AP Biology Review
Glycogen
Alpha Glucose polymer, branches, helical Used and stored by animals Carbs that come from any animal food Attached by ester bonds
Starch
Alpha-glucose polymer, unbranched (straight) , helical Used and stored by plants Any carb from plant food
Allele
Alternate form of a gene (you get one allele from each person) Can be recessive or dominant
Cohesion (in water)
Attraction between molecules of the same substance that occurs in water molecules when water attaches to another molecule of water by weak hydrogen bonds.
Huntington's Disease
Autosomal dominant; mental deterioration and uncontrollable movements; strikes in middle age
Incomplete dominance
1 allele is incompletely dominant over other alleles Ex: Snap dragons or 4 o' clock flowers
Symbiotic Association: commensalism
1 benefits, 1 neutral
Koch's Postulates
1 fnd pathogen in diseased individual 2 isolate and grow in pure culture (in vitro) 3 use cultured pathogen to make disease in animals (in vivo) 4 isolate pathogen from animal
Pleiotrophy
1 gene-> many phenotypes Ex Disease causing genes; sickle cell anemiam gene- RBC round, small, sickle (many shapes)
Symbiotic Association: parasitism
1 is harmed, 1 benefits
Conversion Factor between grams and kilograms
1 kilogram= 1000 grams
Conversion Factor between liters and mililiters
1 liter= 1000 mililiters
Conversion Factor between microns and nanometers
1 micron equals 1000 nanometers
Conversion Factor between milimeters and nanometers
1 milimeter equals 1 million nanometers
Conversion Factor between milimeters and microns
1 milimeter equals 1000 microns
How many nuclei are formed during mitosis?
1 nucleus -> 2 nuclei
What would the probability ratio of the number of brown eyed children to the number of blue eyed children if their parents were both brown eyed and both heterozygous for the allele for brown eyes?
3:1
Tertiary Structure
3D, coiled because of hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds (S-S) Vander Waals; shape formed is IMPORTANT IN FUNCTION!
An organism with genotype AaBb can produce a variety of different sex cell genotypes equaling
4
If n = 4 in haploid stage, how many tetrads formed in meiosis?
4 (diploid = 8, so 4 tetrads/pairs)
How much ATP is formed by substrate level phosphorylation?
4 ATP for every glucose
How many divisions of zygote would it require to get 16 cells of developing fetus?
4 divisions
Steroids
4 fused carbon-rings. ex: cholestrol, testosterone Not all hormones are steroids, some are insulin like proteins
3 grams of fat=
4 grams of carbs, but carbs are the main energy source
How many daughter cells are produced in meiosis?
4 haploid cells
If a mother cell enters the cell cycle with 20 chromosomes, how many chromatids will be seen in mitosis?
40
how efficient is cellular respiration?
40%
In which wavelengths does photosynthesis occur
400-700 nm
Wavelength of violet
400nm
Microtubules arrangement in Cilia/Flagella
9 doublets + 2 singles (9 + 2) anchored to the basal body drive the whipping action of cilia/flagella by using ATP
Microtubules arrangement in centriole
9 sets of triplets in each centriole; centrioles are found as a pair perpendicular to each other in centrosome
what percent ATP is produced by oxidative phosphorylation?
90%
If there is 46 chromosomes in G2, how many chromatids?
92
If a diploid body cell has 46 chromosomes, how many chromosomes in a tetraploid?
92 chromosomes
Tay Sachs Disease
Autosomal recessive, progressive weakening and loos of muscle tissue; almost all cases are males; 1st symptom appear in early childhood, death usually occurs by 20-> can't stand up, ect
Sickle cell anemia
Autosomal recessive; (homozygous); sickled red blood cells, damage to many tissues Most common in African Americans
Cystic fibrosis
Autosomal recessive; excess muscus in lungs- digestive tract, liver, increased susceptibility to infections; death in infancy unless treated Most common in caucasian
PKU (Phenylketonuria)
Autosomal recessive; inability to properly breakdown amino acid; if untreated results in mental retardation Most common in Jewish
Albinism
Autosomal recessive; lack of pigment in skin, hair, and eyes
Thylakoid
Coin-like structure in the chloroplast that contains the green pigment chlorophyll Make up the grana Are the location for step 1 of photosynthesis
2 types of inhibitors
Competitive and non-competitive
Cell Theory
Composed of three parts that state: 1. All living things are made up of cells 2. Cells can only come from cells (Reproduction) 3. Cell is the basic unit of life
Leeuwenhoek
Considered the father of the microscope
What does a dividing cell do with its genetic material?
A diving cell replicates/ duplicates its DNA before splitting. Each strand of DNA acts as a blueprint to make a new strand using DNA polymerase
Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.
Line Graph
A graph that uses line segments to show changes that occur over time
Plastids
A group of membrane‐bound organelles commonly found in photosynthetic organisms and mainly responsible for the synthesis and storage of starch.
Solution
A homogeneous liquid mixture of two or more substances
Fat
A large lipid molecule that contains glycerol and fatty acid Hydrophobic and nonpolar FATTY ACID ATTACHED TO GLYCEROL
triacylglycerol
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride.
Triacylglycerol
A lipid consisting of three glycerol bonded to one fatty acids
What marker protein does type A blood have?
A marker protein
Electronegativity
A measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons
Sickle Cell anemia
Abnormal hemoglobin is because of a single amino acid substitution (glutamic acid) replaced by valine in SCA
Chiasmata
Cross-over region of chromotids
Gametogenesis
Formation of gametes during meiosis, will produce either AB or aB sex cells
Spermatogenesis
Formation of sperm in meiosis
Waxy cuticle
Forms a waterproof layer to stop water loss due to photosynthesis
Phosphorus
Found in ATP, nucleic acid, also found in rocks. Increases productivty of aquatic life. A component of detergents and fertilizers and cause eutrophication
Estuaries
Freshwater meets ocean, salinity varies, highly productive, rich in marine invertebrates
If a double stranded DNA has 28% 'G', how much 'T' does it have?
G = 28%, C = 28%, A + T = 44%, and T = 22% (G=C, G+C= 56, A=T)
Cell Cycle Steps (abbreviations)
G1 S G2 M (mitosis/meiosis) C (cytokinsesis)
Interphase Steps
G1, S, G2
Genotype
Gene type/makeup Made up of 2 alleles or pairs (TT,Tt,tt)
Nucleic Acids
Genetic Information, protein synthesis, phosphodiester bond between PO4 and sugar H2 bond between bases
RNA viruses
Genetic information is RNA (not DNA); These viruses shoot their RNA into the host and make the host produce DNA for them using the enzyme reverse transcriptase (reverse transcription: RNA🡪DNA). They therefore, defy the central dogma of life (DNA🡪RNA🡪Protein). The host then makes mRNA and proteins for the virus.
Genotype Ratio vs Phenotype ratio
Genotype: TT:Tt:tt Phenotype: Tall:short
What blood group can A accept?
O or A blood
What blood group can B accept?
O or B blood
What blood groups can O donate to?
O, AB, A, or B (universal donor)
Universal donor
O-
If you do not get clumping in A, B, or Rh you have
O- blood
How is oxygen released in photosynthesis
O2 from glucose and water comes from carbon dioxide and the oxygen atom from water is released as oxygen gas through photolysis of water in PSII
Products of first step of photosynthesis
O2, NADPH, ATP
List the Scientific Method
Observation Hypothesis (educated guess/ logical inference based on prior knowledge) Prediction (if then statement) Experiment Conclusion: determines if the hypothesis is accepted or rejected (or Theory)
Acid Precipitation
Occurs when rain, snow, or fog has a pH that is more acidic than 5.6. This is caused by sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in air. These molecules react with water to form strong acids and fall to the surface with rain/snow.
Zygote
Offspring after successful mitotic division
Properties of Bases
Some bases reduce H+ directly by accepting H+ ions (Ammonia, NH3 attaches a H ion from solution, creating ammonium NH4) Other bases reduce H+ indirectly by dissociating to OH- that combines with H+ to form water
Organization of ecology
Species -> Population -> Community -> Ecosysem -> Biome -> Biosphere
Define Natural Selection
Species that adapt/reproduce survive. Ongoing process that happens today and can occur in short amount of time. When the population is too big for the environment to handle, competition occurs.
Pioneer Species
Species that first colonized a newly exposed habitat, mainly 'r' species: k-selected species then follow ro replace 'r' species
T or F Light dependent reactions may either be cyclic or noncyclic
True
cyclic photophosphorylation
The generation of ATP by cyclic electron flow. Calvin cycle uses more ATP than NADPH. Plants switch to this when ATP levels decrease
Habitat isolation
Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers
Habitat
Type of place where an organism lives (survives and thrives)
STOP Codons
UAA, UAG, UGA
Polar Molecule
Unequal sharing of electrons (e-) leads to change distribution within a molecule
Photorespiration
Wasteful process where plants cannot make glucose in photosynthesis Reaction in which rubisco attaches oxygen instead of carbon dioxide to ribulose bisphosphate. Used in hot, dry temperatures when the stoma is closed
________ is the solvent of life
Water
Adhesion (in plants)
Water adheres to the wall of the vessel in plants
Cohesion (in plants)
Water that evaporates from a leaf is replaced by water from xylem in leaf
Versatile Solvent
Water's ability to dissolve more solutes than any other solvent due to polarity as opposed to being a universal solvent
Secondary Structure
Wavy because of hydrogen bonds. Can be: Alpha-Helix or Beta-Pleated Sheet
Duplication Mutation
a mutation that involves duplication of a region of DNA on the same strand
Duplication mutation
a mutation that involves duplication of a region of DNA on the same strand
Protooncogene
a nonmutated oncogene that regulates cell division
Hole in Ozone Layer
a problem caused by using CFCs; it lets in too much UV radiation from the sun, causing an increase in skin cancer; causes loss of biodiversity
Activator
a protein that increases and promotes the transcription of genes
Repressor protein
a regulatory protein that binds to an operator and blocks transcription of the genes of an operon
Enhancer
a short DNA sequence that can be bound by proteins to increase the likelihood of transcription for a particular gene
Pellet
a small, rounded, compressed mass of a substance left behind after spinning in a centrifuge
R- Selected Species
a species that has a high intrinsic growth rate, which often leads to population overshoots and die-offs J-shaped curve, opportunitic species, affected by density-independent factors Ex: Grasses and insects
K-Selected Species
a species with a low intrinsic growth rate that causes the population to increase slowly until it reaches carrying capacity S-Curve, density dependent factors, carrying capacity 'k' Ex: Humans
Carcinogen
a substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue
What does each pH unit represent?
