and management for different types of resource uses - Recognize both sides of issues - Diversify wildlife funding sources - Increase funding for nongame and recreational programs
Food Components
- Energy - Proteins - Carbohydrates - Fats - Minerals (nutrients: everything except energy) - Vitamins - Water
Onset and Length of Breeding Season
- Environmental factors and implications - Biological clocks - Timing: conditions, fertilization, and satiation i.e. Bobwhite quail - In fall, form covey and live in group throughout winter (birds flock for higher survival, greater foraging efficiency, thermoregulation) - In spring, covey breaks up and mates pair (one female and one male); most are monogamous but 25% promiscuous (build nest together, lay eggs over couple week period, incubate for 21 days, and hatch throughout summer) - Important to begin nesting in March/April to have hatchlings come off when food is available (best conditions) - Important that everyone is reproductively ready at same time to maximize fertilization efficiency - For some species, predator spaciation so predator can't kill all offspring - Some cues aren't photoperiod; can be manipulated and adjust the onset - Length/window of opportunity: as long as it is open, will connote to reproduce; longer the window, more nests/litters they will have, so the greater the reproductive output - Can be kept open loner by management by providing rescues over longer period of time
Illegal Taking (Poaching)
- Equal to legal harvest? NO, ILLEGALLY TAKING - Fair chase? NO - THIS IS NOT HUNTING! - Implications - Population and habitat mgmt. - SY considerations - Estimate illegal take
Vitamins
- Essential in small amounts - Coprophagy: eating of own feces (adaptation) - Longer food in digestive system = more nutrients
Habitat Management Approaches
- Featured (single) species management - Multiple species mgmt. (game species) - Biodiversity mgmt. (max. # of species) - Ecosystem mgmt. (maintain what should be present in ecoregion) - Intervention and naturalness
Habitat Resources/Components (Welfare Factors)
- Food - Cover - Water - Space - In relation to conditions (i.e. predation, weather, each other, etc.) - Think - Spatially (horizontally and vertically - Temporally (Annually and seasonally) - Every species and habitat - Effect of other conditions (climate, weather, other organisms)
Understanding Wildlife Nutrition
- Food use - Food digestibility - Food availability - Food selection (most important to wildlife management)
"Rate of increase reveals much more about a population that the speed with which it grows. It measures a population's general well-being, describing the average reaction of all members of the population to the collective action of all environmental influences. No other statistic summarizes so concisely the demographic vigor of a population."
- G. Caughley
Generalists vs. Specialists
- Generalists: Eat anything - Specialists: need specific food/cover; introduce management issues
Type of Parasites (living Organisms)
- Gizzard worms - Nasal leeches - Gastrointestinal nematodes - Lungworms - Liver flukes - Boophilus - Psoroptes spp. - Tapeworms - Meningeal worms (brain worm in deer; WTD carrier) - Nasal bots - Ascarid roundworm - Giardia spp. - Trichomoniasis - Mange
Habitat Management
- Habitat components in relation to conditions - Food, cover, water, and space
Standard Terminology
- Habitat: collection of resources and conditions that make up a place; depending on what makes up that collection determines the suitability for certain species - Quality depends on species - Habitat type (particular type of habitat) vs. vegetation association vs. cover type - Have multiple definitions - Cover is only ONE part of habitat - Habitat made up of more than vegetation though it is normally what's referred to when one references habitat - Habitat components (resources) vs. conditions - All terms could have varying meaning depending on who talking to, which could cause problems between professionals; standardize use of terms and use consistent definitions - Habitat use: how much habitat is used - Habitat selection: use of a type of habitat relative to availability - Habitat availability: abundance of habitat, could include how accessible the habitat is - Habitat quality: very subjective term - Suitable habitat vs. unsuitable habitat: poor terms - If a species lives there, must be somewhat suitable - Unused habitat and unoccupied habitat - More descriptive than prior ones - Problem with experiments could lead to incorrect conclusions - Microhabitat vs. macrohabitat vs. landscape - Cause problems when communicating about habitat scale; still applied today in literature - Goes from smallest to largest but lack defining lines between each habitat size and depends on person, species - Critical habitat: legal term describing features, resources, or conditions that are critical to a species (limiting resource) - Diversity vs. Biodiversity (biologica diversity) - Richness vs. diversity - Diversity almost always misapplied - Think of # of species/biological things in an area = species richness (relative abundance) - Diversity: made up of richness and evenness (relative abundance)
When density independent factors are controlling populations
- Harvestable surplus? - K (carrying capacity) - May be beneficial to take population below K - What if we don't know enough? - What if regulations are impractical?
History of Harvest
- Homo erectus: ~500,000 BP - Pleistocene Overkill: ~12,000 BP - Domestication of animals: 10,000-6,000 BC - Caused decline of hunting - Charlemagne: 700's - Mongols: 1200's - Market Hunting: ~1800s - Hunting Regulations in U.S.: 1800s - Roosevelt's and Pinchot's Wise Use: 1900s - American Game Policy - Facilitation of Hunting Heritage and Wildlife Conservation (executive Order August 2007) - Today - The future?
Types of Harvest
- Hunting* - Trapping - Fishing - Collecting - Welfare or decimating factor? - Consider human dimensions and attitudes toward different forms of consumptive use
Native Peoples and Hunting
- Is it OK for them to hunt? - Some need for subsistence or culturally important - Recreational opportunities - If so, why not me? - Really a true value system? - Why not OK for those who may see it as tradition/subsistence?
"Accidental mortality is of greater concern if the affected wildlife population is small, so that a few accidentally killed animals constitutes a fairly large proportion of the population."
- J. A. Bailey - Only really important for small populations
"They lunged their spears...Realization came slowly to the exhausted men. In the sudden silence, the hunters looked at each other. Their hearts beaf faster with a new kind of excitement... They did it! They killed the mighty mammoth!... [They] had killed the gigantic creature no other predator could."
- J.M Auel
"Disease in a wildlife population is rarely a simple, one-cause, one-effect situation. Usually it is the product of profound changes in the environment."
- L. Karstad - Tied to habitat quality, some of which is manageable
Fats (and oils)
- Large amount wildlife can't digest - 9.5 kcal/g - Meat and some seeds (corn, legumes) - Availability/digestibility
Sex Relations/Mating Habits
- Large effect on reproductive success (especially sex ratio) and population productivity - Monogamy: one male mates with one female (herps, mammals, birds use as most common mating system) - Polygamy: many mates - Polyandry: one female with multiple males (rare) - Polygyny: one male with multiple females (predominant in mammals) - Promiscuity: both sexes mate with multiple partners (sage grouse, prairie grouse) - Management implications
Ecological Traps
- Looks good for protection and other shelter functions but actually hurts wildlife - Looks like it will help with reproduction but detrimental to surivival
Classification: Habitat Types
- Many systems - Typically work on a scale system (smaller to larger) - Based on earlier work - Bailey (1994) Ecoregions (ecological Regions) - USDA Forest Service - Rickets et al. (1999) Ecoregions* - Dept. of Interior agencies
Population Density
- Many welfare and decimating factors - Larger the population, more factors - Density-dependence - Effects of all different factors depend on how many animals present - low number of individuals, reproductive rate increases - As number increases, reproductive rate decreases due to rescues and individuals - Density-indepndent reproduction - As population density increases, reproductive rate stays the same and doesn't depend on size of population - Density-dependence and habitat - As population density increased, reproductive rate decreases - Allee affect: no production until minimum number reached in population; have no productive mate because small amount of mates (one cue for some species is presence of others)
Reproductive and Courtship Behavior
- Mate attraction - Males most vocal to increase reproductive success - Intraspecific recognition - Stimulate and synchronize copulation - Trade-offs - Evolved with certain conditions - Habitats and management
Food Selection
- Most important; use relative to availability - A limiting factor/link - % available: # if randomly selection - % use: choosing to eat or not to eat
Minerals (Nutrients)
- Needed in small amounts = micro Micro vs. macro - 0.01% of body mass - Less than: micro - More than: macro - Licks: get minerals from sources other than food - Can't get minerals from food they eat
Safety
- Non-hunters in particular often feel unsafe - Safer than most sports and rec. activities (American Sports Data 2002) - hunting: 1.3 injuries/participant - Football: 18.8 injuries/participant - Soccer: 9.3 injuries/participant - Tennis: 2.5 injuries/participant - Hunting related accidents down 30% during past 10 yrs - Hunter safety courses - The risk of being involved in a hunting accident (hunters and non-hunters) is less than that of getting struck by lightning! - Typically fall out of tree-stand hunting WTD
Normal vs. Abnormal
- Normal: predation, starvation, etc. - Particular type of mortality that a species evolved with - Can deal better with changes and adaptations - Abnormal: hunting - Kind of mortality or amount of kind of mortality that a species didn't evolve with - Can be devastating to population because have no strategy to deal with change (behaviors, reproductive rate, can't change fast enough, etc.) - Management implications - Abnormal more of management concern - Normal typically refers to habitat
Factors Influencing Annual Reproductive Success
- Onset and length of breeding season - Litter/clutch size - Prenatal survival - Survival of newborns - Parental care - Age at sexual maturity - Sex ratios and mating habits - Population density
Dispersal: Importance and Management Implications
- Overcrowding (decrease good potential) - Rescue effects - Recolonization - Range expansion - Inbreeding (decrease dispersal) - Negative - Other
Imprinting
- Permanent learning during the critical period (not all species do this, but waterfowl, cranes, some mammals) - Critical period: hours to first few days of life (depends on species) - What they learn is never forgotten (typically learn who mom and dad are; usually enhances survival) - Implications - Large amount of potential benefits - Take advantage of this: whooping cranes (ES) will have multiple births, can only raise one, but biologists will remove one and allow sandhill to raise it (doesn't cause many problems but does cause some) - Many imprint on plane to learn migration route
Characteristics of Harvest Populations
- Population size - Population stability - Fecundity - Life span - Mortality form other causes Unknown effects - Trophy's smaller? - Due to overhunting and taking only bigger animals, but study suggested not problem - Genetics?
