Yuval Benit- AP Lang Key Terms

Ad Hominem

Definition: (of an argument or reaction) directed against a person rather than the position they are maintaining. Own Definition: Argument against someone personally. Example: "How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying your steak?" This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed for or against his argument.

Concession

Definition: A concession is something yielded to an opponent during an argument, such as a point or a fact. Concessions often occur during formal arguments and counterarguments, such as in debates or academic writing. A writer or debater may agree with one aspect of his or her opponent's ideas and yet disagree with the rest. The writer will allow this one aspect to be true, while proving how the rest is wrong. Conceding certain points can have certain tactical benefits, such as showing how some aspects of the opponent's arguments are fallacious. Own Definition: Saying how one of your opponents arguments is true. Example: TOM: Yes, I have tricks in my pocket, I have things up my sleeve. But I am the opposite of a stage magician. He gives you illusion that has the appearance of truth. I give you truth in the pleasant disguise of illusion. (The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams) Tennessee Williams's play The Glass Menagerie contains an interesting example of concession right in the very opening lines. The main character and narrator of the play, Tom, addresses the audience directly in his first few lines. He acknowledges that the guise of a play might make everything seem more fictional, and makes the concession that he has "tricks in [his] pocket" and "things up [his] sleeve." Yet he avers that behind all the tricks, there is much truth in this play. This is an example of a concession directed at the assumptions of the audience that Tom and Tennessee Williams are working against.

Fallacy

Definition: A fallacy is an erroneous argument dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention. There are many fallacy examples that we can find in everyday conversations. Own Definition: An argument that is dependent on something completely illogical. Example: "Jesus!" the old lady cried. "You've got good blood! I know you wouldn't shoot a lady! I know you come from nice people! Pray! Jesus, you ought not to shoot a lady. I'll give you all the money I've got!" ("A Good Man is Hard to Find" by Flannery O'Connor) The Southern Gothic tale "A Good Man is Hard to Find," by Flannery O'Connor, centers around a family taking a drive. Earlier in the story they discuss the escape of a killer named The Misfit, and later in the story the family's car breaks down and The Misfit comes across them. The grandmother in the story is the first to recognize The Misfit, and tries to appeal to him through emotion. She keeps insisting that he must have "good blood" and tries to get him to act in a certain way. However, this is a fallacy example because even the grandmother knows that there is no better nature of The Misfit's to appeal to.

Figure of speech

Definition: A figure of speech is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings. It conveys meaning by identifying or comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or meaning familiar to the audience. That is why it is helpful in creating vivid rhetorical effect. Own Definition: Different meaning than literal. Example: It is a type of comparison between things or objects by using "as" or "like." See the following example: My heart is like a singing bird Whose nest is in a water'd shoot; My heart is like an apple-tree My heart is like a rainbow shell... ("A Birthday" by Christina Rossetti) Rossetti has used simile thrice in this part of the poem, comparing her heart to a "singing bird", "an apple-tree", and a rainbow shell." The poet makes comparison of heart to a happy bird in a nest, an apple tree full with fruits and a beautiful shell in the sea, full of peace and joy.

Pun

Definition: A pun is a play on words in which a humorous effect is produced by using a word that suggests two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words having different meanings. Own Definition: The answer to a joke usually. Example: John Donne's "A Hymn to God the Father" has several examples of pun. Read the following lines: "When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more. That at my death Thy Son / Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore And having done that, Thou hast done; I fear no more." He is playing with his name Donne and with the name of his wife Anne More. Besides, he uses Son, referring to the Christ, instead of sun.

Rhetorical question

Definition: A rhetorical question is asked just for effect or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer but the questioner asks rhetorical questions to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used for style as an impressive persuasive device. Own Definition: Not meant to be answered. Just of emphasis. Example: A very good example of rhetorical questions in literature is from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Have a look and feel the difference the absence of the two rhetorical questions could have made. JULIET: "Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet."

Simile

Definition: A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words "like" or "as". Therefore, it is a direct comparison. Own Definition: Comparing something. Example: Written by Joseph Conrad, "I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cruel wires of a cage." The lines have been taken from Lord Jim. The helplessness of the soul is being compared with a bird in a cage beating itself against the merciless wires of the cage, to be free.

Straw Man Argument

Definition: A straw man is a common form of argument and is an informal fallacy based on giving the impression of refuting an opponent's argument, while actually refuting an argument that was not advanced by that opponent. Own Definition: Proving an argument is wrong that was not even proposed. Example: Prof. Jones: "The university just cut our yearly budget by $10,000." Prof. Smith: "What are we going to do?" Prof. Brown: "I think we should eliminate one of the teaching assistant positions. That would take care of it." Prof. Jones: "We could reduce our scheduled raises instead." Prof. Brown: " I can't understand why you want to bleed us dry like that, Jones."

Thesis

Definition: A thesis is a statement in a non-fiction or a fiction work that a writer intends to support and prove. Own Definition: In the beginning paragraph, your argument. Example: JAQUES: All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. (As You Like It by William Shakespeare) This famous example of thesis from the character of Jaques is a beautiful metaphor for the similarities between life and the stage. It is often quoted because it seems to reflect a world-view that Shakespeare probably held; everything that happens in the world can be read as a type of performance with everyone just trying to play their part.

Absolute

Definition: A word free from limitation Own Definition: No restrictions Example: Best

Alliteration

Definition: Alliteration is derived from Latin's "Latira". It means "letters of alphabet". It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series. Own Definition: Like She sells sea shells by the seashore. Example: From Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" "The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrow followed free; We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea."

Allusion

Definition: Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. Own Definition: like an undermessage, a hint Example: Milton's "Paradise Lost" gives allusions a fair share. Look at the example from Book 6 below: "All night the dread less Angel unpursu'd Through Heav'ns wide Champain held his way, till Morn, Wak't by the circling Hours, with rosie hand Unbarr'd the gates of Light. There is a Cave Within the Mount of God, fast by his Throne" In the above lines "dread less Angel" is a reference to "Abdiel", a fearless angel. "Circling Hours" alludes to a Greek Myth "The Horae", the daughters of "Zeus" and "Themis" namely "Thallo (Spring), Auxo (Summer) and Carpo (Fall). " With rosie hand" Milton refers to Homer's illustration of the "rosy fingered dawn" (Odyssey Book 2).

Ambiguity

Definition: Ambiguity or fallacy of ambiguity is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning. Own Definition: like fall, to fall and the season. Example: Read the following excerpt from "The Catcher in the Rye" by J. D. Salinger: "I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I'm quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That's also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I'm pretty healthy though." The words "they" and "here" used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that "they" might be the professionals helping out Holden and "here" might be a rehabilitation center.

Allegory

Definition: An allegory is a symbolism device where the meaning of a greater, often abstract, concept is conveyed with the aid of a more corporeal object or idea being used as an example. Usually a rhetoric device, an allegory suggests a meaning via metaphoric examples. Own Definition: Using something to portray something else. Example:"Animal Farm", written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm for the animals is: "All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others."