a tenfold difference in H+ concentration and OH- concentration
Codon
a triplet code of three nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid or action
Scientific Names
a unique, Latin two-word name for each species that uses the Genus (first letter uppercase) and species (first letter lowercased) names
Vascular bundle
a unit strand of the vascular system in stems and leaves of higher plants consisting essentially of xylem and phloem
what happens if there is too much acetyl CoA or too much ATP?
acetyl CoA shuttled to synthesizing fatty acids
Microfilament (Proteins)
actin and myosin
Movement protein examples
actin, myosin, microfilaments (in muscle), tubulin (in cilia/flagella)
Ions are transported by what kind of transport?
active transport
Frameshift mutation
addition or deletion of a base that leads to shift in base coding sequence. Ex. CAT ATE RAT -> CAA TAT ERA; CAA ATE RA etc.
Bases in RNA
adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
is aerobic or anearobic respiration involved in slow twitch muscles?
aerobic
When does anaerobic respiration/fermentation occur?
after glycolysis
Shwann
concluded that all animals are made of cells. Was a zoologist that contributed to cell theory with Schleiden and Virchow
Body Tube
connect eye piece to objective lens
Archaebacteria
considered ancient life forms (ancient bacteria) that evolved separately from bacteria and blue-green algae
Anabolic pathways
consume energy/absorb to build up macromolecules
Extracellular matrix
animal cells are embedded in this made up of glycoproteins which binds, protects, and supports cells
does lactic acid fermentation take place in plants or animals?
animals
Oligomycin
antifungal, inhibits ATP synthase of fungi, no ATP produced
Ionization (AKA Dissociation)
any process that results in the formation of an ion. Produces H+ or OH- ions
why is there less ATP produced in eukaryotes than prokaryotes?
because eukaryotes use 2 ATP to transport the 2 NADH from glycolysis in the cytosol to the cristae
Why is Down syndrome more commonly seen compared to other autosomal nondisjunctions?
because others are fatal and fetus does not survive.
How do bacteria divide?
binary fission (asexual) - replicate DNA and split; no mitosis
Tight junctions
bind cells and prevent leakage (ex. in digestive tract)
Competitive inhibitors
bind to active site; substrate cannot bind (block active site preventing enzyme activity)
Cyanide and CO
bind to cytochromes, shut down ETC, no ATP produced
Noncompetitive inhibitors
binds to any part of enzyme other than active site, changing the active site's shape and making them unable to carry out activity
Enzymes
biocatalysts that speed up reaction by lowering activation energy
Temperate Grasslands
biome characterized by deep, nutrient-rich soil that supports many grass species, makes up most of the central US Ex: North American prairie
Tropical Rainforest
biome near the equator with warm climate wet weather and lush plant growth. Canopy, high diversity (which is decreasing because of human interference (hunting/ cutting down trees)
Rotenone
blocks ETC where NADH enters, no ATP produced
Somatic cells
body cells - diploid (2N), 46 (23 pairs) in humans
Symbiotic Association: mutualism
both benefit
Dominant black and recessive white rats are crossed in codominance. What color will the resulting heterozygous rat be?
both black and white
Where does transcription and translation occur in bacteria?
both in cytoplasm, no ER and DNA doesn't have introns.
What is anaerobic respiration/fermentation?
breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen
where are fast twitch muscles located?
breast meat in birds
definition of respiration
breathing, gas exchange
Artificial selection
breeding for desired traits: ex- man breeds dogs, horses, plants, etc for desired traits.
how are coupled reactions carried out?
by enzymes called dehydrogenases using chemiosmosis
facultative anaerobes
can go without o2
Anaerobe
can't have o2 present
anaerobe
cannot survive in presence of O2
Exclusive organelles in bacteria
capsule, fimbriae/pili
Parts of a prokaryote
capsule, pili, flagella, endospere, endotoxin, exotoxin. Don't have introns or histones; binary fission
the cell membrane contains
carbohydrates mainly attached to marker proteins
Chloroplast
carry out anabolic reactions (make carbohydrates) in plants and algae have own circular DNA (self-replicating)
Mitochondria
carry out catabolic reactions make ATP (cellular respiration) by breaking down food has own DNA (self-replicating)
Lyme Disease
caused by Borrelia; bulls eye rash
Basic Solution
contains more hydroxide ions OH- than hydrogen ions H+ and the pH is greater than 7.
Functional genes
control the expression of structural genes
Leading Strand
copied continuously in the direction of replication fork
Metaphase
chromosomes line up at the center (middle), nuclear membrane disappears, spindle fibers attach to chromosomes
Sex chromosomes
chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual; XX-female, XY-male.
Autosomes
chromosomes that give you traits (carry genes for traits)
Nose piece
circular piece on which the objective lenses are attached
New strand is made by...?
copying complementary bases🡪 30th strand copied 5'🡪3' copying original strand 3'🡪5'.
Topoisomerase
corrects "overwinding" ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands
What is activation energy?
energy needed to start a reaction
What happens where there are high levels of ADP?
enhances or activates PFK
what happens to the acetyl after grooming?
enters Krebs Cycle wth help of CoA
Photosystem
clusters of light-absorbing pigments such as chlorophyll 'a' and 'b' 2 types; PSI and PSII Work together to produce ATP and NADPH in the light reaction Each photosystem contains a reaction center and an accessory pigment
Regulator gene
codes for 'repressor' protein
what is coA?
coenzyme A; organic helper; multienzyme complex
Renature
coils it back to normal after temp gets too high and the activity decreased Become functional again but most proteins denature irreversibly
Thylakoid
coin-shaped, membrane-enclosed compartments in chloroplasts; where light reaction occurs
Plasmodesmata
communicating gaps or junctions between neighboring plant cells (not in animal cells)
Gause's principle
competitve exclusion principle/ states that no two species can occupy the same niche at the same time, and that the species that is less fit to live in the environment will either relocate, die out, or occupy a smaller niche
Single-strand binding (SSB) proteins
enzyme that binds to each unzipped DNA strand and keeps them apart until replication is complete
Cellulase
enzyme that breaks down cellulose in herbivores producing microbes living symbiotically in the gut
DNA polymerase I
enzyme that cuts off RNA primer and replaces it with deoxynucleotides (DNA)
reverse transcriptase
enzyme that does reverse transcription: RNA🡪DNA
DNA Ligase
enzyme that joins Okazaki fragments, forming the new lagging strand
DNA polymerase III
enzyme that starts adding deoxynucleotides at the 3' end of the primer extending DNA from 5'🡪3' direction; Using the base parental strand as a template, it bonds nucleoside triphosphate bases with nucleotide bases and proofreads each bond to ensure the correct bases pair with one another
Helicase
enzyme that unwinds, uncoils, and unzips DNA
Catalyzed reaction
enzyme, reaction is faster because activation energy is shorter/smaller
Catalyst protein example
enzymes
Protein kinases
enzymes that activate proteins for cell division by involving ATP
What are allosteric enzymes?
enzymes that have 2 sites: active site and allosteric/regulatory site
isotonic solution
equal solute concentration
Fungi Kingdom
eukaryotic kingdom of heterotrophic decomposers: molds, mushrooms.
Molecular Biology
examines nucleotide and amino acid sequence of proteins from different species. closer similarity=closer in evolution
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
excess cholesterol transported and stored in liver cells by Receptor-mediated endocytosis (will have high chloesterol if receptor-mediated endocytosis is messed up)
Conjugation
exchange of DNA in bacteria during mating (attach to pili)
Cleavage furrow
formed during cytokinesis by microfilaments (actin), while spindle fibers are formed with microtubules (tubulin).
Paleontology
fossils found among sediment layers
Chromatin
found around nucleolus but within the nuclear membrane; 40% DNA and 60% protein (histone)
Free ribosomes
found in cytosol; synthesize cytosolic proteins
Cell wall
found only in plant cells, bacteria, and fungi (absent in animal cells)
Tetraploid
four sets of chromosomes
Two types of ribosomes
free and bound
p represents
frequency of dominant allele
r represents
frequency of recessive allele
How did eukaryotes form? What is the evidence for it?
from association of various prokaryotes. Evidence is that mitochondria and chloroplasts-->self replicating own DNA like bacteria
multicellular eukaryotes
fungi, plants and animals).
Penicilium
fungus that makes antibiotic penicillin
water moves through:
gaps in the phospholipid bilayer
Sex chromosomes
gender - XX female, XY male
Point mutation
gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed (deletion and subsitution)
Donor Gene
gene of interest
Structural genes
genes actually expressed to make proteins
Sexual Reproduction
genetic recombination; cross over
Autosomes
give traits; 22 pairs in humans
Linkage map
gives sequence of genes on a chromosome. It can be determined using recombination frequences. The farther the gene is from the centromere, greater is the chance of cross-over and recombination.