Levels of Sex Ratios
- Primary: fertilization; 50:50 - Secondary: birth (natality); ~50:50 - Skewed sex ratio has large impact on reproductive success - Most commonly studied - Tertiary: juveniles - Quaternary: adults (recruited)
Wildlife Diseases and People
- Rabies - No cure for rabies; once seen, death imminent - Birds and herps can't have rabies - Bats can live with rabies - Lyme Disease (bullseye with bite in middle) - If get to arthritic stage, once treated, won't get better but also won't get worse - West Nile virus (started in swimming pool in NY) - Avian influenza - Chronic wasting disease (CWD) - Don't want to spread to deer (like mad cow disease)
Productivity
- Recruitment (don't use this definition on exam) - Surplus or yield produced - # offspring surviving particular time period - dN/dt* (what we define it as; related to reproductive success; population growth rate) Biotic potential relates to reproductive success; ideal reproductive rate
Energy
- Season - Activity - Size matters - Species - Thermal neutral zone: range of temperature where you don't have to produce heat/sweat to maintain homeostasis - Homeotherms vs. poikilotherms (both produce heat internally; focus on proportion of heat) - Birds, mammals maintain constant temperature vs. amphibians, reptiles don't maintain constant body temperature - Endotherm vs. ectotherm (size matters in term of energy needs) - Content (gross): Fats > Proteins > Carbohydrates - Utilization: Carbs > Fats > Proteins - Food vs. stored: Mammals (store energy and protein) > birds (small amount of potential storage in body, but may be stored outside body) > herps - If energy is lost, it doesn't get utilized - Gross energy goes to digestible energy and energy lost as feces - Digestible energy goes to metabolizable energy and energy lost in urine and methane - Metabolizable energy goes to net energy or energy lost in work of digestion - Species-specific determines how much is lost
Differential Vulnerability
- Sex and age have different survival rates - Mating habits - Effects on sex ratios and age strcutre - Productivity - Flook (1970): Unhunted elk - Sex ratio of newborn calves: 100:100 - Sex ratio of yearlings: 131:100 (younger females worse condition) - Sex ratio of >/ 2 year olds: 31:100 (situational; relates to breeding behavior) - Why? Fat, teeth, mating system (polygenist) - Teeth have more wear in males so can later cause starvation - Hunted Black bears - Sex ratio of population: 72:100 - Sex ratio of harvest: 145:100 - Why? - Movements: male home range size = 30.8 sq. km female home range = 5.2 sq. km - Harvest technique: 4% of harvest using bait female 40% using dogs is female - Harvest timing: denning - Management - Olson (1965): Hunter canvasbacks - Sex ratio of population: 186:100 - Sex ratio of harvest: 100:100 - Response to decoys - Landed or flew low: 41% : 70% - Landed among decoys: 19% : 32% - Why? - Behavior and abundance - Females twice as vulnerable to be harvested, and twice as many males in population - Hunters can't tell between males and females - Alford and Bolen (1977): Hunted Northern Pintails - Sex ratio of population: 175: 100 - Sex ratio of decoyed birds: 376: 100 - Why? - Males were harvested at higher rates (don't know why) and suspect that females are suffering mortality relative to males naturally at breeding grounds - Management implications - Sex and age structures can be affected - Could have huge impacts on productivity, i.e. mating habits
What Affects Cover Requirements?
- Species - Function - Season - Age - Predation pressure - Pests - Weather - Region
Diet
- Species - Sex (females need more because of reproduction) - Age - Season - Year
Types of Wildlife Mortality
- Starvation and Malnutrition (natural) - Disease and Parasites (natural) - Accidents (natural) - Predation (natural) - Exposure (Leopold didn't mention as decimating factor; natural) - Harvest - All of these can be normal or abnormal
Effects on Condition
- Survival and reproduction (N) - Limiting season (prior season) - Reserves - Too fat? - No such thing in free-range wildlife - Sliding down a brushy hillside - Summer: energy demands (lactation, growth, rut, etc.) demand building up large amounts of reserves with summer food (aids ascent uphill) - Fall: energy demands with aid of summer food help one get farther up the hill (lead load = most fat = highest on hill) - Winter: winter food (slows descent) and condition declines - Spring: if demands not met early in summer to get fat, results in excessive weight loss (run out of bodily energy reserves) and die; the higher up the hill, the higher the amount of fat found from prior seasons
"Reasonable healthy bobwhites may perish through imprisonment by drifting snow... Exposure to cold, high wings, and snow may kill reasonably healthy bobwhites... Although drifting and undue cold is an infrequent occurrence, it appears worthy of the game manager's attention, especially in the provision and strengthening of cover."
- T.G. Scott
Dispersion
- The distrivuion of organisms in space - Related to movements because depending on how you move, puts in different places in work Types - Random - Regular, even, uniform, overdispersed - Aggregated, contagious, clumped, underdispersed
Selection vs. Use vs. Availability
- These vary with different activities Availability and management - Land-use - Succession
Migration
- Two (multi)-way movements, usually between seasonal HR - Not all species - North- South? - Movement between season HR's, but can be E-W Why? - Cost vs. benefits (costs outweigh benefits) - Only go as far as needed to get predictable, abundant resources - Short-stopping? - Stopping short of final destination; for species that have flexible response depending on season/location, mild/hard - Importance? - Half of birds that migrate don't return to HR - May stay in one place if all needed is offered - Importance and management implications - Provide food for young, habitat; provide rescues needed depending on season - E.g. NA Waterfowl Management Plan (magi by harvest and on flyway basis) - America carved into 4 flyways (1. Atlantic, 2. Mississippi, 3. Central, 4. Pacific) - Other management units (5. Alaska, 6. Canada, 7. Mexico) - Common migratory path shared by migratory birds - Migration Routes - Stop over sites found by looking at migration corridor - Most migratory birds stop, rest, refuel when migrating - Place Natl. Wildlife Refuge for stop-over sites
Density-Dependence
- Types - A: positive slope, density-dependent - B: upside down parabola, density-dependent - C: flat, horizontal line; density-independent
Barriers
- Unusable habitat (matrix) - Unusual habitat between dispersion areas (clumps, etc) - Thick cover - Roads (getting increasingly worse) - Water - Fences - Other
Recruitment, Retention, and Training
- Various organizations and magazines - Hunter and trapper education classes - Becoming an Outdoors-Women (BOW) - Women of Wildlife (WOW)
Landscape Conservation Cooperative
...