Analogy

Definition: An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Own Definition: A comparison between two very different things. Example: The given lines are from Amy Lowell's poem "Night Clouds". "The white mares of the moon rush along the sky Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens." The poetess constructs the analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with that of the white mares on the ground.

Understatement

Definition: An understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is. Own Definition: To make something seem not vital. Example: In Salinger's Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield says: "I have to have this operation. It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain." Having a tumor in the brain is a serious issue, which has been understated in the above statement.

Antimetabole

Definition: Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means "turning about". It is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order. Own Definition: Writing a sentence and then basically saying the sentence backwards. Example: Eat to live, not live to eat."- Socrates "I go where I please, and I please where I go." - Attributed to Duke Nukem

Antithesis

Definition: Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Own Definition: Contrasting because two things are opposite. Example: The opening lines of Charles Dickens' novel " A Tale of Two Cities" provides an unforgettable antithesis Example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the time which was discussed in the novel.

Aphorism

Definition: Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral and literary principles. Own Definition: saying the truth in a funny way. Example: Sir Francis Bacon excels in aphoristic style of writing. Possibly, his sayings are the most quoted of all. Read the following examples: "Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability." (Of Studies) "To use too many circumstances, ere one come to the matter, is wearisome, to use none at all, is Blunt."(Of Discourse) "Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth the reflection."(Of Praise)

Appeal to Tradition

Definition: Appeal to Tradition is a fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional, or "always has been done." This sort of "reasoning" has the following form: X is old or traditional. Therefore X is correct or better. Own Definition: Thinking something is better because it is older. Example: Gunthar is the father of Connan. They live on a small island and in their culture women are treated as property to be exchanged at will by men. Connan: "You know father, when I was going to school in the United States I saw that American women are not treated as property. In fact, I read a book by this person named Mill in which he argued for women's rights." Gunthar: "So, what is your point son?" Connan: "Well, I think that it might be wrong to trade my sisters for cattle. They are human beings and should have a right to be masters of their own fate." Gunthar: "What a strange and new-fangled notion you picked up in America. That country must be even more barbaric then I imagined. Now think about this son. We have been trading women for cattle for as long as our people have lived on this island. It is a tradition that goes back into the mists of time. " Connan: "But I still think there is something wrong with it." Gunthar: "Nonsense my boy. A tradition this old must be endorsed by the gods and must be right."

Archetype

Definition: As a literary device, an archetype is a reoccurring symbol or motif throughout literature that represents universal patterns of human nature. It can also refer to the original model on which all other things of the same kind are based. Own Definition: A repeated symbol of something. Example: So then, royal son of Laertes, Odysseus, man of exploits, still eager to leave at once and hurry back to your own home, your beloved native land? Good luck to you, even so. Farewell! But if you only knew, down deep, what pains are fated to fill your cup before you reach that shore, you'd stay right here, preside in our house with me and be immortal. (The Odyssey by Homer) In this excerpt from Homer's epic The Odyssey, the goddess Calypso addresses Odysseus as he's about to set off on his quest. There are many thousands of stories based on the archetype of the quest, or journey, and The Odyssey is one of the most famous. Calypso foreshadows the difficulties that are present in this archetypal plot; the reader will know to expect the challenges that Odysseus later faces both because of this excerpt and because of the traditional guidelines of a quest story.

Assonance

Definition: Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound or diphthong in non-rhyming words. To qualify as assonance, the words must be close enough for the repetition of the sound to be noticeable. Assonance is a common literary technique used in poetry and prose, and is widely found in English verse. Own Definition: A part of a word that is used repeatedly in different words that match. Example: Try to notice the use of assonance in Robert Frosts poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening": "He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The woods are lovely, dar and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." The underlined bold letters in the above extract are vowels that are repeated to create assonance.

Asyndeton

Definition: Asyndeton refers to the omission of a conjunction such as "and" or "as" from a series of related clauses. The function of asyndeton is usually to accelerate a passage and emphasize the significance of the relation between these clauses. Own Definition: Relating things without using and or as Example: ANTONY: O mighty Caesar! Dost thou lie so low? Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure? Fare thee well. —I know not, gentlemen, what you intend, Who else must be let blood, who else is rank. (Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare used many examples of asyndeton in his plays and poems. Fittingly, he used asyndeton in his play Julius Caesar, perhaps echoing the real man's famous asyndeton example, "Veni, vidi, vici." In this excerpt, the character Antony uses asyndeton in the line, "Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, shrunk to this little measure?" In this example, Shakespeare has not used a conjunction so as to emphasize the relation between the concepts of conquest, glory, triumph, and spoils. Antony also uses asyndeton in the line, "I know not, gentlemen, what you intend, who else must be let blood, who else is rank." In this example, the omission of conjunctions makes the line more poetic and creates more weight.

Atmosphere

Definition: Atmosphere in literature is the feeling, emotion, or mood that an author creates in a narrative through descriptive language. Thus this literary device is, in a sense, the emotional atmosphere in which the action takes place, as well as the emotional atmosphere that the audience is encouraged to internalize while reading. Though the atmosphere is usually established very quickly in a work of literature, it can change throughout the text depending on the scene or stage of character development. Own Definition: What the piece of literature feels like, what it strikes you with through words. Example: I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. Martin Luther King, Jr. "I have a dream" speech, 1963

Red Herring

Definition: Attempting to redirect the argument to another issue that to which the person doing the redirecting can better respond. While it is similar to the avoiding the issue fallacy, the red herring is a deliberate diversion of attention with the intention of trying to abandon the original argument. Own Definition: Moving a topic into a different direction so you can better respond to it. Example: The character of "Bishop Aringarosa" in Dan Brown's novel Da Vinci Code serves as an example of a red herring throughout the novel. The character is presented in such a way that the readers suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. Later it was revealed that he was innocent. This example of a red herring in the novel distracts the readers from who the real bad person is and thus, adds to the mystery of the story. Interestingly, the Italian surname of the bishop "Aringarosa" translates in English as "red herring"

Caricature

Definition: Caricature is a device used in descriptive writing and visual arts where particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated to create a silly or comic effect. In other words, it can be defined as a plastic illustration, derisive drawing or a portrayal based on exaggeration of the natural features, which gives a humorous touch to the subject. Own Definition: Exaggerations words that become funny. Example: Following is an excerpt from the same paper by Matt Bai: "Over the course of the last several weeks, commentators have taken to portraying Mr. Obama as clinical and insufficiently emotive, which is really just another way of saying the president is not really knowable. It is a caricature his opponents can exploit in part because a lot of voters remain murky on his cultural identity." (Matt Bai, "Ethnic Distinctions, No Longer So Distinctive." The New York Times, June 29, 2010) Caricature arises from the forcing and the embellishment of the basic rule of good description, that is, the principle of the dominant impression.

Chiasmus

Definition: Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect. Own Definition: two opposite things are written in a sentence to produce an effect. Example: "It is not the earth that makes us believe the man, but the man the oath." - Aeschylus (5th Century B.C.)