Cytoskeleton
gives support and shape to cell; found in eukaryotic cells, but not bacteria
Microfilament (Structure)
globular proteins
Microtubules (structure)
globular proteins
glycolysis reactants
glucose
Sucrose
glucose + fructose
Lactose
glucose + galactose
Maltose
glucose + glucose (disaccharide)
the two steps of CR that are substrate level respiration
glycolysis and krebs cycle
Gradualism
gradual and continuous changes
Moles formula
grams/molar (molecular) mass (from periodic table)
Cell Culture
group of cells grown in a nutrient solution from a single original cell through asexual reproduction (cloning)
Species
group of individuals that can interbreed and make fertile offspring. Horse+donkey=mule(infertile), so horse and donkey are not the same species
Genetic Counseling
guidance for prospective parents on the likelihood of genetic disorders in their future children (pedigree and analysis)
Gametes
haploid sex cells (sperm/egg cell) - specialized reproductive cell produced by meiosis
Nuclear membrane
has nuclear pores in which RNA can exit out of nucleus
Light/Compound/Optical Microscopes
have 2 lenses - eye piece/ocular and objective lens
While doing work (energy transformations) energy is lost in the form of ____?
heat
Helpful Bacteria do:
help in fermentation (yogurt) clean oil spills genetic engineering fix nitrogen in legumes (peanuts, soybeans, etc)
Pili
helps in exchanging DNA in conjugation
Cell Plate
helps in final step of cell division; only in plant cells
Spliceosome
helps in mRNA splicing; contains SnRNPs that bind to the 5' and 3' ends, loops the introns, and splices them out
Transport protein examples
hemoglobin, channel proteins
Sex-linked recessive disorders
hemophilia, color blindness, muscular dystrophy
Suspension
heterogenous mixture containing a liquid in which visible particles settle (not homogenous)
Besides autotrophs what else formed on early earth?
heterotrophs
2pq represents
heterozygous
Hypercholesterolemia
high blood cholesterol
Ribosomes
high numer seen in cells with active protein synthesis; do not have a membrane made up of rRNA and protein 2 subunits - large and small (come together for protein synthesis)
solute always moves from ____ solute concentration to ___ solute concentration.
high solute to low solute
water always moves from ____ water concentration to _____ water concentration
high water to low water
Heterozygous advantage
higher cahnce of relative fitness than homozygous; ex: African population who are heterozygous for sickle cell anemia=more resistant to malaria
Does PSII absorb higher or lower energy light?
higher energy light
Most enzymes denature because of:
higher temperatures or pH changes
p^2 represents
homozygous dominant
q^2 represents
homozygous recessive
Types of postzygotic barriers
hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, hybrid breakdown
Hybrid sterility
hybrid is functional but sterile (mule)
Hybrid breakdown
hybrid offspring has low viability or low fertility
Pyramids of Biomass
illustrates the relative amount of living organic matter available at each trophic level in an ecosystem
How is glucose stored in plants?
in the form of starch
Where are a large number of lysosomes seen?
in white blood cells
Nonrandom mating
inbreeding, sexual selection/artificial
Role of oxygen in oxidative phosphorylation
it is the terminal e- acceptor and gets converted to H2O; 1/2 O2 plus 2H+ plus 2e- --> H2O
what happens to CoA after it helps take the acetyl to the Krebs Cycle?
it returns to grooming
Electroporation
method of temporarily permeabilizing cell membranes to facilitate entry of large/hydrophilic molecules; brief electric pulse given with potential gradients 700 V/cm.
Cytoskeleton structures
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules
Monosomy
missing a chromosome ex. XO- Turner syndrome- sterile short female
where does grooming occur?
mitochondrial matrix
Reduction
molecule gains an electron More energy than oxidation (LEO says GER (gain electron reduce) Molecules with an H+ have been reduced
Oxidation
molecule loses an electron Less energy than reduction (LEO says GER (loss electrons oxidize) Molecules without an H+ have been oxidized
is more or less ATP produced in slow twitch muscles?
more atp (endurance)
does slow twitch muscles have more or less mitochondria?
more mitochondria
diffusion
movement of molecules from high to low concentration until equilibrium is reached
Osmosis
movement of water across a permeable membrane
What is caused by the 'wobble' in the third base?
multiple codons coding for the same amino acid due to the freedom of anticodon to bind with third base in codon
Microfilament (Functions)
muscle contraction, pseudopodia (ameboid movement), cell division, shape
Obligate aerobe
must have O2
Translocation mutation
mutation in which one part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another
why are slow twitch muscles red/dark?
myoglobin protein
What kind of DNA is found in prokaryotes?
naked DNA - no histones
What are viruses measured in?
nanometers (nm)
Mass extinction
involve sharp increase in extinction intensity over "background" levels; change extinction selectivity; allow for evolutionary recoveries
Aneuploidy
nondisjunction of one chromosome, leading to monosomy or trisomy. Ex. Down syndrome
G0
nondividing phase
Virus Structure
nonliving, can't reproduce on their own; Contains genetic material, either DNA or RNA, and a protein coat.
Prophase
nuclear membrane starts dissolving, spindle fibers appear, chromosomes appear as chromatid
Telophase
nuclear membrane starts forming, spindle fibers disappear, chromosomes appear as chromatin (almost opposite to prophase)
Where does transcription occur?
nucleus
Half Life
number of years for 1/2 of isotope to decay. 14C=5600 years. 2^38=4.5 bil. Ratio of 12C14C=living, 14C decays
Point Mutation
occur at a point caused by substitution (sickle cell anemia; 1 base) or deletion (cystic fibrosis).
Cyclic
occurring in cycles; regularly repeated
Catabolic pathways
release energy by breaking down complex macromolecules
Telomeres
repetitive DNA at chromosome ends; also have protective function🡪a significant loss of telomeric DNA quickly leads to cell death; abnormal length may help 'immortal' cancer cells evade normal cell aging.
DPIP
replaced some of the NADP+ molecules to be reduced and change color from blue to colorless and determines if photosynthesis is occuring
Petrification
replacement of organic tissue with dissolved minerals; preserved impressions; hard parts
Gametes
reproductive cells - haploid (1N)
fastidious bacteria
require a lot to grow
Active Transport characteristics
requires energy, against concentration gradient, one way (in or out), ex: proton pump, sodium-potassium pump, exocytosis, endocytosis
Endospore
resistance to harsh conditions
RFLP
restriction fragment length polymorphisms; differences in homologous DNA sequences that are reflected in different lengths of restriction fragments produced when DNA is cut up with restriction enzymes.
Embrology
reveals similar stages of development
Some enzymes carry out _______ reactions
reversible
Sugar in RNA
ribose sugar
MITOSIS: Each daughter cell has the _____________ number of chromosomes as the mother cell.
same number
Scanning microscope
scans surface of dead specimen; 3D
G2
second growth phase in interphase
scanning tuneling microscope
sees both surface and interior of dead sample; 3D
Transmission microscope
sees interior of dead sample; 2D
another name for facilitated diffusion
selective transport
How is DNA copied?
semidiscontinuously
The cell membrane is:
semipermeable
Cell membrane
semipermeable membrane that controls/regulates what goes in and out of cell ("gatekeeper")
Centromeres
separate in anaphase of mitosis or anaphase II of meiosis.
Gel electrophoresis
separation of DNA macromolecules using electric current. DNA is negatively charged; used to compare DNA from different individuals and to determine the molecular mass of DNA, RNA, and proteins.
Introns
sequence of DNA that is not involved in coding for a protein; cut out after transcription
Meiosis
sexual reproduction in which gametes are formed. The number of chromosomes in gametes is half the number of chromosomes of the mother cell.
Cilia
short, hair-like; used for movement; seen in protozoa
Pyramids of Energy
show the relative amount of energy available at each trophic level of a food chain or food web
Urey and Miller
showed in experiment that when electric sparks were applied to gases, organic compounds like amino acids were formed
In a hypertonic solution, the cell:
shrinks as water moves out of the cell
gases diffuse through what kind of transport?
simple diffusion
Primase
since DNA polymerase can't start replication, this enzyme starts it by adding a RNA primer at the beginning of replication
What is cooperativity?
single enzyme with multiple active sites or multiple catalytic sites
Bacteria
single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus; prokaryotes
Capsule
slimy coating around cell wall; only in bacteria; contributes towards virulence/pathogenesis of the bacteria
is ATP produced fast or slow in slow twitch muscles?
slow
slow/fast twitch muscles are good for long term exercise
slow are good for long term
A sodium-potassium pump will only pump ____ out and _____ in
sodium out, potassium in
When equilibrium is reached, there is no net change in:
solute and water concentration
Example of coenzymes
some vitamins
Glyoxysomes
specialized peroxisomes in plant seeds that convert the stored fatty acids to sugar once seeds germinate
Ultracentrifuge
spin with force as much as 1,000,000g refrigerated because high forces generate heat
Anaphase
spindle fibers pull apart the chromatid, chromatids move to the poles of the cell
Cytokinesis
splitting of cytoplasm beginning at the end of telophase; cell splits up into 2 daughter cells
60% fast twitch muscle: marathon runners or sprinters?
sprinters
Grana
stack of thylakoids
What happens before glycolysis?
starch, sucrose, glycogen, and polysaccharides are broken down into glucose
in an isotonic solution, the cell:
stays the same
Potential Energy
stored energy that results from the position or shape of an object
Plastid
stores pigment in plant cells (like chlorophyll)
Where do light-independent reactions take place?
stroma of the chloroplast
Rosalind Franklin
studied DNA by x-ray diffraction, suggested DNA structure is like a coiled single-helix
Botanist
studies plant life
Ethology
study of animal behavior
Cytology
study of cells and cell structure
Biochemistry
study of chemical reactions in living things/cells
Enzymes bind to ____
substrate
Building Block of carbohydrate
sugar
Peripheral proteins
surface of cell membrane
Mutalism
symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
synthesis of lipids (main function) producing/synthesizing steroid hormones (in ovaries & testicles) detoxifying agents in some tissues (ex. liver cell) storing calcium ions (ex. muscle cell)
Translate this DNA sequence: ATT GCA
tRNA: AUU GCA
Intermediate filaments (functions)
tension-bearing, support shape
Enzymes function depends on:
tertiary structure; gives each protein unique shape
Capillary Action (in water)
the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid
Transcription
to copy DNA to make mRNA; of Only one strand of DNA is copied after DNA unwinds and unzips. DNA can't leave the nucleus, so it copies itself by making mRNA which moves into the cytoplasm.