Wildlife Mortality
1 - survival/mortality (same thing) - Patterns of survival - Slope of line (steeper slope, faster survival changes with age) - Type I: survival high for long time, drops off at once (elephants, few offspring, small reproductive rate) - Type II: constant decline in survival rate with age (some birds) - Type III: young don't survive well at all, but survival doesn't drop off suddenly at end; most common among all animals (most have many offspring) - Important - Populations (care about death rate) - Emotions (dealing with death)`]
What are the flyaways?
1. Atlantic 2. Mississippi 3. Central 4. Pacific They are based on wildlife common migrations.
Types of accidents for wildlife
1. Collision 2. Drowning 3. Choking 4.Falls 5. Animal research 6. Entanglement/entrapment
6 causes of disease
1. Intrinsic flaws 2.Deficiency 3. Exogenous poisons 4. Trauma 5.Tumors 6. Living Organisms
The conservation of large carnivores in Africa centers around what 2 things?
1. the impact they have on their prey 2. the impact they have on other carnivores
5 types of predation
1.Chance(common) 2. Habit 3. Sucker list 4. Starvation 5. Sanitary(old, weak)
steps in adaptive harvest management
1.Determine the status of the resource 2.Determine how closely the management strategy achieved the objectives 3. Research & monitoring - mandatory reporting, check stations, surveys, & large scale studies 4. Adjust management strategies according to needs 5. Adaptive Management (trial & error)
What are the food components
1.Energy 2.Proteins 3.Carbohydrates 4.Fats 5.Minerals 6.Vitamins
What are is in Aldo's population model?
1.Hunting 2.Predation 3. Starvation 4.Disease/Parasites 5. Accidents 6.Special Factors 7.Food, Cover, Water.
Deficiency Diseases
A disease that is caused by a dietary deficiency of specific nutrients and resulting from: -Inadequate nutrients in diet/poor quality diet -Interference with intake of nutrients -Interference with storage or use of nutrients -Increased excretion of nutrients -Increased dietary requirements associated with pregnancy or lactation
Enzootic
A disease that is chronic and endemic in an animal population. The disease is constantly present in an animal population but usually only affects a small number of animals at any one time.
Epizootic
A disease that is eruptive within an animal population. An outbreak of this type of disease affects many animals within a population at the same time causing an epidemic.
Adaptive Harvest Management
A ever improving and changing pattern of consumptive use and wildlife management.
Soft
A feathered edge.
Swamp Buster
A federal provision that stopped assistance to farmers destroying wetlands.
Microhabitat
A fine scale set of resources and conditions is termed _____.
Hunting
A form of consumptive wildlife use.
Aspergillosis
A fungal diseases of mammals and many birds, especially game birds; respiratory problems, "mold" in respiratory tract, and some mortality.
Type
A habitat _____ includes more than just vegetation, but often only refers to the plant community.
Water
A habitat component.
Corridor
A habitat connection.
Ecological Trap
A habitat that looks good to wildlife but may ultimately be detrimental.
Patch
A habitat unit.
Season
A hunting _____ defines the period when it is legal to harvest a particular season.
Access
A lack of _____ is one reason there are fewer hunters.
Edge
A lack of _____ on modern farms often leads to fewer wildlife species and individuals.
Shelter Belt
A linear strip of vegetation, often trees, used as a wind break.
Harvest
A management tool and consumptive use of wildlife.
Appreciation
A motivation of some hunters.
Traditional Hunter
A name for someone who gets involved with hunting through family.
Ascarid Roundworms
A nematode parasite of many mammals; common but few impacts on wild animals.
Ascarid Round Worms
A nematode parasite of many mammals; common but few impacts on wildlife.
Fire
A particularly useful habitat management Tool in Florida.
Coexistence
A potential outcome of competition.
Compostition
A potential outcome of competition.
Biotic/Ecological Succession
A predictable (?) change in the species of a community through time (plants and animals) - Seral stages - Wholesale changes, can't recognize one stage from other - Overlap from one stage to another - Very significant change - Climax (dynamic equilibrium; final phase) - Smaller scale/minor changes once final phase is reached Types - Primary: occurs on a place for the first time (i.e. sand dune, new volcanic island appears out of ocean) - Secondary: more common today; result of major disturbance (natural or anthropogenic) Pioneer species: plants that arrive first and colonize new areas after a new disturbance or once soil starts to develop; requires lots of sunlight and shade intolerant - Animals in this habitat also considered pioneer species - Other pants eventually replace early pioneer species and get mix of herbaceous and small woody plants - Competition between plants, change plant composition and microclimate and conditions which favors different suite of wildlife species - Doesn't have to end in forest How long does it take to complete? - Graber and Graber (1976) in Illinois - Secondary occurs faster than primary because materials already present in secondary - Climate, soil conditions, and type of disturbance affects how fast succession occurs - Implications - Some wildlife need shorter/longer years for successional completion Succession - Wildlife community changes as the plant side of community changes - Other species can exist in multiple successional stages - One successional stage typically provide everything wildlife needs, so need multiple successional stages in area to get all needs - Most species adapted to limited number of stages - Several stages may be needed to meet all needs and different life cycle parts; also need in close proximity - Ruffed grouse Long-term effects of succession on wildlife (Remington, WI; Bailey 1984) - Forest was cleared to create ag. areas - Cleared climax forests (less habitat) but added early successional stages - Wildlife diversified with disturbance - Less early succession through farm abandonment - 1930s: Massive wildlife destroyed habitat - Present: time as allowed mix of successional stages and most species present to some extent
Monoculture
A problem in many modern farms for wildlife.
Becoming an Outdoor Women
A program designed to expose women to outdoor skills and experiences.
Trichomoniasis
A protozoan parasite of birds, especially doves; lesions in mouth, throat, and crop, weakness, emaciation, and difficulty breathing; occasional large scale mortality.
Giardia
A protozoan parasite of mammals, especially beaver; few signs or effects on wildlife; excessive diarrhea in people.
Economics
A reason for consumptive wildlife use.
Northern Bobwhite Survival
Annual survival: 5-30% (20% on avg.) - Higher in South - Males > females - Lower in first year birds Seasonal differences - Spring-Summer (breeding season): 13-51% - South: fall-winter > spring-summer (survive better) - North: fall-winter < spring-summer Nest Success - 32-44% Losses - Predation - Mammals and snakes * - Ants - Weather - 5-10% of adults killed Broods - 14 days for thermoregulation and flight - Die from hypothermia - 30-40% survival - Key to survival is cover to protect from weather, predators - Predation - Weather - 15-30% survival through 30 days
Decimating factors
Any direct cause (as starvation or hunting) of reduction in population numbers.
Welfare factors
Any factor (as availability of food or shelter) that tends to stimulate population growth. More indirectly affects population.
How do the basic habitat components and conditions interact with wildlife?
Applying ecological concepts and principles - Trophic Levels and Food Webs - Implications - Species that gain food in the same way said to be in same trophic level - Food webs: all animals interconnected - Leopold's Land Pyramid: food webs and trophic level interactions - Sun converted into usable forms, goes through following levels starting with primary producers - 4th level: secondary carnivores - 3rd level: carnivores - 2nd level: herbivores - 1st level: primary producers (green plants) - At all levels: decomposers - Limited number of trophic levels - As one piece is changed, other pieces change - Second Law of Thermodynamics - 10% rule (1-15%) - Most energy (~90%) lost as hear - Isle Royale Example - One predator (gray wolves) eating moose - 1 kg Wolf (27) : 59 kg moose (89) : 765 kg browse at K - Increase carnivore, food is limiting factor, have to increase primary consumer -> increase browse/plants - Why carnivores are scare - Due to relationship between energy and intake - Range of Tolerance (individual resource) - Resources (habitat components) and conditions - Optimal in middle of bell curve - Affects where wildlife species can live - Affects successful translocation - Niche and Competition - Set of rescues (habitat components) and conditions used by a species - Combined ranges of tolerance for all resources and conditions - N-dimensional hypervolume - How many things affect the niche combined - Number of resources that make up niche; as you add conditions, have multiple dimensions - Functional role of an organism considered in the multidimensional environment in which it lives - Feeding and other niches (other conditions) - Gause's Principle: no two species can occupy the same niche at the same time; if they do, one will be excluded (competitive exclusion principle) - Generalists (species with broad niches, broad tolerance ranges for many conditions) vs. Specialists (narrow niches, narrow ranges of tolerances) - Generalists typically not endangered species but can become pests because they can live everywhere (opossums, raccoons, etc.) - Fundamental vs. Realized - Fundamental: occupy all resources and conditions - Realized: smaller range of habitat; typically limited by biotic factor (predator, disease, prey, etc.) - Oysters have no problem with salinity, but predator limited by salinity; the closer to shore, less salinity, but predator needs salinity and salinity has increased so the niche of the predator has expanded closer to shore - Habitat availability - Succession - Habitat Selection and Scale - Edge and Interspersion - Fragmentation, Connectivity, and Juxtaposition - Island Biogeography - Carrying Capacity
Stabilize
As a management tool, harvest may _____populations, particularly that of ungulates.