Circumlocution

Definition: Circumlocution is a rhetorical device that can be defined as an ambiguous or paradoxical way of expressing things, ideas or views. In fact, when somebody wants to stay ambiguous about anything and he does not want to say something directly, it means he is using circumlocution. Own Definition: saying something but saying it in a contrasting way. Example: AERTES "Then weigh what loss your honour may sustain If with too credent ear you list his songs, Or lose your heart, or your chaste treasure open To his unmast'red importunity." (Hamlet by William Shakespeare) Laertes gives his domineering suggestion genuinely here but his tone seemed to be of a prepared speech. He neither shows real awareness of nor consideration for Ophelia's feelings. By using circumlocution, he underscores her feminine inferiority.

Conceit

Definition: Conceit is a figure of speech in which two vastly different objects are likened together with the help of similes or metaphors. Conceit develops a comparison which is exceedingly unlikely but is, nonetheless, intellectually imaginative. A comparison turns into a conceit when the writer tries to make us admit a similarity between two things of whose unlikeness we are strongly conscious and for this reason, conceits are often surprising. Own Definition: Comparing two different things using similes and metaphors. Example: Shakespeare makes use of a conceit in Act 3, Scene 5 of his play "Romeo and Juliet". Capulet comes to Juliet's room after Romeo has left. He finds her weeping and says: "Thou counterfeit'st a bark, a sea, a wind; For still thy eyes, which I may call the sea, Do ebb and flow with tears; the bark thy body is, Sailing in this salt flood; the winds, thy sighs; Who, raging with thy tears, and they with them, Without a sudden calm, will overset Thy tempest-tossed body." He compares Juliet to a boat in a storm. The comparison is an extended metaphor where he compares her eyes to a sea, her tears to a storm, her sighs to the stormy winds and her body to a boat in a storm.

Connotation

Definition: Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings in addition to their literal meanings or denotations. Own Definition: A meaning of a word portrayed in a sentence other than its own definition. Example: Metaphors are words that connote meanings that go beyond their literal meanings. Shakespeare in his Sonnet 18 says: "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day" Here, the phrase "a Summer's Day" implies the fairness of his beloved. Similarly, John Donne says in his poem "The Sun Rising": "She is all states, and all princes, I." This line suggests the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are wealthier than all the states, kingdoms, and rulers in the whole world because of their love.

Consonance

Definition: Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in quick succession such as in pitter, patter. Own Definition: a part of a word repeated in a sentence; kind of like alliteration but with consonants in the word. Example: The following lines from a song also show how consonant sounds have been used repeatedly. "Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile Whether Jew or gentile, I rank top percentile Many styles, more powerful than gamma rays My grammar pays, like Carlos Santana plays." (The lines have been taken from the song 'Zealots 'by Fugees.)

Deductive reasoning

Definition: Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true. Deductive reasoning is sometimes referred to as top-down logic. Its counterpart, inductive reasoning, is sometimes referred to as bottom-up logic. Own Definition: A few statements that lead up to a conclusion. Example: You also know that all apples are fruits, and a Granny Smith is an apple. Therefore, the Granny Smith has to be a fruit. This is an example of a syllogism, a form of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a type of logic where general statements, or premises, are used to form a specific conclusion

Denotation

Definition: Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. Own Definition: The literal definition of a word instead of what it may portray in a sentence. Example: 1. An example of denotation literary term can be found in the poetic work of Robert Frost's "Mending Wall": "And on a day we meet to walk the line And set the wall between us once again. We keep the wall between us as we go. To each the boulders that have fallen to each." In the above lines, the word "wall" is used to suggest a physical boundary which is its denotative meaning but it also implies the idea of "emotional barrier".

Diction

Definition: Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Own Definition: the choice of words that a writer uses constantly to portray something. Example: Keats in his "Ode to the Grecian Urn" uses formal diction to achieve a certain effect. He goes: "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on" Notice the use of formal "ye" instead of informal "you". The formality here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says: "Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu." It is more formal to use "adieu" than to say "goodbye".

Didactic

Definition: Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey information and instructions along with pleasure and entertainment Own Definition: art and literature tend to portray something. Example: John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is one of the best didacticism examples in the form of spiritual allegory. The poem describes a religious and spiritual journey of a man on the way to deliverance. The poem describes an ordinary sinner "Christian" who leaves the City of Destruction and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. On his way, he finds a companion "Faithful" who helps him on his way to the City. On many occasions, many characters "Hypocrisy", "Apollyon", "Mr. Worldy Wiseman" and "Obstinate and Pliable" try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the Celestial City carried by Hopeful's faith. The moral or didactic lesson that this allegorical poem intends to instruct is that the road to Heaven is not easy and it is full of obstacles. Moreover, a Christian has to be willing to pay any cost to achieve his salvation. Besides, a man is full of sin, but this does not stop him from achieving glory

Dramatic irony

Definition: Dramatic irony is an important stylistic device that is commonly found in plays, movies, theaters and sometimes in poetry. Storytellers use this irony as a useful plot device for creating situations where audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts and their resolutions before leading characters or actors. That is why the readers observe that the speech of actors takes on unusual meanings. Own Definition: When the audience knows more than the writer or actor. (othello) Example: "There's no art To find the mind's construction in the face: He was a gentleman on whom I built An absolute trust." (Macbeth by William Shakespeare) This is one of the best examples of dramatic irony. In this case, Duncun says that he trusts Macbeth not knowing about the prophecy of witches that Macbeth is going to be the king and that he would kill him. Audience, on the other hand knows about the prophecy. This is how it demonstrates dramatic irony.

Epistrophe

Definition: Epistrophe is derived from a Greek word that means turning upon, which indicates the same word returns at the end of each sentence. Epistrophe is a stylistic device that can be defined as the repetition of phrases or words at the end of the clauses or sentences. It is also called epiphora. Epistrophe examples are frequently found in literary pieces, in persuasive writing and speeches. Own Definition: The repetition of words or phrases in the beginning of a sentence and the end. Example: "Where now? Who now? When now?" (The Unnamable by Samuel Beckett) Examples of epistrophe abound in Beckett's work. In this extract, the word, "now" is repeated three times to put an emphasis and makes the line memorable. It also creates cadence and rhythm.

Figurative language

Definition: Figurative language is using figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive and impactful. Figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, allusions go beyond the literal meanings of the words to give the readers new insights. On the other hand, alliterations, imageries, or onomatopoeias are figurative devices that appeal to the senses of the readers. Figurative language can appear in multiple forms with the use of different literary and rhetorical devices. According to Merriam Webster's Encyclopedia, figurative language has five different forms: understatement or emphasis, relationship or resemblance, figures of sound, errors and verbal games Own Definition: Figures of speech to create an effect. Example: Simile: Poised between going on and back, pulled Both ways taut like a tight-rope walker, Now bouncing tiptoe like a dropped ball, Or a kid skipping rope, come on, come on!... Taunts them, hovers like an ecstatic bird, He's only flirting, crowd him, crowd him, (The Base Stealer by Robert Francis) The similes and word choice of this poem makes it a masterpiece. The poet use similes between the lines to depict his scattered thoughts before taking action and makes comparison as, "like a tight-rope," "like a dropped ball," and "hovers like an ecstatic bird."