Translation
to decode mRNA to make proteins; 3 RNAs are assembled together by ribosomes. The decoding of codons is done by tRNA using the genetic code, which gives correlation b/w codon and amino acid. The tRNA interprets the codon and brings the correct amino acid to the codon site (ribosome = rRNA + protein) and builds the chain
genetic engineering
to manipulate genes by changing DNA sequences to produce products or correct genes
Gene Expression
transcription and translation of genes into proteins
tRNA
transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome
Other name from grooming
transition
Passive transport
transport that does not require energy; moves WITH the concentration gradient (high to low)
Active Transport
transport that requires energy; moves against the concentration gradient (low to high)
sugars can be
triose, pentose, or hexose
Down Syndrome
trisomy of chromosome 21
True or false: Substrates may induce an enzyme's shape to make it fit
true
Microtubules (proteins)
tubulin
Plant cells in hypotonic solutions become:
turgid (due to cell wall, they do not burst/no lysing)
semi-conservative replication
two parental strands act as templates for new DNA material synthesis. Each daughter strand is made up of one parental strand and one newly synthesized strand
How many steps is meiosis?
two steps: Meiosis I (reproduction division) and Meiosis II (like mitosis)
law of independent assortment
two traits dybrid cross; one trait does not influence the other trait during gamete formation. Ex: Hair color does not influence height
How many turns of the Krebs Cycle is needed per glucose?
two turns
UNIVERSAL RECEPIENT blood
AB+
What are cofactors?
Nonprotein (inorganic) helpers
What ppm (dissolved oxygen) is ideal for fish and aquatic life?
8-15 ppm (mg/L)
If you get clumping in all A, B, and Rh you have
AB+ blood
Function of cellulose in animals
"Insoluble Fiber" Can not be digested by omnivores and carnivores instead abrades intestinal walls and stimulates mucus secretion. Can be digested by herbivores
Diploid
'2n', cell with 2 sets of chromosomes (one set from each parent)
Haploid
'n' cell with one set of chromosomes. Human haploid cell has 23 chromosomes (ex. gamete)
Atomic Weight
(AKA atomic mass) Average of the mass numbers of all isotopes that can be approximated by its atomic mass
Chrionic Villi Sampling
(CVS) Technique for diagnosing genetic defects while the fetus is in the uterus; small sample of the fetal portion of the placenta is removed and analyzed
Zero Population Growth
(ZPG) - growth tiers are equal width- population that is stable, no growth
How to calculate 'r' growth or reproductive
(b-d)/N (N= Population at the start)
Receptor protein
(boulder/rock shaped) receive info and transmit it to inside of cell
Marker protein
(curly fries) identifies cells ("name-tag") - helps to identify "self" from "nonself" (foreign); CHO chain makes the marker protein-specific
Channel/carrier protein
(donut shaped) act as channels to let molecules in and out of cell - help polar molecules bypass the nonpolar lipid tails / nonpolar molecules bypass the polar heads
Transcription
(genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA DNA->mRNA With help from RNA polymerase
Photic
(more phytoplankton) (aquatic plants) and aphotic (more zooplankton (aquatic animals) zones (in both freshwater and marine)
Fundamental niche
(no competition) all possible conditions under which populations reproduce itself
Specific Heat
(of a substance) the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of that substance to change its temperature by 1 degree Celsius (WATER HAS A HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT!)
Centrioles
(pair) are in the centrosome; duplicates in interphase and they move apart to the poles of the cell in prophase.
Demography includes
-population density -population distribution -growth rate of a population
5 Characteristics of Living Things
1. Metabolism 2. Homeostasis 3. Genes/Heredity 4. Reproduction 5. Cellular Organization
Light-Dependent Reaction Formula
12H2O + 12NADP + 18ADP + 18Pi + light + chlorophyll -> 6O2 + 12NADPH + 18ATP
Internal and External Cues/Signals for Cell Division
1. Surface area (volume ratio/cell size) 2. Cytoplasm (genome ratio) 3. Growth factors such as PDGF 4. Attachment/anchorage (attached cell divides faster) 5. Space (density inhibits cell division) 6. Nutrients 7. Cyclins 8. Check pt./restriction point 9. Protein kinases
List the events of light reaction in order
1. When light strikes a leaf at the pallisade mesophyll, photons are absorbed by chlorophyll 2. Electrons in chlorophyll get excited and pass down a series of electron acceptors resulting in redox reactions producing ATP at PSII and NADPH at PSI 3. At PSI, NADP is the terminal electron acceptor, accepting the e- and H+ forming high energy NADPH
Net release of ATP in glycolysis
2 ATP
how much atp is produced from one FADH?
2 ATP
Deletion Mutation
a mutation in which one or more pairs of nucleotides are removed from a gene
Weight of one Dalton
1.7x10^-24 gram/particle= 1 Dalton
Carbon Dating Examples
1.Fossil has 1/8 of normal ratio of 14C:12C. Estimate age. x-->x/4-->x/8-->16,800 years. 2. 40K has 1/2 life of 1.3 billion years. If on death there was 1mg of 40K and its fossil has 0.25mg, how old is the fossil? 1-->0.5-->0.25=2.6 billion
What are the chances a mother will have a baby boy 3 times in a row?
1/8 chance
How much NADH and FADh enter the ETC?
10 NADH and 2 FADH
ETC reactants
10 NADH, 2 FADH, 6O2
Working muscle recycles how much ATP?
10 million ATP molecules/second/cell
Total NADH from cellular respiration
10 total NADH
what percent ATP is made by substrate level phosphorylation?
10%
What is produced in the Krebs Cycle?
2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH, 4 CO2
Krebs Cycle Products
2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH< 4 CO2
Net release of NADH in glycolysis
2 NADH
how much NADH is used up to produce lactic acid or ethanol?
2 NADH is used to produce lactic acid or ethanol
What is produced from grooming stage?
2 NADH; 2 CO2
Grooming products
2 acetyl CoA, 0 ATP, 2 NADH, 0 FADH, 2 CO2
Krebs Cycle reactants
2 acetyl CoA, 2 OAA
Alcoholic fermentation products
2 ethanol, 0 NADH, 0 FADH, 2 CO2
Mitosis produces...
2 identical daughter cells from one mother cell
grooming reactants
2 pyruvate
Glycolysis products
2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 0 FADH, 0 CO2
What does a glucose molecule break down into?
2 pyruvic acid
What happens in lactic acid fermentation?
2 pyruvic acid made into 3C lactic acid
Ribosome structure
2 subunits-large and small and have 3 binding sites: P-site (peptide), A-site (amino acid), and mRNA binding site
total FADH from CR
2 total FADH
Minimum resolution of light microscope
2 u
convergent evolution
2 unrelated species share similar traits because of adapting to similar ecological conditions (porpoise[mammal] and penguin[bird])
Parallel Evolution
2+ related make similar evolutionary changes after divergence from common ancestor
A primary sex cell experiences on nondisjunction during mesiosis. If the normal diploid number of chromosomes in the cell is fourty two, how many chromosomes are present in one of the defective gene?
20
How many amino acids total and how many essential
20 total amino acids and 9 essential
Ideal temperature for most plants
20-35 degrees celsius
How many pairs of autosomes in human diploid cell?
22 (+ one pair sex chrom.)
Microtubules (diameter)
25 nm
Two parents are heterozygous and display blood types A and B. If they mate, the probability of producing an offspring with blood type O is
25%
Two pink flowers Rr of the four o' clock plant mate assuming incomplete dominance. The chance of obtaining a red color offspring is
25%
What happens during alcoholic fermentation?
2C ethanol is made
Payoff phase of glycolysis
2GP-->2DPGA-->2PGA-->2PEP-->2 pyruvic acid
Minimum resolution of EM
2nm
how much ATP is produced from one NADH?
3 ATP
triose
3 Carbon sugar. C3H6O3. Example: Glyceraldehyde- an initial breakdown product of glucose in cells.
Trisomy, XXY
3 copies of a chromosome Klinefelter syndrome, Sterile male
If you separate the double helix of DNA and make a step ladder, what is the distance (how many rings) between the strands of the double strands?
3 rings because base pairing
Cyanobacteria
3.5 billion years ago; started O2
ETC products
34 ATP, 6 H2O
total atp produced in aerobic respiration in eukaryotes
36 ATP
total atp produced in aerobic respiration in prokaryotes
38 ATP
pentose (carb)
5 carbon sugar (ex: ribose, deoxyribose)
Normal pH value of rain
5.6 The slight acidity is due to the product of the formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water
Assuming incomplete dominance, if you cross pink flowers with pink flowers, the expected probabilities may include
50% pink
Chances of male and female inheritance of autosomal disorders
50-50
Heat of Vaporization of water
540 cal/g of H2O at room temperature (WATER HAS RELATIVELY HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION)
pH of most biological fluids
6-8 except the pH of the human stomach can reach 2 if the mucous lining of the stomach wears out and produces an ulcer
how much is lost as heat during cellular respiration?