Health
As a management tool, hunting may control populations, improving the _____ of the animals.
Wildlife Reproduction Age Effects
As age increases, the reproductive value increases, levels out, and then slowly declines - Middle age produced most offspring, juvenile and elderly produce less individuals (if any) - Want to increase population: don't harvest middle age - Want to decrease population: harvest middle age Poikilotherms (herps and fish) - As size increases, reproductive value increases (in good habitat)
Humanistic
Attitude of many anti-hunters, where they have strong affections for individual animals, develop anthropomorphic associations with animals, and see wildlife as they would pets.
Naturalistic
Attitude of most hunters.
Hunting, Trapping, Fishing, and Collecting
Attitudes towards and values of wildlife - Anti-hunted, anti-trappers, etc. - Ethical problems and "The Bambi Syndrome" (1942) - Wouldn't want something to happen to pet so you wouldn't want something to happen to wildlife - Naturalist: contact with nature (hunters [18%], etc.) - Hunters associated with, but well-spread - Correlated w/ ecologistic, humanistic - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Ecologistic: biological - Correlated w/ naturalistic, scientific - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Humanistic: think of them like pets (affection; against consumptive use) - Correlated w/ moralistic - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Moralistic: animal welfare - Correlated w/ humanistic - Antagonistic toward utilitarian, dominionistic, scientific, aesthetic, negativistic - Scientific: curiosity, source of information - Correlated w/ ecologistic - Antagonistic toward none - Aesthetic: art value, literature (aesthetic and symbolic) - Correlated w/ naturalistic - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Utilitarian: something of use (harvest) - Correlated w/ dominionistic - Antagonistic toward moralistic - Dominionistic: something to control - Correlated w/ utilitarian, negativistic - Antagonistic toward moralistic - Negativistic: avoidance, dislike - Correlated w/ dominionistic, utilitarian - Antagonistic toward moralistic, humanistic, naturalistic - Primary attitude indicates if one if against or for hunting - Values can't be wrong for any of these reasons
Avian Pox
BIRDS. Vision problems, respiratory distress, emaciation, lesions on unfeathered areas of head and legs, oral cavity, and upper respiratory tract.
Food Digestibility
Birds - If seed-eating bird, almost no proventriculus but developed gizzard for griding - Crop is storage but used to produce food for young in Columbiformes - Gizzard used for grinding, birds will sometimes swallow grit Proventriculus has acids/enzymes to break down hard foods; important for fish-eating birds - Cloaca/cecum: have laots of bacteria that help break down harsh foods Mammals and Herps - Many of same features of birds instead of crop and gizzard - Have a cecum in some mammals Ruminant Animal - 4 chambered stomach in ungulates; stomach helps break down hard plants - Rumen, Abomasum, Omasum, and Reticulum Microbres break own certain plant types Miscellaneous info - GI tract length and passage rates important - Artificial feeding problems
Salmonella
Birds, ruffled feathers, droopiness, severe lethargy, emaciation, siezures, convulsions, plaque in liver,body cavity.
What two things increase population?
Birth, Immigration
What determines the amount of energy and animals needs?
Body size, season, breeding, non-breeding.
Pesticide
Bug killer.
Predation
Carnivory: eat meat (if live, predation) - Cannibalism: eating of own kind Carrion: dead meat, dead animals; scavenger, not predator Welfare or decimating factor? - Decimating factor Protective refugia (escape cover, predators can't get all) - Density-dependence: effects on prey population density dependent - As population grow and exceeds amount of growth cover, predators will kill - Threshold of Security - Below: predation has small effect - Above: predation has significant effect - Possibility predators don't wipe out prey Predator Behavior (response of predator to prey) - Numerical response - A # prey changes, # predator changes to a point - Add more prey, predator population increases - Functional response - In response to numerical response - Add more prey, function of predator changes - Most often foraging rate (eat faster) Management Implications - Normal - Abnormal: cats - Predator control: expensive, controversial, not always effective
"Abnormal" Predation
Cats - 1 cat: 60 birds and 1600 small mammals in months - >19 mil. songbirds and 140,000 game birds killed/yr in Wisconsin Feral and pet cats in the U.S. each year - < 12.3 billion mammals - < 2.4 billion birds IUCN: among the world's worst non-native invasive species; caused 22 island species extinctions
Recruitment of hunters, fishers, etc.?
Challenges (lack of opportunity) - Urbanizing and suburbanizing populations - Liability, posting, and land access - Losing the "Land Ethic" and Tradition R. Louv: Last Child in the Woods - Nature Deficit Disorder - Blames every problem children have on loss of touch with nature due to lack of opportunity - Restore contact with nature with fishing, hunting, etc. Opportunities - Women, non-caucasians, young adults
Dispersion: Temporal changes
Change through time, not static
Rotation
Changing crops or moving livestock.
Crop Rotation
Changing what is planted in a field each year.
Carrying Capacity
Ecologically-based - K- carrying capacity (KCC): based on relationship between animals population and environment Socio-ecolonimcally based (not based on amount environment can support) - I- carrying capacity (ICC): half ecology carrying capacity (where population grows fastest)- use to harvest - Optimum carrying capacity (OCC): 0 --> K-1 - Minimum-impact carrying capacity (MCC) - Animals must be removed
Ricketts et. al's Ecoregions
Ecoregions - A relatively large area of land or water that contains geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities (plants and animals) - Share large majority of their species dynamics and environmental conditions - Function together effectively as a conversation unit at global and continental scales - Digs deeper and talks about processes and functions within ecosystems - FL: - GA: - SC: - NC: - TN: - OK: - TX: - AR: - MS: - AL: - LA: Major Habitat Types * - Grouped ecoregion by ecological processes, general patterns of biodiversity, and response to disturbance - Rangelands vs. Forests - Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forests: HI, Puerto Rico - Tropical Dry Broadleaf Forests: HI, Puerto Rico - Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests: SE, NE, states between - Temperate Coniferous Forests: S of SE, Upper W states - Temperate Grasslands/Savanna/Shrub: Midwest - Flooded Grasslands: S. FL - Mediterranean Scrub and Savanna: S. CA - Xeric Shrublands/Deserts: W, lower TX - Boreal Forest/Taiga: Mid-N in Canada, Alaska - Tundra: N of Boreal, Alaska (Rangeland) - Use map to break into rangelands vs. forests - No trees: rangelands - Trees present, major part: forests - SE is Globally Outstanding, FL especially - FL unique habitat types - Increased richness in SE, FL and endemism - Little pristine habitats left in SE; what's left is disturbed - Most of SE is needs critical conservation
Large Scale Approaches
Ecoregions - Hard to manage at this level due to crossing state lines - Climate change Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (USFWS) - Trying to manage wildlife and populations within that region and working at broad scales in mgmt. - Based on similar bird communities and merged those areas with Ricketts ecoregion to make new regions - All federal agencies in Dept. of Interior are trying to develop and manage general wildlife - Each has a science director - Climate change
Wildlife Habitat Relationship Terms
Edge: zone of contact between two or more habitat types - Ecotone: place where new habitat is created - Species more present and greater abundance along edges at least to point and then see decline Edge effect - Increased edge led to increased production and diversity of game (at least to point) - More edge, more abundance, more species richness Law of Interspersion (Leopold 1939) - Effects on species abundance and diversity - Game species - Most species require multiple habitat types to be successful/exist (true for species w/ limited mobility) - Edge itself might have different characteristics that come together and form ecotones (unique habitat required by some species) - Greater species richness along edges occurs because greater diversity (two species, maybe three, etc.) Amounts of edge - Amount of edge differs depending on shape of habitat patch (changes by mowing, logging, etc.) - Want more edge per acre, create habitat patches with more sides - Decrease edge, make cicurlar patches Edge index - Index = Edge length/ 2(sq. root of area * pi) - QUantitative What species benefit most? Least? - Edge species: gray catbird, cottontail rabbit - Interior species: ovenbird, pileated woodpecked - Don't do well with edge b/c suffer higher predation and nest predation - Large home range or don't like matrix habitat - Like homogenous cover type Patch size Matters - Trade-offs - Smaller patches may be too small to hold interior species, so lose interior species - Larger patches can hold more interior species but have less edge Quality vs. Quantity - E.g. type, structure, width, etc. - Inherent vs. induced - Inherent: relatively sable edges permanent parts of landscape resulting from meeting of at least two habitat types - Altered and return to original form - Less abrupt, flow from one to another (soft) - Induced: meeting of successional stages (naturally or artificially - Only present by altering habitats; temporary - Typically more abrupt or hard - High contrast vs. low contrast, Abrupt vs. feathered, Hard vs. soft - High contract, abrupt, hard - Low contract, feathered, soft - Ecotone
Litter/Clutch Size
Environmental factors and implications - Age (reproductive values; very young/old have smaller litters b/c not in greatest condition and putting large amount of energy to growth and burned out from longer times of breeding) - Region (local adaptations; balance) - Timing/season (early in spring, still getting up/going rescues so don't have as much energy to put into offspring and at end of season, put energy into litters [especially multiple] so smaller) - Nutrition (healthier mom is, more offspring she has; due to habitat) - Manageable
Parental Care
Environmental factors and implications - More parental care, the greater the survival rate of the offspring - The more time spent by the parent on the offspring, the lower the survival rate of the parent - Healthier adults = more energy for offspring - Not easily managed, different species have different ways of treating/handling young
Survival of Newborns*
Environmental factors and implications - Nutrition and habitat - Most wildlife die but not seen because early in life (high mortality early in life, so have to have high reproductive rate to have some to be recruited; birds die in first couple weeks due to predation [biggest] and ectotherms during first few weeks of life, susceptible to hypothermia) - Manageable: habitat, some death helped through management (prevent death) Precocial (born bigger, strong, more mobile) v. altricial (need more help, more susceptible to predation, etc.)