Genre

Definition: Genre means the type of art, literature or music characterized by a specific form, content and style. Own Definition: The different kinds and types of art. Example: PRINCE: A glooming peace this morning with it brings; The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head: Go hence, to have more talk of these sad things: Some shall be pardon'd, and some punished: For never was a story of more woe Than this of Juliet and her Romeo. (Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare's plays are split into three genres: comedy, tragedy, and history. Each type of play had its own conventions. In Shakespeare's tragedies, such as Romeo and Juliet, always end with the death of one or more characters. Comedies, on the other hand, end with one or more marriages. There was also frequent cross-dressing in Shakespearean comedies for humorous purposes, which was not a part of his tragedies. There are also more examples of foolish characters in Shakespeare's comedies, whereas in his tragedies and histories this stereotypical character was not as prevalent.

Homily

Definition: Homily is a sermon or speech that a religious person or priest delivers before a group of people to offer them moral correction. The primary purpose of this speech is not doctrinal instruction but spiritual edification. Simply, homily is a public discourse on a moral or religious subject. Priests read it from the Bible to give an insight into the exact meanings of the scriptures. Afterward, they relate it with lives of followers. Own Definition: A speech a religious person gives to make people better. Example: "He is not only able to cast wicked men into hell, but he can most easily do it. Sometimes an earthly prince meets with a great deal of difficulty to subdue a rebel that has found means to fortify himself...So 'tis easy for us to cut or singe a slender thread that anything hangs by; thus easy is it for God, when he pleases, to cast his enemies down to hell. What are we, that we should think to stand before him, at whose rebuke the earth trembles, and before whom the rocks are thrown down." (Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God by Jonathan Edwards, delivered at Enfield, Connecticut on July 8, 1741) This is a popular American sermon in which Edwards has emphasized the idea of Great awakening. The underlying idea is that God has given a chance to humanity to rectify their sins, as will of God has kept them away from depths of hell.

Hyperbole

Definition: Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning "over-casting" is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. Own Definition: Over exaggeration. Example: From William Shakespeare's "Macbeth", Act II, Scene II, "Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red." Macbeth, the tragic hero, feels the unbearable prick of his conscience after killing the king. He regrets his sin and believes that even the oceans of the greatest magnitude cannot wash the blood of the king off his hands. We can notice the effective use of hyperboles in the given lines.

Cacophony

Definition: If we speak literally, cacophony points to a situation where there is a mixture of harsh and inharmonious sounds. In literature, however, the term refers to the use of words with sharp, harsh, hissing and unmelodious sounds primarily those of consonants to achieve desired results. Own Definition: Words that bring a harsh sound. Example: Abundant use of cacophonic words could be noticed in Lewis Carroll's nonsense poem "Jabberwocky" in his novel "Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There": 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves,an And the mome raths outgrabe. "Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun The frumious Bandersnatch!" In the excerpt, we see a collection of nonsense words which are at the same time unmelodious. After reading the poem, "Alice", the main character of the novel, gives her impression that reflects clearly the purpose of the poem. She says: "Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don't exactly know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that's clear, at any rate".

Imagery

Definition: Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Own Definition: Using figurative language to create an image in our heads. Example: Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet". Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;" Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the dark skin of an African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo portrays Juliet's beauty.

Apostrophe

Definition: In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by exclamation "O". A writer or a speaker, using an apostrophe, detaches himself from the reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech. Own Definition: becoming something not real. Example: William Shakespeare makes use of an apostrophe in his play "Macbeth": "Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee! I have thee not, and yet I see thee still." In his mental conflict before murdering King Duncan, Macbeth has a strange vision of a dagger and talks to it as if it were another person.

Colloquial/Colloquialism

Definition: In literature, colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases or even slang in a piece of writing. Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are influenced by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound to add colloquial expressions in their vocabulary. However, writers use such expressions intentionally too as it gives their works a sense of realism. Own Definition: using slang terms in writing. Example: Mark Twain in "Adventure of Huckleberry Fin" used Black American Vernacular to realistically show how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked: "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." The use of double negatives is evident in the above passage that is a typical characteristic of Black American Vernacular.

Mood

Definition: In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and descriptions. Own Definition: the vibe/tone of the literature. Example: Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel "Pickwick Papers": "The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on." The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers.

Synesthesia

Definition: In literature, synesthesia refers to a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one senses like hearing, seeing, smell etc. at a given time. Own Definition: Describing characters or places in a way that appeals to the audience's senses. Example: Dante's The Devine Comedy contains one of the good synesthesia examples in literature. In the first canto, the poet tells us about a place called "Inferno". He says, "Back to the region where the sun is silent." Here, Dante binds the sense of sight (sun) with the sense of hearing(silent).

Ethos

Definition: In rhetoric, ethos represents credibility or an ethical appeal which involves persuasion by the character involved. Own Definition: Emotional appeal. Example: Choice of words can confirm ethos with customers: "Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best." The advertisers try to build up their credibility with their customers by mentioning the experience they have in the field and the technical expertise of their staff.

Anaphora

Definition: In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora. Own Definition: Repetition of the same word throughout every sentence. Example: Shakespeare does not disappoint us in the use of anaphora too. Read the following example taken from his play "Richard II" Act 2 Scene 1: "This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings [. . .] This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land," The repetition of the word "this" creates an emotional effect on the readers particularly those who are English. Further, it highlights the significance of England. The repetition of the word "dear" shows emotional attachment of the writer to the land and expects a similar response from the readers as well

Inference/infer

Definition: Inference is a literary device used commonly in literature and in daily life where logical deductions are made based on premises assumed to be true. Another definition of inference suggests that it is rational but non-logical, which means that through the observation of facts presented in a particular pattern, one ultimately sees different or new interpretations and perspectives. Own Definition: deducting something based on things that are assumed to be true. Example: IAGO Zounds, sir, you're robbed! For shame, put on your gown. Your heart is burst, you have lost half your soul. Even now, now, very now, an old black ram Is tupping your white ewe. Arise, arise, Awake the snorting citizens with the bell Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you. Arise, I say! (Othello by William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare used much figurative language in his poetry and plays. In the tragedy of Othello, the character of Iago is extremely manipulative and cannot be trusted. Here Iago is using the strong imagery of "an old black ram...tupping your white ewe" to scare Desdemona's father Brabantio. Iago relies on Brabantio inferring that Othello has destroyed Desdemona's innocence.

Irony

Definition: Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the reality. Own Definition: When something is ironic, its like opposite form the actual reality. Example: We come across the following lines in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet", Act I, Scene V. "Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my wedding bed." Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was and says if he were married, then her wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that she is going to die on her wedding bed.

Metonymy

Definition: It is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life. Own Definition: Replacing a word with something that it is similar to. Example: The given lines are from Shakespeare's "Julies Caesar" Act I. "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." Mark Anthony uses "ears" to say that he wants the people present there to listen to him attentively. It is a metonymy because the word "ears" replaces the concept of attention.