60%
How many codon combinations are there?
64, but only 20 amino acids
Nanometers of PSII aborbed
680 nm (red orange light)
ideally, glucose releases ___kcal/mole when completely oxidized
686 kcal/mole
total CO2 from cellular respiration
6CO2
Actual Equation of photosynthesis
6CO2 + 12H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Formula for dark reaction
6CO2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH -> glucose + 18ATP + 12NADP + 18P +12H+
Net equation of photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Microfilament (Diameter)
7 nm (thinnest)
Each ATP = ___kcal/mole
7.3kcal/mole
If each ATP = 7.3kcal/mole, and there are 38 ATP made at the end of cellular respiration, what is the total?
7.3kcal/mole times 38 ATP = 277.4 kcal stored
Nanometers of PSI aborbed
700 nm (red light)
Wavelength of red
700nm
percent daily calories used for involuntary functions like digestion and circulation
75%
What takes up most of the earth's water?
75% marine, salinity (salt concentration) photic and aphotic zones
Intermediate filaments (diameter)
8 - 12 nm
ribulose phosphate
A 5-carbon sugar used in the light-independent reactions that combines with phosphate to make CO2
hexose
A 6-carbon sugar (ex: glucose, galactose, fructose)
Replication fork
A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where the DNA begins to unzip
Marker protein of AB blood
A and B marker proteins
Alkali
A base that dissolves in water, same as base, ph between 7-14
Covalent Bond
A bond formed by the sharing of electrons (between 2 nonmetals) Can occur between 2 atoms of the same element. STRONGEST bond along with ionic.
Eukaryotic
A cell characterized by the presence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes can be unicellular or multicellular
Denature
A change in the shape of a protein and loss of function that can be caused by changes in temperature, salt, or pH (among other things).
Ionic Bond
A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between cations and anions and one atom donates and another accepts electrons. STRONGEST bond along with covalent (between nonmetals and metals)
Dehydration Synthesis
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule. In carbohydrate: OH from one monosaccharide and H from another monosaccharide combine and are lost as H2O and a glycosidic bond is formed between sugars. Used to make ANY MACROMOLECULE!
Inorganic Compound
A compound that does not contain carbon
Polar Covalent Bond
A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally
Dihybrid Cross
A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same gene
Monohybrid cross
A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits
Age Structure
A description of the abundance of individuals of each age
Endergonic Reaction
A non-spontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings.
What blood groups can A blood donate to?
A or AB blood
Chargaff's Base Pairing Rule
A pairs with T G pairs with C
Missense Mutation
A point mutation (subsitution) in which a codon that specifies an amino acid is mutated into a codon that specifies a different amino acid.
Polypeptide
A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Another name for a protein (both are amino acid chains)
A mother of blood type B- negative gives birth to an infant of blood type O-positive. What could be the bloodtype of the father?
A positive
Electrolysis
A process by which an electric current breaks chemical (Covalent) bonds.
Eutrophication
A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria. Increases biomass
Chemiosmosis
A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme.
Enzyme
A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body and acts as a biological catalyst
Commensalism
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
Parasitism
A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed
Chaparral
A scrubland biome of dense, spiny evergreen shrubs found at midlatitudes along coasts, long dry summers, forest fires
Food Chain
A series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten Can be linear, food web, complex
Interidal Zone
A shallow along the shore
Chargaff's Rule
A=T and C=G
What genotype can A blood have?
AA or AO (homozygous vs heterozygous)
Inducer
A specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon.
Alpha-Helix
A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure. Seen in: helical protein, fibrous Ex: Collagen (connective tissue) and keratin (intermediate filaments in hair and nails)
Radioactive decay
A spontaneous process in which unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation. Can be used to date fossils. The energy emitted is hazardous to life
Element
A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
Acid
A substance that increases the H+ ion concentration in a solution
X-ray crystallography
A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of protein
Chromatography
A technique that is used to separate the components of a mixture based on the tendency of each component to travel or be drawn across the surface of another material. Used to separate pigments
Glycerol
A three-carbon alcohol to which fatty acids are covalently bonded to make fats and oils. CH2OH bonded to CH2OH, ect
diacylglycerol
A two-unit fat; two fatty acids attached to a glycerol.
Subsitution mutation
A type of point mutation in which a single nucleotide is substituted with (or exchanged for) a different nucleotide that may result in an altered sequence of amino acid during translation
What blood group can AB accept?
A, B, O, or AB blood (universal receiver)
What blood groups can AB donate to?
AB
What products of the calvin cycle are returned to the light reaction?
ADP, NADP, and H+ Returned through the grana
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
AKA Redox Reactions are chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another
Antennae pigments
AKA accessory pigments, chlorophyll b, make up a complex that acts as a funnel, capturing the energy of light and then transferring it to a reaction-center pigment
Products of PSII
ATP
Proton pumps help produce ____?
ATP
main product of cellular respiration
ATP
ATP formula
ATP -> ADP + P + energy(7.3Kcalory)
How does ATP and NADPH get to the next step of photosynthesis after the light reactions?
ATP and NADPH exit out of the grana into the stroma of the chloroplast where they are used to fix CO2 in Calvin Cycle to build carbohydrates
What does oxidative phosphorylation mean?
ATP produced using ATP synthase by transferring e- from NADH and FADH to ETC
What are redox reactions coupled with?
ATP production
START Codon
AUG (methionine)
One thousand offsprings are counted in a genetic cross, five hundred and two appear dominant in phenotype while four hundred and ninety eight appear recessive. The genotypes of the parents are most likely
Aa, aa
3 Types of Pollution
Acid Rain Green House Effect (Global Warming) Hole in Ozone Layer
Realized Niche
Actual niche exhibited in particular time and place
Purines
Adenine and Guanine Bases with a 2 ring structure Bigger bases
4 bases
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
Bases of DNA
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine # of As always equals number of Ts # of Gs always equals number of Cs If strand has 20 Gs, it will have 30 As
ADP
Adenosine diphosphate
Parts of ATP
Adenosine, adenine(base), ribose (sugar), 3 phosphate groups, high energy bond that releases energy when broken
Storage Protein Example
Albumin
Polyploidy
All chromosomes are multiple copies instead of 2n (seen in plants)
Schleiden
All plants are made of cells. Was a botanist who contributed to cell theory along with Schwann and Virchow
Dominant
Allele that is always expressed; written as T
Heterozygous
Alleles in genotype are different (Tt)
Free energy
Amount of total energy that is available to do work
X-linked disorder
An abnormal gene carried on the X chromosome (sex-linked recessive). If a male inherits an X-linked recessive trait from his mother, he expresses that trait because the Y from his father has no counteracting gene. Females are more likely to be carriers of X-linked traits but are less likely to express them.
camoflauge
An adaptation that allows an organism to blend in with its envoronment
Adhesion (in water)
An attraction between molecules of different substances. Occurs in water when water attaches to different polar molecules by hydrogen bonds
primary succession
An ecological succession that begins in an area where no biotic community previously existed
Controlled Experiment
An experiment that contains a control group and an experimental group and only one variable that changes at a time
Tundra
An extremely cold, dry biome containing permafrost
Heterotroph
An organism that cannot make its own food.
Saprophyte
An organism that feeds on dead matter (Detrivores)
What is the metabolism made up of?
Anabolic and catabolic pathways
Archaebacteria
Ancient; closer to eukarya because they have introns, no peptidoglycan, insensitive to antibiotics, similar transcription machinery. Live in extreme environments
Defense protein examples
Antibodies, marker proteins
Base
Any substance that reduces the Hydrogen Ion Concentration in a solution (increased OH-)
What are inhibitors?
Anything that will stop enzymes from functioning
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons (atoms of the same element always have the same protons and electrons but differ in neutrons)
Radioactive Isotopes
Atoms that are unstable as a result of a semi-drastic difference in the number of neutrons of the same element. Can be used to trace atoms in metabolism and diagnose medical disorders
Ions
Atoms that have charges
What are the 3 domains?
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Eukarya
The 3 Domains of Living Things
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Eukarya
Savannas
Areas of tall grasses and scattered trees and shrubs, tropical
evaporative cooling
As a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools Ex: sweating, transpiration, and occurs in lakes to prevent terrestrial animals from overheating
Biological Magnification
As on eorganism eats another, the toxin consumed becomes more and more concentrated as you go up the food chain
What is the difference between atomic weight (mass) and mass number?
Atomic mass is the weighted average mass of an atom of an element based on the relative natural abundance of that element's isotopes. The mass number is a count of the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
What marker protein does B blood have?
B marker protein
What blood groups can B blood can donate to
B or AB
What genotype can B blood have?
BB or BO (homozygous vs heterozygous)
What would have to happen for a female to get a sex-linked disorder?
BOTH parents would have to have the disorder (not just a carrier) only 25% chance if mother is a carrier and father has it
Meselson-Stahl Experiment
Bacteria was cultured in a 15N medium which created heavy dense DNA. Then the bacteria moved to a 14N medium, and DNA was isolated in replication cycles 0, 1, and 2. After one replication cycle, the DNA was all an intermediate density. This disproved the conservative model since the DNA would have to be both heavy and light density with no intermediate density present. After two replication cycles, an intermediate density strand and a light density strand were seen. This disproves the dispersive model because the density of the entire DNA molecule would have lowered and been entirely light density. Both of these replication cycles prove that the semiconservative model was correct.
Why is the Calvin Cycle referred to as "Fixing CO2?"
Because CO2 gas is fixed/ trapped into glucose
Why does water expand instead of solidify?
Because it is unusally less dense as a solid than as a liquid Ex: Oceans and lakes don't freeze in order to preserve the life underneath
Why do plants have a "dew" in the morning?