*Age at Sexual Maturity
Environmental factors and management implications - Huge effect on reproductive success, manageable - Morton and Cheatum (1946) - Northern NY: over browsed, poor soil, deep snow - 4% of fawns pregnant (due to poor conditions) - Southern NY: adequate forage, better soil, less snow - 36% of fawns pregnant (better conditions) Age at sexual maturity = delaying recruitment - 100 juv F, 1st breed at age 3 (adult), 1 juv. F/age 3+F/yr - YR 0:100, YR1: 100, YR2:100, YR3: 100, YR4: 200, YR5: 300, YR6: 400, YR7: 500, YR8, 700 - 100 juv. F, 1st breed at age 2(adult), 1 juv F/age 2+ F/yr - YR0: 100, YR1: 100, YR2: 100, YR3: 200, YR4: 300 YR5: 400, YR6: 600, YR7: 900, YR8: 1300 - Twinning more apparent
Random Dispersion
Equal probability of an organisms occurring anywhere in space - Independent of the position of other organisms - Fairly even distribution - Due to resources being displayed that way, or resources homogeneously spread throughout area so can be wherever they want
Soil
Erosion can be a problem for this abiotic factor.
Wildlife Reproduction
Females only? - Only deal with females: - For most species, they are polygamous, and one male will breed with multiple female - Females are the one having the offspring (driving force) - Males generally less susceptible to environmental conditions in terms of impact on their reproductive potential - Fecundity (production of gametes [eggs and sperm]), - Fertility (number of VIABLE gametes) - Natality (number of births/hatchings) - Recruitment* (production/addition of sexually mature individuals into the population) - As you go down, lower and lower number than prior - Generally try to maximize number of recruits - Disperse into population (another way to recruit) - Rate b = ind./ind.*time - Management implications
Primary sex ratios
Fertilization relative to number of males and females at the time(50:50)
Levels of Selection and Scale - Ruffed Grouse
First-order - Scale over entire NA (Top of U.S. and S. Canada) - Very broad scale, ecological regions Climate change effects - This is the scale at which we see effects of climate change - Climate will affect ecoregions (shift N due to increased temperature) - Expect distribution of wildlife to shift Second-order - Why is home range in specific location? - Use: area species uses of available space - Availability: landscape available for use Third-order - Compare what's used in home range to what's available in home range (use and availability within home range) - e.g. clear-cut - Doesn't use all parts homogeneously - Wildlife looking for certain parts of home range Fourth-order - E.g. this particular stump (nest against stumps and trees)
FWC
Florida's state wildlife agency.
Levels of Selection and Scale
Food, water, cover, and space in relation to conditions - A hierarchical process involving a series of innate and learned behavioral decisions made by an animal about what habitat or habitat components it would use at different scales of the environment (technical definition of selection) Microhabitat, macrohabitat, and landscape - One component could be micro, one landscape - Finest to broadest from L to R - Vague terms (different ideas) Johnson 1980 (More broad -> more finite) - First-Order - Physical or geographic range (landscape level habitat) - Second-order - Home range within geographic range of landscape (landscape or macrohabitat) - Third-order - Habitat within home range (macrohabitat) relative to what's available in home range - Fourth-order - Procurement of a third-order habitat component or condition from those available within home range (microhabitat)
Hay field
Forage production area.
PreEmptive competition
Form of exploitative ○ Greater efficiency leads to getting ALL of the resources ○ Nonrenewable resources
Sources of water
Free water, Food, metabolism water.
Aspergillosis
Fungal infection. Affects many mammals, including quail, grouse, pheasants, and waterfowl. Causes respiratory distress/gasping. Emaciation. Plaque resembling bread mold in bronchi, lungs. Variable mortality.
"The form of the growth curve sketched by a population increasing from low numbers is determined by the relationship between the population and the dynamics of its resources."
G. Caughley & A.R.E Sinclair - Trying to understand what makes populations change
How does metapopulation relate to population dynamics?
Immigration and emigration are involved, they affect how well that metapopulation will grow. Habitat fragments will tell how big the patches are and how far away
Vegetation: Structure vs. Species
Important as cover, but when election, select for what plant is proving (growth form) - Same species may grow differently in different habitats
Noneconomic
In Belize, howler monkey conservation is enthusiastically support for _____ reasons.
White-tailed deer
In florida, there is naturally bad food for deer; females have poor nutrient - Female embryos die more often when females in poor conditions - Intrinsic population regulation mechanisms --> produce more males to not add to problem of increasing population
Biomagnification
Increased concentration of chemicals as you move up the food chain.
Clumped Dispersion
Individuals are closer together than expected by chance - Due to resources not homogeneously laid out so following resources, other animals mar flock together due to attraction to each other
Uniform Dispersion
Individuals more evenly spaced than expected based on chance - Due to territoriality (if resource homogeneously spread, will divide up and protect personal resources), dominance being expressed - If no resources present, no uniform space present because animals not there - Plants have a version of this (allelopathy) to create even spacing among plants
Sex Ratios: Influences and Mating Habits
Influences - Morality/decimating factors: harvest, weather, disease, etc. mating habits - Monogamous - Polygynous - Polyandrous
Food web
Interconnected chains of species.
Tapeworms
Intestinal parasites of many mammals; few signs or effects; heavy infestations may lead to lethargy and emaciation.
4 things habitat can do
It can increase, decrease, maintain, & stabilize populations
Cons of providing supplemental food
Its better for animals to get food from their habitat, disease spreads, killing easier, changes behavior, they don't migrate.