Juxtaposition

Definition: Juxtaposition is a literary technique in which two or more ideas, places, characters and their actions are placed side by side in a narrative or a poem for the purpose of developing comparisons and contrasts. Own Definition: Placing things side by side to compare them. Example: Charles Dickens uses the technique of juxtaposition in the opening line of his novel "A Tale of Two Cities": "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way..." In order to give us an idea of the factors responsible for the French Revolution, Dickens uses Juxtaposition throughout the novel in which the have not's and the haves are put side by side to highlight the presence of severe disparity and discord in the then French society that paved the way for the revolution. By examining the given juxtaposition, readers can vividly imagine the calamitous atmosphere before the revolution and understand its need at that time.

Litotes

Definition: Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning "simple", is a figure of speech which employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite expressions. Own Definition: An understatement or positive statement. Example: "I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen under many prejudices." (Jonathan Swift, A Tale of a Tub) Now just see how Swift has used double negatives to emphasize the point that he is totally aware of it. The irony is that he is aware but he is saying it as if he is unaware that he is not.

Malapropism

Definition: Malapropism, from French mal a propos (inappropriate), is a use of an incorrect word in place of a similar sounding word that results in a nonsensical and humorous expression. Own Definition: to create humor, using an incorrect word in a sentence. Example: In chapter 33 of Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn, Aunt Sally can be spotted using a malapropism. She says: "I was most putrified with astonishment," Here, the use of the word putrified is a malapropism and it seems she was thinking of petrified.

Metaphor

Definition: Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics. Own Definition: Figure of speech that is a comparison; not using as or is. Example: "She is all states, and all princes, I." John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work "The Sun Rising," the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains "she is all states, and all princes, I." This line demonstrates the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share.

Narrative

Definition: Narrative is a report of related events presented to the listeners or readers in words arranged in a logical sequence. Own Definition: Occurrences written in order. Example: "Animal Farm" by George Orwell is a modern narrative example that aim at extending a writer's political views. It is a form of narrative known as a political satire. It uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society.

Onomatopoeia

Definition: Onomatopoeia is defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting. Own Definition: the glug of the water bottle. Example: "Hark, hark! Bow-wow. The watch-dogs bark! Bow-wow. Hark, hark! I hear The strain of strutting chanticleer Cry, 'cock-a-diddle-dow!'" (Ariel in William Shakespeare's The Tempest, Act One, scene 2)

Oxymoron

Definition: Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, e.g. "cruel kindness" or "living death". Own Definition: like sweet tart and icy hot. Example: Below is an extract from the play "Romeo and Juliet", Act I, Scene I, written by William Shakespeare. "Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O anything, of nothing first create! O heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is! This love feel I, that feel no love in this. Dost thou not laugh?" We notice a series of oxymoron being employed when Romeo confronts the love of an inaccessible woman. An intense emotional effect is produced to highlight his mental conflict by the use of contradictory pairs of words such as "hating love", "heavy lightness", "bright smoke", "cold fire", and "sick health".

Parallelism

Definition: Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in ordinary conversations. Own Definition:Parts of the sentence that have the same structure in a way. Example: Antithesis is a kind of parallelism in which two opposite ideas are put together in parallel structures. Alexander Pope in his "An Essay on Criticism" uses antithetic parallel structure: "To er is human; to forgive divine." Imperfection is a human trait and God is most forgiving. Through these antithetical but parallel structures, the poet wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring.

Parody

Definition: Parody is an imitation of a particular writer, artist or a genre, exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect. The humorous effect in parody is achieved by imitating and overstressing noticeable features of a famous piece of literature, as in caricatures, where certain peculiarities of a person are highlighted to achieve a humorous effect. Own Definition: Exaggeration for humor. Example: Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was a travel narrative. Swift adopted a similar mode to describe Gulliver's travels to the strange land of "Lilliput" and other such places where he meets "Lilliputians" and the giant "Brobdingnagians". He also meets other strange creatures like "Laputians" and "Houyhnhnms and the Yahoos". The parody for Swift was intended as a satire on English society.

Personification

Definition: Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings Own Definition: non-human given human qualities. Example: Taken from L. M. Montgomery's "The Green Gables Letters", "I hied me away to the woods—away back into the sun-washed alleys carpeted with fallen gold and glades where the moss is green and vivid yet. The woods are getting ready to sleep—they are not yet asleep but they are disrobing and are having all sorts of little bed-time conferences and whisperings and good-nights." The lack of activity in the forest has been beautifully personified as the forest getting ready to sleep, busy in bed-time chatting and wishing good-nights, all of which are human customs.

Point of view

Definition: Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion, or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers "hear" and "see" what takes place in a story, poem, essay etc. Own Definition: Perception on things. Example: Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first person point of view to express his subjective feelings about the scene of daffodils in his famous poem "Daffodils". "I gazed-and gazed-but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought." The use of the pronoun "I" gives a special quality to the feelings expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has employed first person point of view to share with us his own personal

Polysyndeton

Definition: Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day conversations. Own Definition: conjunctions used in succession. Example: "I said, 'Who killed him?' and he said 'I don't know who killed him, but he's dead all right,' and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of water." (Ernest Hemingway, After the Storm) Hemingway has used "and" as a polysyndeton in this passage taken from "After the Storm". Using this literary device, Hemmingway is able to make his readers feel the anxiety that his character is feeling.

Prose

Definition: Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry Own Definition: A natural flow of speech, not structure. Example: "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen." 1984 - George Orwell

Repetition

Definition: Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer. There are several types of repetitions commonly used in both prose and poetry. Own Definition: Repeating something to make it obvious and clear. Example: I'm nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody too? Then there's a pair of us-don't tell! They'd banish us you know. These lines have been taken from "I'm nobody! Who are You?" by Emily Dickinson. Observe how she has used "nobody" to emphasize her point in her poem to create an association with the person she is talking about.

Rhetoric

Definition: Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence or please an audience. Own Definition: Persuasion. Example: John Milton's Paradise Lost has several examples of rhetoric. To quote an example from Book V: "advise him of his happy state— Happiness in his power left free to will, Left to his own free will, his will though free Yet mutable" The repetition of the phrase "free will" emphasizes the theme of human creation which is making free choices, but the phrase "yet mutable" creates ambiguity that, despite being free, Adam had to be careful, as a wrong act could make him lose his freedom.

Sarcasm

Definition: Sarcasm is derived from French word sarcasmor and also from a Greek word sarkazein that means "tear flesh" or "grind the teeth". Somehow, in simple words it means to speak bitterly. Own Definition: Mr. Montero on bad days. Example: "Friends, countrymen, lend me your ears." (Julius Caesar by Shakespeare) Mark Antony repeatedly uses the phrase "honorable man" In this speech several times, talking of Brutus' actions (who has murdered Caesar) were nothing except honorable. His repetition of this phrase completely reverses the literal meanings of the phrase.