Because the plants have carried out photosynthesis and have released some H2O as a byproduct in the form of water or vapor They take in 12 molecules of water and throw out 6
What 3 Factors play a role in the transport of water against gravity in plants?
Cohesion, adhesion, and capillary action
Cellulose
Beta-Glucose- Straight Structure
Fecundity
Birth rate
Chlorophyll a
Blue green color Main pigment (if dead, photosynthesis halts) Absorbs blue, violet, and red light Reflects green light A photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy. Reaction center
Homozygous
Both alleles are the same (tt, TT) Purebred
Codominance
Both alleles dominate, both express themselves This results in no new trait
If cells need energy, what do they do?
Break down ATP
Catabolic Reaction
Breaking down food to release energy (used in cellular respiration)
Fatty Acid
Building Blocks of Lipids C16-C18 Long and attached by COOH (carboxyl group) end to glycerol by ester bonds by dehydration synthesis
Major source of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the air
Burning fossil fuels (coal, gas, oil) from factories and automobiles
How does water moderate air temperature?
By absorbing heat from warmer air and releasing heat to colder air. At night and during winter, warm water will warm cooler air. Ocean temperature and coastal land areas have more stable temperatures than inland areas
Saturated Fat
C-C A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms. Rigid Bonds Solid at room temperature In animals
Equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
Cellular respiration equation
C6H12O6+6O2+ADP+P-->6CO2+6H2O+ATP
Unsaturated Fat
C=C A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms. Kink produced in chain, flexible Liquid at room temperature In plants and fish fat
After chromosomal mapping, it is found that the genes A and B are ten units apart, genes B and C are five units apart, and genes A and genes C are fifteen units part. Their sequence on the chromosome is
CBA
Chemical Formula for carbohydrate
CH2O
byproducts of cellular respiration
CO2, H2O
4 Different names for light-independent reactions
Calvin Cycle Fixing CO2 Building carbohydrates Dark Reactions
ATP is a temporary source of energy. What are some long term sources?
Carbohydrates and fats
Which 4 elements make up 96% of matter and are the most essential to life?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
'K'
Carrying Capacity, Maximum number of individuals of a population sustained by a habitat (usually not in ideal conditions, over time it reaches a platueau) S shaped or sigmoid curve
Other name for glycolysis
Emden-Meyerhoff pathway
Protista Kingdom
Catch all kingdom, Unicellular (EXCEPT ALGAE) 1st protoza, algae, slime mold, and water mold. Diverse, includes everything that is not a plant, animal, or bacteria
Boiling
Causes water to vaporize which causes the H2 bonds to break molecules of H2O
Hole in Ozone Layer (causes and affects)
Causes: CFC (chloroflurocarbon) is released by aerosol cans and refrigerators Effects: Exposure to UV rays causing skin cancer
Green House Effect (causes and effects)
Causes: CO2 (carbon dioxide) is released through car exhaust and breathing Effects: The Global Temperature rises, ice caps melt, and sea levels rise
Acid Rain (causes and effects)
Causes: H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid) form because of sulfur oxides and nitrous oxides Effects: Aquatic life, buildings
Phospholipid
Cell membrane, hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
How do tumors form?
Cells that lose control of cell cycle divide randomly and rapidly and form tumor (localized/stays at one spot). If they spread, they become malignant and cancerous/metastasis.
What is the cell wall made up of?
Cellulose in plant cells Chitin in fungi Peptidoglycan (protein/sugar) or lopopolysaccharide (lipid/sugar) in bacteria
What is a biochemical pathway?
Chain of reactions; product of one reaction becomes reactant of next reaction
Ecological Succession
Change in the composition of species over time (natural disasters, etc)
Assimilation (Carbon Cycle)
Changing free carbons to compounds, conversion)
Reaction center
Chlorophyll a, The location of the first light driven chemical reaction of photosynthesis. Primary electron acceptor
What happens to chlorophyll in the fall/ winter?
Chlorophyll concentration decreases and carotenoids predominate and reflect the yellow, orange-red light
What happens to carotenoids in the summer/ spring?
Chlorophyll masks the carotenoids which is why the trees arent yellow-orange in the summer
Monosomy
Chromosomal abnormality consisting of the absence of one chromosome from the normal diploid number Turner's Sydrome, Sterile female
Order of genetic material
Chromosome-> DNA-> Gene-> Nucleotide
List the structures of genetic material from largest to smallest.
Chromosomes -> DNA (60%) & Protein (40%) -> Genes -> nucleotides -> bases (ATCG), sugar, phosphates
Other name for Krebs Cycle
Citric Acid Cycle
Bionomial Nomenclature
Classification system in which each species is assigned a two-part scientific name
Eutrophic Lakes
Contains algae, rich in nutrients, productive, oxygen depleted, addition of fertilizers (PO4- phosphate) adding them leads to alagal bloom, detergents, wastes to lake increases eutrophication LOW dissolved oxygen
Temperatue Deciduous Forest
Contains fall colors (carotenoids), shed leaves
Nucleus
Control center of the cell
Photosynthesis
Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy. Involves anabolis pathways and endergonic reactions mainly involving reduction reactions
Dentrification
Conversion of nitrates into nitrogen gas by dentrifying bacteria
Bond between sugar and base on the DNA ladder structure
Covalent
Amino Acid
H2N-R-COOH amino, variable, carboxyl Building blocks of protein
Ribosome
Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized. (The only organelle prokaryotes contain)
Pyrimidines
Cytosine and Thymine Bases with a 1 ring structure Smaller bases
Types of nucleic acids
DNA RNA
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
DNA amplification makes multiple copies of DNA using DNA polymerase and deoxyribonucleotides; The template DNA, or the DNA to be replicated, is added into a tube with DNA polymerase enzymes and placed into a machine. This machine is set at a certain number of cycles to generate the desired amount of copies
Measures of evolution
DNA and proteins
Exons
DNA expressed
DNA fingerprinting
DNA from each individual is unique and gives a unique pattern like our fingerprints when the DNA is cut with restriction enzymes and separated by a process called electrophoresis; used to distinguish DNA from different individuals
Monocots are transformed with...
DNA guns and electroporation
Difference between DNA and RNA
DNA has deoxyribose sugars and Thymine; while RNA has ribose sugars, Uracil and is usually single stranded
Structure of DNA
DNA is like a ladder or spiral staircase. The outside is made of a sugar-phosphate backbone with alternating sugars and phosphates and the inside "steps" are the nitrogenous bases. DOUBLE HELIX
Community
Interaction of Populations
S
DNA replication, DNA synthesis, or DNA duplication - sister chromatids are formed
Transcription
DNA to mRNA; in nucleus/nucleoid region
What is the transforming principle?
DNA; Extracted DNA from bacteria with coats and added to uncoated bacteria 🡪 uncoated bacteria converted to coated bacteria
Origin of Species
Darwin's book
HMS Beagle
Darwin's ship that he traveled on to do his research
Limnetic Zone
Deep, aphotic, cold, oxygen-depleted, rich in organic matter (detritus)
Oligotrophic lakes
Deep, clear, nutrient poor, nonproductive (no poulltants) Eutrophic lakes because of PO4 High dissolved oxygen
How is a disaccharide formed?
Dehydration Synthesis
Survivorship Curves
Describes how mortaility of individuals in a species varies during their lifetime
Karl Landsteiner
Developed modern classification of blood types
Watson and Crick
Developed the double helix model of DNA.
Cellular Respiration
Direct opposite of photosynthesis You oxide food you eat as the body removes electrons Oxidizes the glucose (oxidized form of carbon dioxide) and converts it to CO2
High salt concentration (salinity) effect on dissolved oxygen
Dissolved Oxyegn decreases as salt concentration increases
Cellular Respiration effect on dissolved oxyegn
Dissolved oxygen decreases as cellular respiration increases
Depth effect on dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen decreases as depth increases
Temperature Increasing effect on dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen decreases as temperature increases
Photosynthesis effect on dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen increases as photosynthesis increases
Passive Transport characteristics
Do not require energy, with the concentration gradient, goes both in and out, ex: transport of sugars by facilitated diffusion
Role of light-independent/ dark reaction
Does not require light. Chemical energy from step 1 is used to make sugar )carbohydrates) also called "fixing CO2" or Calvin Cycle
Eukarya
Domain of all organisms whose cells have organelles, including protists, plants, fungi, and animals
Chloroplast
Double membrane, contain their own DNA and do not rely on the nucleus Converts CO2 and H2O to sugar, O2 and H2O Contains grana (thylakoids) and stroma
Oogenesis
Egg production in meiosis
Boiling is NOT a way to break the polar covalent bonds in water, but what ARE 2 ways to do so?
Electrolysis and Ionization (Dissociation)
step of CR that is oxidative respiration
Electron transport chain
What happens to the lost electrons in PSII?
Electrons lost are replaced by water (photolysis)
What happens to the lost electrons in PSI?
Electrons lost in PSI are replaced in PSII
Why do we disregard the weight of an electron when we take the total mass of an atom?
Electrons weigh only about 1/200th of 1 Dalton
Trace Elements
Elements that are only required by an organism in only minute quantities. ex: Iodine (required for normal activity of the thyroid gland)
Difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions
Endergonic: absorb energy Exergonic: release energy
Lipid
Energy Storage, cushions, insulates; more energy than carbs (more than twice) highly diverse in form and function Made up of glycerol and fatty acid
What is the energy from light reaction used for in the dark reaction?
Energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build glucose in the dark reaction
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy (disorder) in the universe is always increasing
DNA Polymerase
Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule
RNA polymerase
Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription
Rubisco enzyme
Enzyme that works when photorespiration is occurring in high temperatures Helps RuDP combine with O2 instead of CO2 forming a 2C compound (hexose that breaks down instantly)
Nondisjunction
Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
glycosidic bond
Ester bond specific to carbohydrates and bond between sugars. The bond of carbohydrates
Transpiration
Evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant (form of evaporative cooling)
Steps of Water Cycle
Evaporation, precipitation, runoff, seepage (water that drains/ absorbs into the soil), condensation (water retured to plants through the stoma), transpiration, percolation (water seeps into the soil rocks after rain)
Taiga
Evergreen coniferous forests
Uncouplers
Ex: DNP (dinitrophenol), shuts down ETC by causing protons to leak out of cell, body produces excess heat
Translocation Mutation
Exchange between nonhomologous chromosomes If ABCD and MNOP are genes on 2 chromosomes, translocation would produce ABOP and MNCD.
Second generation of crosses
F1 generatin
Third generation of crosses
F2 generation
T or F PSI is noncyclic only
FALSE PSI can be cyclic or noncyclic
T or F The calvin cycle consumes more NADPH than ATP
FALSE The Calvin Cycle consumes more ATP than NADPH
T or F Subsitution of a base causes frameshift mutation
FALSE, Subsitution of a base DOES NOT cause frameshift mutation
True or false: All organisms follow Mendel's Law
False! Exceptions are codominance and incomplete dominance
Types of lipids
Fat Steroids Waxes Phospholipid
Types of Lipids
Fat (sat. and unsat.) Steroid Waxes Phospholipid
Which parent's chromosomes determine the sex of the offspring?
Father - If X chromosomes received from father, offspring will be female; if Y, it will be male.
Mendel
Father of genetics studied different traits in pea plants.
Examples of cofactors
Fe, Zn, Cu
Trisomy, XXX
Fertile female
Trisomy, XYY
Fertile male
Climax Community
Final constant species composition (no change)
What is the ratio of sodium and potassium going out and into the cell?
For every 3 sodiums out, 2 potassiums go in
Carotenoids
Give plants their yellow- orange fall colors in addition to chlorophyll Accessory/ Antennae pigments Absorbs blue-green Reflects yellow-orange Have protective function, if there is excess light, it dissipates energy
Prep phase of glycolysis
Glu--> GluPO4-->FruPO4-->FruDP--2GP
Products of second step of photosynthesis
Glucose, ADP, NADP, P, H+
To bring sodium back in, Na ions group with what? How do they enter?
Glucose. Brought back in through facilitated diffusion (using couple-channels)
Gram + vs gram -
Gram + : purple, has peptidoglycan Gram - : pink, little peptidoglycan
Which color of light is least effective in driving photosynthesis
Green
Logistic Growth
Growth pattern in which a population's growth rate slows or stops following a period of exponential growth, Limiting factors restrict size to carrying capacity
Exponential Growth
Growth pattern in which the individuals in a population reproduce at a exponential rate r>0, j shaped curve
Capillary Action (in plants)
H bonds cause water molecules to rise up against gravity
Formula of a traveling electron
H+ + e- proton & electron Electrons travel in company of protons
Strong Acids
HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4 (He could have been her ideal neighbor she purred, thx Bartley)
prezygotic isolation examples
Habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behaviorial, mechanical, gametic isolation
what gases did early earth have? what gases did it not have?
Had: CO, CO2, H2, N2, S, etc Did not have: O2
Multiple alleles
Have more than 2 alleles for a single trait Ex: Blood groups A,B,AB, O which are codominate
Hydrophilic
Having an affinity for water. H2O loving (mixes, polar)
Hydrophobic
Having an aversion to water (repels, nonpolar) Ex: Oil
Polydactyl
Having more than the normal number of digits of phalanges (fingers or toes)
Why did Mendel use pea plants to study genetics
He used pea plants because they were easy to grow, were inexpensive, grew fast, had different visible traits like tall/short, different flower color, etc
Homologous chromosomes (Homologs)
Matching chromosome pair in a diploid cell (one in each pair comes from each parent)
hypertonic solution
Higher concentration of solutes outside cell than inside
What is the scientific name for a human?
Homo sapien
Autosomal dominant disorders
Huntington, hypercholesteremia, dwarfism (achondroplasia).
What causes the 2 strands of DNA to break?
Hydrogen Bonds breaking
Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen atom covalently bonded to another atom is attracted to another electronegative atom such as oxygen. WEAKEST bond along with Vander Waals Ex: hydrogen bond between water molecules
Bond between bases on the DNA ladder structure
Hydrogen bonds If these bonds are broken the 2 strands of DNA break
What determines if something is a theory?
If an idea is formed or developed only after the experiment is performed several times by different scientists
How many times must the calvin cycle occur to make one glucose
In order to make one glucose, Calvin cycle has to turn 6 times because each time only one molecule of CO2 enters the cycle
In what form is NH3 released in animals
In the form of urea or uric acid
Coral Reef
In tropical neuritic zone, corals, sponges, algae, highly diverse and productive ecosystems, easily damaged by pollution, predators, and hunters
Population
Individuals belonging to the same species
Population
Individuals that belong to a single species
What are the steps of translation?
Initiation, elongation and translocation, termination
What are the steps of transcription?
Initiation, elongation, and termination
Types of Mutations
Inversion, Deletion, Duplication, Translocation
Glucose
Isomer to fructose, a hexose sugar that is an important source of energy.
Fructose
Isomer to glucose, a hexose sugar found especially in honey and fruit. 4 times sweeter than glucose
If something is green, what does it do to all other colors to make the color green show?
It absorbs all other colors and reflects green
What does a cell do after it reaches the critical size?
It divides
Proteins
Joined by peptide bonds, used for structure, defense, and signaling Structure depends on its structure/ conformation and how it folds and its ability to recognize and bind to substrate/receptor
What is the Hierarchy for a human being?
K: animalia P: chordata C: mammalia O: primates F: hominidae G: Homo S: sapiens
Support Protein Examples
Keratin, intermediate filaments
Eubacteria
Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan
Hierarchy order for organisms
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Carolus Linnaeus
Known as the father of classification, came up with bionomial nomenclature
Palisade mesophyll
Layer of tall, column-shaped mesophyll cells just under the upper epidermis of a leaf
Strong Bases
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 (all elements in the first 2 columns of the periodic table with OH added)
Linked genes
Lie close together on the same chromosome; inherited together- do not assort independently
Chlorophyll b
Light green color An accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a. Antennae pigment/ accessory pigment Absorbs blue & orange Reflects yellow-green
Spongy mesophyll
Loose tissue beneath the palisade layer of a leaf; has many air spaces between its cells where carbon dioxide coming into the cell is absorbed
Molarity formula
M=mol/L
Find the correct sequence using a linkage map: J,k = 12%; j,m = 9%; k,l = 6%; l,m = 15%
MJLK or KLJM
PNA
Made by scientists, synthetic protein nucleic acid and replaces phosphate in the DNA structure to peptide with bases attached to it
Gene
Made up of 1000s of bases; each gene has a specific base sequence- the linear sequence of bases specifies the sequence of amino acids in the protein
Carbohydrate
Main source of energy, storage, and structure.
Homeostasis
Maintaining an internal balance (ex body temperature)
Buffer
Maintains cellular pH at a constant value, Resists the change in pH when H+ or OH- is added to a solution. They accept H ions from the solution when they are in excess and donate H ions when they have been depleted
Photophosphorylation
Making ATP by adding PO4 to ADP with the help of light energy and ATP synthase by chemiosmosis
Which sex has a higher chance of inheriting a sex-linked recessive disorder?
Males -
Polygenic Inheritance
Many genes together-> single phenotype (opposite of pleiotrophy) Ex: Height (many genes-> height)
Biotic Potential
Maximum growth rate (rapid or exponential) of a population in ideal conditions. Factors contributing age, reproduction, clutch size, frequency of reproduction, reproductive lifetime (reproductive clock), survival
Daltons
Measurement to find the mass of atoms. Neutron mass and proton mass are almost identical in weight which weights about 1 Dalton
Anabolic Pathways
Metabolic pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
The Three groups of Archaebacteria
Methanogens (co2->H4) halophiles(salt lover loves ocean dead, etc) thermophiles (loves heat)
What is bacteria measured in?
Microns
Endosymbiotic theory
Mitochondria and other organelles started in prokaryotes
What organelles replicate independent of the nucleus?
Mitochondria, plastids, and chloroplasts replicate independently of the nucleus.
5 kingdoms of life
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
Deletion mutation
a mutation in which one or more pairs of nucleotides are removed from a gene
Chances of male and female inheritance of sex-linked disorders
More common in males
Which parent passes sex-linked disorders to offspring? Why?
Mothers pass on sex-linked disorders because the disorders are on the X chromosome not the Y
Plantae Kingdom
Multicellular autotrophs, Eukaryotic cells,
Inversion Mutation
Mutation in which a chromosome piece reattaches to original chromosome but in reverse orientation
Inversion mutation
Mutation in which a chromosome piece reattaches to original chromosome but in reverse orientation
Sources of Variation
Mutations, sexual reproduction, diploidy, outbreeding, balanced polymorphism
Does the number of chromosomes change between G1 and G2?
No - number of CHROMATIDS/amount of DNA doubles, but CHROMOSOMES stay the same
Do fathers pass sex-linked disorders to sons?
No - only to daughters
Can a blood type WITHOUT the Rh Factor (O-) accept blood WITH the Rh factor? (O+)
No! If the blood does not have the Rh factor it cannot receive blood with it!
Which enters the ETC first, NADH or FADH?