Population and Management Implications
Leopold's Tools - "Game [wildlife] can be restored by the creative use of the same tools which have heretofore destroyed it -- axe (forestry), plow (ag = planting), cow (ag = livestock production), fire, and gun (hunting)" The wildlife toolbox - More tools = better, more efficient conservation - Harvest is one of these tools - Also more tools = greater public satisfaction
Population Management
Lethal methods: reduce N, but can stabilize N - Hunting, trapping ,fishing, collecting (recreational) - Harvest mgmt. - Yield - Diminishing returns - Compensation - History, trial & error, adaptive harvest mgmt. - Culling, sharp-shooting, trap/collect and euthanize, addle and oil, poisoning, etc. - Addle & oil: mess with eggs to slow reproductive success; put nontoxic mineral oil and put on eggs to suffocate embryo; addling is shaking egg and kills egg - Increase other mortality factors (conditions) - Diseases, predators, etc. Non-lethal methods - Restocking - Captive breeding programs - Trap and transfer (translocation) - Sterilization and contraception - Closed population: behind fence or isolated area with barrier to you coming and going - In closed populations, sterilization and contraception CAN work - Doesn't work in free-range populations because I and E - Repellents: keeps you from going in area; temporarily effective; doesn't really affect N - Habitat manipulation (change K, so change N; indirect) - Survival and reproduction - Use
Range of Tolerance
Limits of resources or conditions under which a species can exist.
Row Crops
Linear set of plants produced on a farm.
Predators and Humans
Livestock, pets, game species, etc. Opinions split or indifference - Fear, economics, pets, and lack of understanding of value
Food Storage
Mammals>Birds>Herps
Courtship Behavior
Management implications - Survival and sex ratios - Many birds and ungulates - Lekking spp. - Management implications - Sage grouse - Lek - Males show up first each breeding season - More dominant you are, the closer you are to the middle (each set up territories) - Females hang around outside and all look for best guy, take away and reproduce and then go back and do it again; every predator/hunter knows location - Sampling - Use these to do research/understand courtship
Affiliation
Many hunters indicate that this is their primary motivation for hunting.
Predator Control
Methods - Nonlethal methods (extremely acceptable -> not acceptable) - Guard dogs, repellent chemicals, birth control, pay ranchers for losses, pay ranchers not to raise livestock - Lethal methods (extremely acceptable -> not acceptable) - Shooting from ground, fast-acting poisons, aerial gunning, denning, steel leg hold traps (banned in FL and many states), slow-acting poisons - Cost - Effectiveness - Those that are more effective and cheap, cost other species and inhumane Attitudes - Coyotes Does it work? - Seems to work sometimes, but doesn't seem to work out all other times in terms of reducing predators - Coyotes - Wolves - Bears - Quail, mallard ducklings, moose, sea turtles... Effects on communities - Thinking like a mountain!
Johnsons: Fourth order
Microhabitat
What is MVP?
Minimum Viable Populations: the minimum population size you need for that population to exist.
Minimum Viable Populations (MVP)
Minimum number of animals needed for long-term population survival despite any events - National Forest Mgmt. Act of 1976: maintain minimum of 4 vertebrates viable - Species- and site-specific - 50/500 rule - Short-term: w/ at least 50, persist 50 years - Long-term: w/ at least 500, persist 500 years Shaffer (1981) - Need for performance criteria - 99% chance of surviving for 1000 years despite stochastic events - Genetic stochasticity (random; genetic drift) - Environmental stochasticity (good vs. bad years) - Natural catastrophes - Demographic stochasticity: affect smallest populations - BBDBBD v. DDBBBB (birth rate 2x death rate) - Important of individuals - FL Panther: inbreeding; introduced mountain lions for genes
Sex Ratios and Mating Habits
Monogamous - Environmental factors and management implications - 50:50, max # nests/100 birds = 50 (ideal sex ratio b/c anything but this allows there to be more of one sex than the other, which decreases the amount of those that get bred) - 75:25. max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 25:75, max # nests/100 birds = 25 Polygynous - Environmental factors and management implications - 50:50, max # nests/100 birds = 50 - 75:25, max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 25:75, max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 75 (skew toward females b/c need few male to breed large amounts of females) Polyandrous - Environmental factors and implications - 50:50, max # nests/100 birds = 50 - 75:25, max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 25:75, max # nests/100 birds = 25
Dispersion Facts
Most common type? - Clumped due to rescues not being homogeneously spread at least across large areas Scale dependent: if broad scale, clumped because large scale - As you decrease eh amount of area, you are more likely to see homogenous resources in a small area (or any of three) - Importance: how we damsel them are determined by how they are distributed in space - If we know animals are following clumped resources, can place resources in clumps to attract animals. which then attract hunters, bird watchers, etc.
Critical
Most limiting habitat; often a legal term.
Should It Continue?
Most of society says yes - $ for conservation - Valuable - Management tool - May be needed to develop a land/conservation ethic Land Ethic Cs. Animal Rights/Welfare Ethic - Leopold (1949): " A thing is right if it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. it is wronger when it tends to do otherwise". - Other natural resources - Management implications of the Animal Rights/Welfare Ethic - Who cares if the community/ecosystem is destroyed? - Feral cats and overabundant deer - Humanistic and moralistic values - What will we eat? (agriculture) - Who will pay for conservation? If hunting and trapping were lost as wildlife management tools in the U.S. (IAFWA) - An additional 50,000 injuries and 50 deaths from wildlife-auto interactions (=297,000 injuries and 250 deaths total) - $3.8 billion in auto repair costs - $1.45 billion in health care from just rabies - $128 million in aircraft damage - Governments would need to spend - Up to $9.3 billion/year to control deer - Up to $265 million/year to control furbearers
Demographic Characteristics and Equations
N = B (# of births) + I (# immigration) - D (# deaths) - E (# emigration) N(t+1) = Nt + Bt + It - Dt - Et Delta N (change in N with respect to time) - Models used to predict - Effects of: harvest, restocking, habitat, weather, other organisms - Want to affect/change N
Nomadism
Opportunistic movement in response to habitat resources and conditions - HR? Don't really have one, continuously wander in search of rescues or appropriate conditions (habitat, but most often food) - Polar bear, Australian bustard, African wild dog - Not migration because don't know where going - Not dispersal because don't settle down in one place
Harvestable Surplus (Leopold 1933)
Originally only the "doomed" surplus - Assuming a surplus - Overharvest (lead to extinction, missed opportunities) - Extinction - Regulated hunting never led to extinction! - Underharvest (ecosystem degradation) - Environmental degradation (think like a mountain!) - Loss of recreational opportunities (value!) - Principles - Yield (Inversity) - Diminishing returns - Compensatory harvest mortality - Doomed surplus - Threshold of security - Harvestable surplus: refer to population characteristic that allows a population to be harvested; individuals that can be harvested from population without causing long-term problems in that population; referred to "doomed" surplus - So which one happens? Depends - History, Trial & Error, and Human Dimensions - Harvest management technically not scientifically based - History typically helps determine harvest management - Which group has most political influence can dictate harvest management
Gizzard worms
Parasitic nematodes of various birds; few signs, heavy burden can lead to reduced growth and emaciation, and damage to gizzard lining; rarely fatal.
Territory
Part of all of a home range that is defended against others of the same or different species - Not all species - Defended by individuals, groups - Always vs. seasonal Why have one? - Costs vs. Benefits: Have many resources to an individual, but could end up in death if territorial behaviors increase - Size and resources - MVP: get more land to have more space - Importance: have more space, land, and resources Hierarchies - Pecking Orders - Linear dominance hierarchy vs. leveled dominance - One individual is below the other vs. multiple individuals below alpha male (effects who gets best resources [territories] in this case)
Rabies
Particulariily carnviores and omnivores. Two forms; dumb and furious. Dumb is aimless wondering, lethargy, in coordination. Furious; vicious attacks and self-mutilations both result in convulsions, coma, death.
Tularmeria
Pathogen: Francisella tularensis.Targets mammals, especially rodents and lagomoprhs. Lethargic or spasmodic behavior, swollen lymph nodes, necrotic foci on liver and spleen, occasional death, and can be life threatening to people
Avian Cholera
Pathogen: Pasteurella multicida.Targets birds especially waterfowl. It causes poor coordination, hemorrhages on pericardium(membrane around heart) and causes necrotic foci
Brucellosis
Pathogen:Brucella. Targets mammals especially bison, elk. Causes lameness, scrotal enlargement, uterine thickening and edema in pregnant females, aborted fetuses, weakened calves, little adult mortality.
Traditional hunting
People who get involved in hunting through the family. *These people are slowing declining.
Imprinting
Permanent learning during a critical period, enhances survival
Traditional and Johnson's levels of selection/scale: First Order
Physical/Geographical range (landscape level habitat) ● Fourth Order: Microhabitat
Lure crop
Plants produced to draw wildlife away from agricultural fields.