Satire

Definition: Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society by using humor, irony, exaggeration or ridicule. It intends to improve humanity by criticizing its follies and foibles. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption. Own Definition: Negative writing, criticizing foolishness. Example: Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock is an example of poetic satire in which he has satirized the upper middle class of eighteenth century England. It exposes the vanity of young fashionable ladies and gentlemen and the frivolity of their actions. For example, Pope says about Belinda after losing her lock of hair: "Whether the nymph shall break Diana's law, Or some frail china jar receive a flaw, Or stain her honor, or her new brocade" The line mocks at the values of the fashionable class of that age. The trivial things were thought of as equal to significant things. For Belinda, the loss of her virtue becomes equal to a China jar being cracked.

Semantics

Definition: Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics that deals with interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure and symbols, while determining the reading comprehension of the readers how they understand others and their interpretations. In addition, semantics construct a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a sentence whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative. Own Definition: How someone understands and comprehends something. Example: Juliet: O, be some other name! What's in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet; So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd... The above-mentioned quote, "That which we call a rose...sweet" is, in fact, conveying figurative meaning. However, its surrounding text clarifies the meanings. Juliet is using metaphoric language and arguing with Romeo that his family name is not important for her, because she only wants Romeo.

Situational irony

Definition: Situational irony is a literary device that you can easily identify in literary works. Simply, it occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Thus, entirely different happens from what audience may be expecting or the final outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting. It is also known as irony of situations that generally include sharp contrasts and contradictions. The purpose of ironic situations is to allow the readers to make a distinction between appearances and realities, and eventually associate them to the theme of a story. Own Definition: When you expect one thing to happen, but then something completely different happens. Example: Harry Potter series is one of the most popular novels having employed situational irony. Until seven novels, the audience believes that Harry can kill Voldemort, the evil lord. However, the audience is thrown off guard near the end of this series when it becomes clear that Harry must allow evil lord to kill him, so that Voldemort's soul could become mortal once again. Hence, Harry allows himself to be killed in order to defeat Voldemort, which is exactly the opposite of the audience's expectations. By using situational irony, Rowling has actually done a great job of adding a twist to the story to create a complex conflict. (Harry Potter by J.K Rowling)

Syllogism

Definition: Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general and from this it draws conclusion about something more specific. Own Definition: Starting an argument and then ending with a conclusion. Example: Shakespeare employs this rhetorical device in his play "Timon of Athens" Act 4, scene 3: "Flavius: Have you forgot me, sir? Timon: Why dost ask that? I have forgot all men; Then, if thou grant'st thou'rt a man, I have forgot thee." Timon uses a witty syllogism to tell Flavius that he must have forgotten him like he has forgotten all other men. It can be expanded in a three-set argument as; "I usually do forget as I have forgotten everyone. Therefore, I have forgotten you as well."

Symbol

Definition: Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense. Own Definition: Symbolic meanings different from the literal meaning. Example: We find symbolic value in Shakespeare's famous monologue in his play As you Like It: "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; they have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," The above lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in course of their life perform different roles. "A stage" here symbolizes the world and "players" is a symbol for human beings.

Synecdoche

Definition: Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole or it may use a whole to represent a part. Own Definition: A part representing a whole, or the opposite. Example: Coleridge employs synecdoche in his poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner: "The western wave was all a-flame. The day was well was nigh done! Almost upon the western wave Rested the broad bright Sun" The "western wave" is a synecdoche as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts i.e. wave.

Syntax

Definition: Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought. Own Definition: How words are put together. Example: "That night I sat on Tyan-yu's bed and waited for him to touch me. But he didn't. I was relieved." (The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan)

Appeal to Improper Authority

Definition: The Inappropriate Appeal to Authority Fallacy occurs when an arguer uses a person of authority as evidence for a claim to be true. Pattern. Person A is an authority on Subject S. Person A makes claim C, about S. Own Definition: Using a person of authority to aid in your argument. Example: Bob: I don't think the US should go in! Sera: You are wrong. After UNSCOM left Iraq in 1998 the Iraqi weapons program continued to sophisticate at an alarming rate. Many Iraqi defectors have pledged this fact. They are producing weapons of mass destruction and we must stop them. Listen to Colin Powell, on February 5, 2003 he said "We know that Saddam Hussein is determined to keep his weapons of mass destruction, is determined to make more." Dick Cheny, Tony Blair, and many other very knowledgeable people have all agreed that Iraq has WMDs! Bob: You make a good point. But do you understand that the defectors, Powell, Cheny, and Blair could all be making mistakes? Sera: That's impossible! Bob: They are not perfect, are they?

Non Causa Pro Causa

Definition: The argument offers an explanation that confuses correlation with causality. One thing is cited as the cause of another, but, while there may actually be a connection between the two, the hypothesis mis-locates it, either making the effect into the cause, or treating as cause and effect two things that are each results of a common cause. Own Definition: Kind of like false cause; not identified correctly. Example: "Putting more police on the streets actually causes crime to increase! When we increased the number of cops on the beat, the number of crimes witnessed by police actually went up."

Euphony

Definition: The literary device euphony is derived from the Greek word "euphonos" that means sweet-voiced. It can be defined as the use of words and phrases that are distinguished as having a wide range of noteworthy melody or loveliness in the sounds they create. It gives pleasing and soothing effects to the ears due to repeated vowels and smooth consonants. It can be used with other literary devices like alliteration, assonance and rhyme to create more melodic effects. Examples of euphony are commonly found in poetry and literary prose. Own Definition: pleasing and soothing words or phrases. Example: Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch -eves run; To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, (Ode to Autumn by John Keats) There are many different words and phrases that can create euphony. However, in the given poem, Keats has used euphony in the whole poem which gives soothing and pleasing effects. Long vowel sounds like mellow, maturing, load, ripeness and semi-vowels like "s" and "w" sounds are exquisitely used.

Style

Definition: The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes and it is the technique which an individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author and depends upon one's syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a voice that readers listen to when they read the work of a writer. Own Definition: The way an author writes, using a type of technique. Example: An excerpt from "The Pleasures of Imagination" by Joseph Addison The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense... A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures... A man should endeavour, therefore, to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as wide as possible, that he may retire into them with safety ... Delightful scenes, whether in nature, painting, or poetry, have a kindly influence on the body, as well as the mind, and not only serve to clear and brighten the imagination, but are able to disperse grief and melancholy... This is an example of expository writing style in which the author describes advantages of imagination with facts and logical sequence and tells his delight of imagination. Then, he discusses its benefits and finally gives opinions in its favor.

Paradox

Definition: The term Paradox is from the Greek word "paradoxon" that means contrary to expectations, existing belief or perceived opinion. Own Definition: opposite of what people believe. Example: In George Orwell's Animal Farm, one part of the cardinal rule is the statement, "All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others". This statement seems to not make any sense. However, on closer examination, it gets clear that Orwell points out a political truth. The government in the novel claims that everyone is equal but it has never treated everyone equally. It is the concept of equality stated in this paradox that is opposite to the common belief of equality.

Euphemism

Definition: The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant. Own Definition: Polite phrases replacing harsh phrases. Example: John Donne in his poem "The Flea" employs euphemism. He says: "Mark but this flea, and mark in this, How little that which thou denies me is; It suck'd me first, and now sucks thee, And in this flea our two bloods mingled be. Thou know'st that this cannot be said A sin, nor shame, nor loss of maidenhead; Yet this enjoys before it woo, And pamper'd swells with one blood made of two; And this, alas! is more than we would do." In order to persuade his beloved to sleep with him, the speaker in the poem tells her how a flea bit both of them and their blood got mixed in it. This is a euphemism

Extended metaphor

Definition: The term extended metaphor refers to a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph or lines in a poem. It is often comprised of more than one sentence and sometimes consists of a full paragraph. Own Definition: A really long metaphor. Example: "Bobby Holloway says my imagination is a three-hundred-ring circus. Currently I was in ring two hundred and ninety-nine, with elephants dancing and clowns cart wheeling and tigers leaping through rings of fire. The time had come to step back, leave the main tent, go buy some popcorn and a Coke, bliss out, cool down." (Dean Koontz, Seize the Night. Bantam, 1999) Here, it can be seen that the "circus" has been compared to the author's "imagination"

Invective

Definition: The term invective denotes speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a person, topic, or institution. It involves the use of abusive and negative use of language. The tool of invective is generally employed in both poetry and prose to reiterate the significance of the deeply felt emotions of the writer. Own Definition: Negative writing. Example: An example of the manner of use of invective in prose can be witnessed through Shakespearean writing in The Tragedy of King Lear. Scene II of King Lear, in which Kent declares that Oswald is: "A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave... and art nothing but the composition of a knave, beggar, coward, pandar, and the son and heir of a mongrel bitch..." Just mark the use of words against a person in quick succession. This is called invective. It is a bit different from abuse as you can see it yourself.

Theme

Definition: Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work that may be stated directly or indirectly. Own Definition: The main topic of a piece. Example: Love and friendship are frequently occurring themes in literature. They generate emotional twists and turns in a narrative and can lead to a variety of endings: happy, sad or bittersweet. The following are famous literary works with love and friendship themes: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

Synthesis

Definition: To synthesize is to combine two or more elements to form a new whole. In the literature review, the "elements" are the findings of the literature you gather and read; the "new whole" is the conclusion you draw from those findings. Own Definition: Combining things to form one thing. Example: When you are reading a good story you will typically take in the information you are reading about and create in your mind a picture of what you are considering (there are other types of synthesis in literature, such as forming opinions, generating ideas, etc., but for this illustration, we'll stick with forming images in one's mind).

Tone

Definition: Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Own Definition: The attitude/mood of the writer. Example: Observe the tone of a short story "The School" by Donald Barthelme: "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." The use of adjectives "dead" and "depressing" sets a gloomy tone in the passage. As trees signify life here, their unexpected "death" from an unknown cause gives the above passage an unhappy and pessimistic tone.

Verbal irony

Definition: Verbal irony occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to. It is an intentional product of the speaker and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it simply, it means when a character uses statement with underlying meanings contrasting with its literal meanings, it shows that the writer has used verbal irony. Writers rely on audience's intelligence for discerning hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers also use ironic similes to convey exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as "soft like concrete." Own Definition: Speaking against what you are actually trying to say. Example: "I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate, rather than Paris." (Romeo & Juliet by William Shakespeare) Juliet does not like the decision of her father to marry with Paris, whom she dislikes and instead adores Romeo. Hence, she makes a decision to marry Romeo and tells her mother about it ironically that whenever she would marry, it would be Romeo whom she dislikes and not Paris, and thus makes her mother confused.

Appositive

Definition: When a noun or word is followed by another noun or phrase that renames or identifies it, this is called appositive. This is a literary device that appears before or after a noun or noun phrase. It is always used with commas. Simply, we can define it as a noun phrase or a noun that defines or explains another noun, which it follows. Own Definition: A noun that describes another noun. Example: "Christmas Eve afternoon we scrape together a nickel and go to the butcher's to buy Queenie's traditional gift, a good gnawable beef bone." (From A Christmas Memory by Truman Capote) In the above excerpt, a restrictive appositive is clarifying and describing a noun "traditional gift of Queenie." Here this literary device has appeared after noun.

Zeugma

Definition: Zeugma, from Greek "yoking" or "bonding", is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas. Own Definition: A word applying to more than one noun. Example: "And all the people saw the thundering, and the lightning, and the noise of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the people saw it, they removed, and stood afar off." (The Bible)

Genetic Fallacy

Definition: a fallacy of irrelevance where a conclusion is suggested based solely on someone's or something's history, origin, or source rather than its current meaning or context. Own Definition: Assuming a conclusion about something just because of its past. Example: "The current Chancellor of Germany was in the Hitler Youth at age 3. With that sort of background, his so called 'reform' plan must be a facist program."

Syllepsis

Definition: a figure of speech in which a word is applied to two others in different senses (e.g., caught the train and a bad cold ) or to two others of which it grammatically suits only one (e.g., neither they nor it is working ). Own Definition: Either one word applying to two words grammatically suiting one. Example: "When I address Fred I never have to raise either my voice or my hopes." (E.B. White, "Dog Training")

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

Definition: a logical fallacy (of the questionable cause variety) that states "Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X." It is often shortened to simply post hoc fallacy. Own Definition: Cause and effect. Example: "I can't help thinking that you are the cause of this problem; we never had any problem with the furnace until you moved into the apartment." The manager of the apartment house, on no stated grounds other than the temporal priority of the new tenant's occupancy, holds that the tenant's presence has some causal relationship to the furnace's becoming faulty.

Either/Or Fallacy

Definition: a type of informal fallacy that involves a situation in which only limited alternatives are considered, when in fact there is at least one additional option. Own Definition: Thinking that there are only a few options when there are definitely more. Example: Senator Jill: "We'll have to cut education funding this year." Senator Bill: "Why?" Senator Jill: "Well, either we cut the social programs or we live with a huge deficit and we can't live with the deficit."

Polemic

Definition: a written or spoken statement that strongly criticizes or defends a particular idea, opinion, or person: Own Definition: Defending or criticizing something. Example: What good came of these polemics? "The Memoirs of Count Carlo Gozzi" by Count Carlo Gozzi

Appeal to Force

Definition: an argument where force, coercion, or the threat of force, is given as a justification. It is a specific case of the negative form of an argument to the consequences. Own Definition: Giving a negative threat. Example: Melvin: Boss, why do I have to work weekends when nobody else in the company does? Boss: Am I sensing insubordination? I can find another employee very quickly, thanks to Craigslist, you know. Explanation: Melvin has asked a legitimate question to which he did not get a legitimate answer, rather his question was deflected by a threat of force (as being forced out of his job).