Logistic Population Growth
Population grow with resource limitation in relation to conditions (contains K) - Nt = K/(1+[{K-N0}/N0]e^(-rt)) - dN/dt - rN (1-[N/K]) - Assumes no I & E or I = E - Assumes no structure - Inflection point (1/2 K) - Accelerating phase vs. decelerating phase - K = carrying capacity (one of ultimate goals to control species size); max number the environment can support - Assumes constant K - Can change with time and space - K = N, population at carrying capacity - K > N, population increase toward carrying capacity - K < N, population decrease toward K - K = infinity, population experiences exponential growth - Density- dependence: growth depends on N - Basis for harvestable yield
Logistic Growth
Population growth rate when the population decreases as the number of individuals increases. Density-Dependent. K selected. What harvest management is based on.
Exponential Growth
Population growth where resources are not limiting. Ideal growth. No competition for resources. R selected.
Exponential Population Growth
Population growth without resource limitation - Nt (amount after some time t) = N(0)e^(rt) - dN/dt (growth rate) = delta N/delta T = rN (get straight line) - Assumes no I & E or I = E - Assumes no structure - r - intrinsic rate of increase (per capita rate of increase) - per capita rate of increase: added or removed individuals in a population per individual in that current population - instantaneous rate of increase, etc. - b - d - Units: ind/(ind*time) - Based on 0 - r = 0, birth rate = death rate - r > 0, population increases (b>d) - r < 0, population decreases (b<d) - J-shaped curve
K=N
Population stays the same
What is PVA?
Population viability analysis. A species-specific method of risk assessment, process that determines the probability that a population will go extinct within a given number of years.
K>N
Population wants to grow
Functional Response
Predator behavior changes. Number of prey increases,predators increase faster.
Types of Accidents
Pretty common, more so with windmill structures (raptors and bats), power lines as well - Collisions with objects - Drowning - Chocking - Falls - Entanglement - Entrapment - Research (IACUC: Institutional Animal and Use Committee) - Research organization/institution has to have and approve research project - Have veterinarian and biologist (from institution), citizen from public - Welfare or decimating factor? - Decimating factor, but thinking as they kill things - Some accidents injure/weaken, so may be ultimate - Normal? Natural form of mortality? - Situational, but some normal (drowning, etc.) may become abnormal, but most can be ether - Most can be natural, some are not natural
Accidents
Prevalence - >3.5 million birds/yr killed by striking windows - WTC had many bird deaths, decreased after 9/11 - Wildlife-vehicle collisions Management implications - National Safety Council (2000): 520,000 animal-related accidents resulting in 100 deaths and 4,000 injuries - Deer/auto collision costs about $2,000 - $8,000 per claim for repairs and injuries - Romin and Bissonete (1996): >78,689 deer/auto collisions/yr with $124,092,553/yr in damages - Wildlife populations? Values? Prevalence - >3.5 million birds/yr killed by striking windows - Wildlife-vehicle collisions
Quail Predation
Primary cause of death - Adults: Avian predators: 40-65% of mortality - During nesting and migration - Cooper's and sharp-shinned hawks in SE Mammalian predators - Nesting and winter (north) Snakes - Nesting Fire ants - Chicks
Liable
Private lands are often closed to hunting because owners fear they are _____.
Hunting Preserves
Privately owned areas for hunting, often behind a fence.
Usable Space
Quality of space as a habitat component, interspersion, and scale - N. Bobwhite Example (This +WTD = most studied species in world) - Habitat requirements to be successful - Needed in same/similar proportions - Escape and thermal cover = shrubs - Nesting cover = grasslands w/ bunch grasses (ideal) - Foraging cover = weeds - Provide ease of movement also
Managing for the Hunter, Fisher, or Trapper
Quality vs. Quantity - e.g. QDM - Deer, habitat, and experience - Provide more trophies or have more deer
Manipulation of Resources and Conditions
Quantity, quality, and distribution - Provide best resources for wildlife succession Adjusting seral stages - Setting back succession - Fire - Grazing and browsing - Mechanical treatments: logging, mowing, bulldozing - Herbicides - Advancing succession - Leave it alone! - Planting and fertilization - Constructing cover: next boxes, brush piles, snags, etc. Population control as habitat management - Affect/change plants in area as well Human dimensions - Single species v. ecosystem approaches - Large scale - The case of howler monkeys and communities in Belize - Primary habitat is riverine forests - Forest heavily used for agriculture (often cleared) - If you don't cut down forest, develop ecotourism industry to make more money than agriculture was making Adaptive Habitat Mgmt. Programs - Try some things, see what happens to habitats, adapt
Erosion
Reduced with proper soil stabilization and management.
Range of tolerance
Refers to the range of conditions that an organism can withstand.
Fragmentation and Connectivity (Edge)
Related to amount of edge Importance of connectivity and patch size - Connectivity: how well patches are connected - Increase fragmentation, decrease connectivity - Way to make patches more usable and availability better - Help edge species but hurt interior species - Importance of corridors Interspersions and juxtaposition of habitats - Interspersions: mixing of habitat patches - Juxtapositions: minimum mixing necessary for a species to exist in that landscape Scale - Patches vs. Landscape - May be fragmented at one but not the other Hard vs. Soft - Matrix: unusable habitats - How different adjoining habitats are; effects how animals move across matrix - Hard: produce high contrast among habitats - Soft: produce low contrast among habitats
Bambi Syndrome
Related to what many people consider the first anti-hunting movie, it may falsely lead to hunting opposition.
Value
Reproductive _____ is an individual's contribution to the population.
Types and Functions of Cover
Shelter and Concealment (Leopold's "special factors") - Winter - Refuge - Loafing, resting - nesting - Breeding - Roasting: get heat ectothermically - Thermal: stay warm - Escape - Bedding/roosting: sleep - Feeding: eating - Traveling: travel safely
Types of cover
Shelter concealment. Refuge, snow, water, side of cliff
Competition
Requires resource limitation - An interaction between organisms where both are negatively affected (at least in short term) - Natural selection leads to decreases in species and between species; enhance population growth and success within a species and between species - Interspecific vs. intraspecific - Between species - Within species (males and females competing) - Natural selection will try to reduce niches, less negative effect - Exploitative Vs. Interference - Exploitative: more indirect resource gain - Pre-emptive: finite; certain amount of rescues; use up finite resources so competitor can't get them - RCW and tree cavities - Interference: gets more resource than competitor (direct); one species physically exclude the other - Can work within and between species; can have both - Large carnivores in Africa paper; importance of competition between predator species - Outcomes - Exclusion (short-term): one species gets outcompeted, doesn't exist in that location anymore - Coexistence at lower densities (short-term) - Stable (two competing species exist) vs. unstable (coexist for while, but one species excluded to extinction) - More overlap, more likely species is to be excluded - If enough of the niche doesn't overlap, still exist but won't be as many as if predator wasn't there - Sharing carrying capacity - Character displacement and niche separation (long- term) - Change niche so not competing as much to reduce competition (less overlap, less exclusion) - Change traits to reduce competition - Darwin's finches (original species evolved into others [based on feeding differences])
Ruminant digestive systems
Rumen, Abomasum, Omasum, Reticulum
Hemorrhagic disease
Ruminants such as white-tailed deer, depression, fever, respiratry distress, lameness, emaciation, edema, conjunctiva, congestion in heart, rumen, and intestines. Ulceration on dental pad, tongue, palate, rumen, omasum. Growth interruptions and sloughing of hoof walls. Death.
Who wanted to quantify the MVP, with stochastic event survival?
Shaffer
Corridors and Metapopulations
Type of fragmentation and matrix Source/sink - Source: grows well and has emigrants that will leave and go to other populations - Habitat provides what species needs; high quality habitat patch - Sink population: not persisting, probably declining; no individuals that can leave and go to other populations - Poor habitats, species go here to die - Scale: habitats vs. populations
Movement and Space Use
Types - Home Range - Critical areas - Territories - Hierarchies - Dispersal - Migration - Nomadism Space = welfare factor? - Yes, but could also be decimating (mainly welfare)
Adjust
Typically, to manage habitat we have to _____successional phases.
Aphis
USDA folks who deal with problem wildlife.
Johnsons level:third order
Use of habitat components within home range(Macrohabitat)
Selection
Use relative to availability.