Hasty Generalization

Definition: an informal fallacy of faulty generalization by reaching an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence—essentially making a hasty conclusion without considering all of the variables. Own Definition: Making a conclusion without knowing all the facts. Example: Bill: "You know, those feminists all hate men." Joe: "Really?" Bill: "Yeah. I was in my philosophy class the other day and that Rachel chick gave a presentation." Joe: "Which Rachel?" Bill: "You know her. She's the one that runs that feminist group over at the Women's Center. She said that men are all sexist pigs. I asked her why she believed this and she said that her last few boyfriends were real sexist pigs. " Joe: "That doesn't sound like a good reason to believe that all of us are pigs." Bill: "That was what I said." Joe: "What did she say?" Bill: "She said that she had seen enough of men to know we are all pigs. She obviously hates all men." Joe: "So you think all feminists are like her?" Bill: "Sure. They all hate men."

Faulty Analogy

Definition: an informal fallacy. It applies to inductive arguments. It is an informal fallacy because the error is about what the argument is about, and not the argument itself. An analogy proposes that two concepts which are similar (A and B) have a common relationship to some property. Own Definition: When the argument is wrong. Example: Medical Student: "No one objects to a physician looking up a difficult case in medical books. Why, then, shouldn't students taking a difficult examination be permitted to use their textbooks?"

Rhetorical modes

Definition: describe the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of language-based communication, particularly writing and speaking. Four of the most common rhetorical modes and their purpose are narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. Own Definition: Description or argument of something. Example: Act I: the opening scene of Othello shows a fierce argument between Roderigo and Iago, which helps build the interest of the readers. The readers/audiences realize that Iago is persistently trying to convince Roderigo to be his accomplice in destroying Othello. The exposition in this scene plays the following roles: It explicates Iago's treacherous, spiteful and scheming nature. The main conflict of the play is revealed here. It revolves around Iago's concealed bitterness towards his boss Othello who, in Iago's opinion, is overloooking him for promotion. It ascertains two basic themes of the play: racism and that appearance is not always the same as reality.

Bombast

Definition: high-sounding language with little meaning, used to impress people. Own Definition: Trying to impress people by using big words that don't mean much. Example: "My dear Copperfield, a man who labors under the pressure of pecuniary embarrassments, is, with the generality of people, at a disadvantage. That disadvantage is not diminished, when that pressure necessitates the drawing of stipendiary emoluments, before those emoluments are strictly due and payable. All I can say is, that my friend Heep has responded to appeals to which I need not more particularly refer, in a manner calculated to redound equally to the honor of his head and of his heart." (Wilkins Micawber in David Copperfield by Charles Dickens)

Non Sequitur

Definition: in formal logic, is an argument with a conclusion that does not follow from its premise. Own Definition: A conclusion of an argument that does not really follow it. Example: An excerpt from "Waiting for Godot" by Samuel Beckett VLADIMIR: Consult his family....... ESTRAGON: (anxious). And we? ....... ESTRAGON: And why would he shout? VLADIMIR: At his horse. Silence. ESTRAGON: (violently). I'm hungry! VLADIMIR: Do you want a carrot..... VLADIMIR: I might have some turnips..... VLADIMIR: Oh pardon! I could have sworn it was a carrot...... ESTRAGON: (Chewing). I asked you a question. VLADIMIR: Ah. ESTRAGON: Did you reply? VLADIMIR: How's the carrot? ESTRAGON: It's a carrot. Here we can clearly see the use of non sequiturs, where Estragon persistently asks a question, but Vladimir does not bother to answer.

Slippery Slope

Definition: in logic, critical thinking, political rhetoric, and caselaw, is a consequentialist logical device in which a party asserts that a particular result will probably (or even must inevitably) follow from a given decision or circumstance, without necessarily providing any rational argument or demonstrable mechanism for the likelihood of the assumed consequence. Own Definition: Thinking that something is bound to happen with no actual argument. Example: If we pass laws against fully-automatic weapons, then it won't be long before we pass laws on all weapons, and then we will begin to restrict other rights, and finally we will end up living in a communist state. Thus, we should not ban fully-automatic weapons.

False Cause

Definition: is a category of informal fallacies in which a cause is incorrectly identified. Own Definition: Something is not identified correctly. Example: "We hear that a writer has just filed a two million dollar lawsuit against the Coors beer company for pickling his brain. It seems that he had been consuming large quantities of Coors' 3.2 beer, containing only 3.2 percent alcohol and so supposedly non-intoxicating, at his local tavern. But, the suit contends, the stuff was insidiously marinating his mind; and as a result he has been unable to finish writing his second novel. The author may have a point. But we have to wonder whether the damage was caused by the beer, or by the current fad of product liability suits." Wall Street Journal (02.14.79). There are two cases of false cause here, but the second, the Journal's, is tongue-in-cheek

Circular Reasoning

Definition: is a logical fallacy in which the reasoner begins with what they are trying to end with. The components of a circular argument are often logically valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Own Definition: Like a circle, starting off and ending off with the same thing. Example: A satisfied citizen says: "Richardson is the most successful mayor the town has ever had because he's the best mayor of our history." The second part of this sentence offers no evidence — it simply repeats the claim that was already presented. Don't be fooled into believing that using the word "because" in an argument automatically provides a valid reason. Be sure to provide clear evidence to support your claims, not a version of the premise (the initial statement in an argument).

Begging the Question

Definition: is a logical fallacy in which the writer or speaker assumes the statement under examination to be true. In other words, begging the question involves using a premise to support itself. Own Definition: Assuming something is true. Example: Erica: "How do you know that the bible is divinely inspired?" Pedro: "Because is says right in the third chapter of II Timothy that 'all scripture is given by divine inspiration of God.'"

Inverted syntax

Definition: occurs when lines do not follow traditional sentence patterns Own Definition: When sentences do not follow a traditional pattern. Example: Inversion examples are more common in poetry than in prose. Inversion creates meter and rhyme in the lines. Coleridge uses inversion artistically in his renowned poem "Kubla Khan": "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan A stately pleasure-dome decree: Where Alph, the sacred river, ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea. So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round; And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills, Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree; And here were forests ancient as the hills, Enfolding sunny spots of greenery." The inversions enhance the artistic effect of the poem.

Wit

Definition: refers to elements in a literary work designed to make the audience laugh or feel amused, i.e., the term is used synonymously with humor. Own Definition: Humor, to make the audience laugh. Example: For Dryden, Cowley, and Pope, wit was a matter of creating the proper word or proper image to convey an established and accepted idea in a new way--a blending of conservative thought with original expression. Samuel Johnson disagreed, scorning "heterogenous ideas . . . yoked by violence together" (qtd. in Cuddon 1045). Addison in several issues of The Spectator attempts to distinguish between "false" and "true wit," concluding that wit must combine resemblence or recognition with an oppositional surprise. He gives an example of a twist on Petrarchan imagery--"My mistress' bosom is as white as snow--and as cold." Here, the wit comes from a familiar and common Petrachan image referring to the beauty of Laura's snow-white breasts, but he deflates the expected passion by the imagery of her cold response (Shipley 626).

Argument to the People

Definition: this is quite a common occurrence in debates and refers to a person who substitutes a rebuttal with a personal insult. Own Definition: Personally insulting someone. Example: Hitler believed whites were superior to non-whites. But Hitler was a genocidal maniac. So, whites are not superior to non-whites.