Habitat Selection
Use, Availability, Selection - Selection is use relative to availability - (-) selecting against - (0) neither selecting for or against - (+) selecting for (preferring habitat) - Selection better than use because use can be deceiving - Selection is still hard to study (money + time) Density as a misleading indicator of habitat quality (Van Horne 1983) - Use - Reasons why use can be misleading and not tell whole story: - Only habitat available but not good for species - Possible ecological trap - Has to do with how wildlife was sampled (seasons) -
"I hunt no more to kill animals that I garden to kill cabbages."
V. Giest - Death is worst part - Consumptive use is usually all other reasons besides death - Pursuit, etc.
Widlife Morality Effects
Vary by - Sex - Age - Season - Behavior - Region - Northern Bobwhite example
Disease control on wildlife negative
Wetlands not fully functional
Food Use
What the animals are eating - Carnivores vs. herbivores - Carnivores have quantity problem whereas herbivores need more diverse diet - Feeding rates - Predation and foraging behavior - Bobwhite and supplemental feeding example - Large carnivores in Africa example Quality vs. Quantity - Species.type (herbivore vs. carnivore) - Season (e.g. Spring or after fire green-up) - Plants: new growth (spring) better than old growth - Part of organism - E.g. seed vs. stem (different parts differ in nutrition) Habitat effects (especially herbivores) - K can decrease - Grazer: eat what's on ground - Browser: eat parts of woody vegetation - Destroy anything by eating it
Fragmentation
When habitat units get broken up.
Additive
When harvest places additional mortality on a population than would otherwise occur, it is considered _____.
Diminishing Returns
When more hunting effort leads to a lower harvest rate.
Differential Vulnerability
When one segment of the population has a different mortality rate than another.
Yield
When populations are limited by some resource (density-dependence/logistic growth; from Caughley and Sinclair 1994) - A population is harvested at its growth rate - A population must be stimulated to produce a yield - Harvesting trades off yield against population size - Sustained yield, harvest rate, and population size - Harvestable surplus - Sustained yield (SY) - willing to keep same populations size and don't care if it population grows, harvest at growth amount and population will stay at current size because not adding individuals to populations - Rikard Yield Curve: tells above information - As long as you don't harvest above max, population could be potentially sustainable harvest - Stay to the left side of the curve, but riskier - If to the right, sustainably harvest X amount of individuals but could harvest more than sustainable - Anywhere below dotted line - Maximum sustained yield (MSY): ICC - Anywhere above dotted line - Optimal sustained yield (OSY): OCC and MCC - Inversity: as population size increases, yield decreases - When populations are not limited by resources (exponential growth)? - As long as you don't harvest above populations yield, population won't decline
Functional
When predators change a behavior in response to changing prey numbers.
Habit
When predators form a search image of prey, it leads to this type of predation.
Buffer species
When predators switch to when primary foods are scarce.
Breeding season
When reproductive activities occur.
Nonspecific Stress Response
When space is a welfare factor.
The American Huntress (2007 Survey)
Where do they live? - 33% Midwest - 24% NE - 22% SE - 12% NW - 8% SW How old are they? - 13% <20 - 41% 20s - 30s - 40% 40s - 50s - 6% > 60 Work situation? - 53% FT, outside home - 11% PT, outside home - 12% Stay-at-home mom - 16% student - 8% other Hunting experience? - 32% < 5 yrs - 21% 6-10 yrs - 21% 10 - 20 yrs - 26% > 20 yrs How do they classify themselves? - 37% diehard, completely obsessed hunter - 46% committed, really enjoy, but not #1 activity - 17% casual, like it, only go if someone else goes How they got in to hunting? - 42% as a kid - 39% introduced by boyfriend or husband - 2% introduced by another woman - 8% myself - 9% other Primary reason for hunting? - 43% excitement and adventure - 31% relaxation and connection w/ nature (appreciation) - 14% opportunity to spend time w/ loved ones who hunt (affiliation) - 12% meat Most like to hunt: - 44% deer - 10% turkey - 46% other How hard is it to find people to hunt with? - 66% easy, 26% somewhat difficult, 8% very difficult Marital status? 61% married, 38% not married Children? 58% yes, 42% no Take children hunting? 46% yes, 54% no Do daughters hunt? 28% yes, 72% no
Pasture
Where livestock eat.
Edge
Where two habitats meet.
Harvested vs. Unharvested Populations
Why are some species not harvested? - Songbirds vs. northern bobwhite Why are some species harvested at different rates? - WTD and elephants Why does harvest not seem to affect some species? - Northern bobwhite: usually ~80% annual mortality - Some species have a characteristics that prevents species from being driven to extinction and others do not
Organic Farming
_____ _____ seems to produce healthier foods, but may still use chemicals and not provide great wildlife habitat.
Individual Motivation
Why do people hunt, trap, fish, collect? - Achievement - Outsmarting the "beast" - Shooting and pursuit - Limiting-out (as many per day/season as law allows) or trophy - Often gives hunting bad name - Affiliative - Appreciative - Naturalistic - Predatory instinct? - Somewhat innate, but each person has own motivations - Stages of development (Norton) - Shooter stage (opportunity to see game and harvest) - Limiting-out stage (get the most fish, deer, etc.) - Trophy stage (get biggest fish, deer, etc.) - Method stage (more about pursuit, i.e. archery) - Sportsman stage (enjoy being one with nature, naturalistic) - Some people go through all, skip some, and others are stunted (stop in middle and don't make it to successive stages) - All are forms of achievement EXCEPT sportsman stage, which is more about affiliation and appreciation - As you progress through these stages, skill, wildlife knowledge, and satisfaction tend to increase
Individual Motivation
Why someone hunts.
Wildlife Habitat: Basics
Why? - Example: Warm-season grasses - It's all great cover! - Structure vs. Composition - Think about what species is providing/not providing - Wouldn't matter which one is used because based on structure - Have to have good understanding of basics Dirt - Importance of soils - Can be habitat resource/component - Affects vegetation of habitat - Deer in SE relative to soil - Bigger deer/antlers not found in FL due to poor soil/habitat (sandy, well-drained soil) - Acidic soils so plants can't get nutrients from soil - Climate affects soil which then affects plants - All vegetation in FL is low in quality; not getting nutrients needed in proper amounts (low protein)
Why are the deer sliding down the bushy hillside?
Winter the stored up food, energy reserves are used. Spring is when they die.
Wildlife Management
Without harvest it is often difficult or impossible to conduct proper _____ _____.
Will it continue?
Yes, with responsible consumptive users - A person who knows and repsects the resources sued, follows the laws, and behaves in a way that will satisfy what society expects of him or her as a consumptive user - 7% (6-8%) of people hunt - 8% (6-10%) of people anti-hunters - Typically not against fishing but against hunting - More organized and "yell louder" about hunting beliefs - 85% of people neither (non-hunters) - 75-80% approve of legal hunter (increasing?) - Fair chase, humaneness (when done right) - Costs without it (mentioned with values and controlling wildlife - What about fishing, trapping, and collecting? - Bambi syndrome: only care about warm and fuzzy animals - Is this legitimate value to have if not against death of all animals? - Trapping one way to deal with animal management (supply and demand) - Collecting of parts will continue at low levels due to demand
Osy
Yield determined by socio-economic factors.
Odd Areas
_____ _____ are places not used or considered much on a farm that can be valuable wildlife habitat.
Seral Stages
_____ _____ are transitional phases in succession.
Doomed Surplus
_____ _____ is a term sometimes used to refer to animals that may die anyway from other causes if not harvested.
Competitive Exclusion
_____ _____ is one outcome of competition.
Onset and length of breeding season
onset:biological clocks. Timing affects conditions, fertilization, and satiation.
Nomadism
opportunistic movements in response to habitat resources and conditions.
Type I pattern of survival
outermost line. K selected species. Collection of traits. High survival of young but dont produce alot. Ex:elephants, people
What is an indicator of reproductive success in birds?
ovary size
Territory
part or all of the home range that is defended against others of the same or different species.
How does forest structure influence jaguar and prey spatial and temporal relationships?
spite consuming armadillo and paca in proportions comparable to their abundance, and sharing a common activity pattern with these prey, jaguars exhibited low spatial overlap with both armadillo and paca. Jaguar were photographed most frequently on man-made paths, whereas armadillos and pacas primarily used small mammal trails and forested
Short-stopping
stopping where they need to, they only go as far as they have to.
Carbohydrates
tend to provide the most usable energy.