NADH
Products of the ETC
NADH and FADH
Synthesis formula of NADPH (and type)
NADP + H+ Reduction reaction
Products of PSI
NADPH
Decomposition formula of NADPH (and type)
NADPH-> NADP + H+ Oxidation reaction
Marker proteins of O blood
NONE
Charles Darwin
Natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection
Greenhouse Effect
Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases
Signal Protein Example
Neurotransmitters, receptor proteins
Chitin
Nitrogen attached to glucose; cell wall of fungi and exoskeleton of arthropods In crustacenas, CaCO3 hardens the chitin
Can sister chromatids cross over?
No
Does substitution lead to frameshift?
No
Can nerve cells divide?
No - Nerve cells are permanently arrested in G1 check point.
Hydrophobic
Nonpolar, CH3 group (methyl)
beta pleated sheet
One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth, or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds. Seen in: Globular proteins, lysozyme (enzyme in tears), silk protein, actin (microfilaments), tubulin (microtubulues)
Epistasis
One gene affects phenotype expression of a second gene Ex: Skin/ fur color- one gene- white/dark; other gene- amount of pigment
Electron-transport chain
One molecule donates an electron and another accepts an electron resulting in a chain reaction
What percent of carbon dioxide is converted to glucose?
Only 16% of carbon dioxide is converted to glucose This makes the Calvin Cycle inefficient
What blood group can O accept
Only O blood
Monoacylglycerol
Only one fatty acid attached to glycerol
Niche
Organisms role in the ecosystem (if the organism is successful, in playing its niche, it survives and reproduces, if it doesnt ir becomes extinct)
Autotrophs
Organisms that make their own food
Where is oxygen gas released in PSII after photolysis of water
Oxygen gas released through the stroma of the leaf
First generation of crosses
P generation
key enzyme in glycolysis
PKF (phosphofructokinase)
Which PS carries out photolysis of water?
PSII
Evidence of Evolution
Paleontology Biogeography Embryology Comparative anatomy Molecular biology
survivial of the fittest
Part of the Natural Selection Theory: The best traits are passed down to offspring
Nucleotide
Pentose (sugar) + PO4 Building block of nucleic acids (Made up of nitrogenuous base, deoxyribose sugar, phosphate) One sugar, one base, and a phosphate on DNA ladder
Nucleoside
Pentose (sugar) + base One sugar, one base on DNA ladder
What is the cell membrane made up of?
Phospholipid bilayer and 3 types of proteins Molecules travel through the bilayer - polar molecules attract polar and repel nonpolar molecules
Living things are made up of 96% C, H, O, and N. What elements make up the remaining 4%?
Phosphorus, Sulfur, Calcium, and Potassium
Phenotype
Physical expression of a genotype (trait); tall or short
If white (recessive rr) and red (dominant RR) are crossed in incomplete dominance, what will the resulting heterozygous Rr color be?
Pink
Why can't water enter the plant through the leaves?
Plants do not want water to be able to get out of the leaves. They use waxy, hydrophobic cuticles
What happens when ATP levels go down in plants?
Plants switch from noncyclic to cyclic photophosphorylation to produce ATP to meet the demand for ATP using PSI. No NADPH is made.
What 3 major groups carry out photosynthesis?
Plants, algae, and Cyano bacteria
Where is starch stored in plants
Plastids
What bonds take place in water (H2O)
Polar covalent because O2 has much higher electronegativity than hydrogen and charge near oxygen is negative and near hydrogen is positive
What are the parts of a phospholipid?
Polar phosphate head and nonpolar lipid tail
Hydrophilic
Polar, carboxyl COOH group
Function of cellulose in plants
Polysaccharide : structural fibers for cell wall formation
Protons
Positively charged particles that travel with moving electrons
2 types of energy
Potential and Kinetic
C4 plants
Prevents photorespiration and preservers water A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds OAA, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle. Examples: corn, sorghum, sugarcane
Limitng Factors
Prevents the population from reaching biotic potential Can be density independent or dependent
Translation
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced mRNA-> Protein (polypeptide) With help from tRNA, rRNA (ribosomes)
Coevolution
Process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other ex: bees and flowers, predator and prey
Nitrogen Fixation
Process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia by legumes
genetic engineering
Process of making changes in the DNA code of living organisms
Carbohydrate produced by Calvin Cycle
Produced by plants and is eaten by other living things and consumed by plants themselves and broken down in cellular respiration to release energy in the form of ATP
Ecological Pyramids
Producers at the bottom of trophic level, only 10% of energy transferred to upper level, 90% is lost as heat in each level
Four Stages of Mitosis
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase (PMAT)
Cech and Altman
Proposed that RNA was the first genetic material and discover autocatalytic processes in RNA and won a nobel prize
Virchow
Proposed that all cells come from other cells, contributed to cell theory
Quaternary Structure
Protein with 2 or more polypeptides Ex: Collagen, hemoglobin, keratin
What was the first cooperative association in compounds between?
RNA and polypeptide
Ribozyme
RNA enzyme. RNA that can catalyze its own cleavage or the cleavage of another RNA molecule
Post transcription modification
RNA splicing (introns cut, exons joined), G cap and poly A tail added
Types of Carbohydrates
Simple/Complex OR Monosaccharide, Disaccharide, Polysaccharide
Acid Rain
Rain containing acids that form in the atmosphere when industrial gas emissions (especially sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) combine with water.
Impacts of Acid Precipitation
Rain in the Mountains of Upstate New York has a pH of 4.2 The effects of acids in lakes and streams is more pronounced in spring during snowmelt. Aquatic life is most affected (pH is as low as 3) Acid Precipitation can wash away soil buffers and plant nutrients (Ca to Mg) Can also increase the solubility of compounds like AL to toxic levels Acid rain has done major damage to forests in Europe and North America
Rf
Ratio of fronts distance traveled by pigment/ distance traveled by solvent Rf<=1
Monosaccharides
Raw materials for synthesis of polysaccharide and also amino acid and fatty acid ex: glucose, fructose, galactose
Chemical behavior of an atom with an incomplete valence shell
React by sharing or transferring valence shells forming chemical bonds
Rh factor
Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells. A marker protein If the Rh factor is present, there is a + on the blood
Stoma
Regulates what comes into and out of the cell and is protected by guard cells. Can be dehydrated or overflown
What turns an organic carbon into an inorganic carbon?
Release cellular respiration, decomposition, burning fossil fuelds
Law of segregation
Single trait monohybrid cross; during meosis, alleles segregate/ separate. Ex: If genotype= Tt, the gametes (egg/sperm) gets either T or t
Robert Whittaker
Responsible for the 5 Kingdom Classification
Where does the RH factor come from?
Rhesus monkey
rRNA
Ribosomal RNA
Stomata
Small openings on the underside of a leaf through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move
Cell
Smallest unit of life
Examples of Active Transport
Sodium-potassium pump, proton pump, exocytosis, endocytosis
Robert Hooke
Scientist the coined the name for cells which looked like monk cells
Primary Structure
Sequence of amino acids as ordered by the base sequence. A mutation in one base may sometimes affect the function of the protein
Sex-linked dominant vs Sex-linked recessive
Sex-linked dominant - equal chance of male and female inheriting. Sex-linked recessive - higher chance for males to inherit
Colorblindness
Sex-linked recessive, malfunction of light sensitive cells in the eyes, mostly males affected, can't see certain colors (red/green may appear gray)
Hemophilia
Sex-linked recessive; blood does not clot; bleed excessively when injured because inherited abnormal allele- can bleed to death from small cut
Nertic Zone
Shallow region over continential shelf
Littoral Zone
Shallow, warm, near shore, diverse
What happens if female offspring have one X chromosome that contains the disorder?
She does not exhibit the disorder but is a carrier and could potentially pass it down to her children.
Pedigree
Shows male/female as square or circle
Types of carbohydrates
Simple/ Complex or Monosaccharide Polysaccharide (Tri) Disaccharide
What happens to the stoma when a plant is dry?
Stoma closes when guard cells are flat (plant's dry) Keeping it closed prevents further waterloss Prevents carbon dioxide cannot enter if it is closed
What happens to the stoma when a plant has lots of water
Stoma opens when guard cells swell (lots of water) Bean shaped
8 types of proteins
Storage Signal Support Transport Movement Hormones Defense Catalyst
Where is the energy released by breaking down ATP and NADPH stored?
Stored in glucose molecules
Anatomy & Physiology
Structure or function of the body/ working system
Secondary Succession
Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil
Are sugars made by plants oxidized or reduced
Sugars made by plants are reduced
In a hypotonic solution, the cell:
Swells as water moves into the cell
Frame Shift mutation
a mutation involving the addition or loss of nucleotides
T or F Colors with lower wavelength have higher energy
TRUE
T or F PSII is only involved in noncyclic
TRUE
T or F Colors with high wavelength have lower energy
TRUE
T or F In order to carry out photosynthesis, carbon dioxide must be converted to glucose
TRUE
T or F We are harmed by ultraviolet light
TRUE, because violet is a higher energy wavelength Infrared is NOT harmful because it is lower energy wavelength
Multienzyme complex
Team of enzymes working together, seen mainly in biochemical pathway
Amniocentesis
Technique for diagnosing genetic defects while a fetus is in uterus; sample of amniotic fluid, obtained via a needle inserted into amnion (is analyzed for telltale chemicals and defective fetal cells)
where does Krebs Cycle take place?
The Krebs Cycle takes place in the Mitochondrial Matrix
Ester Bond
The bond formed when fatty acid molecules are joined to glycerol molecules in condensation reactions. C-O-C Each ester bond is given a different name based on macromolecules
Water Cycle
The continuous process by which water moves from Earth's surface to the atmosphere and back
Metric System
The decimal measuring system based on the meter, liter, and gram as units of length, capacity, and weight or mass.
Solvent
The dissolving agent of a solution
How is insulin made?
The donor gene is first isolated by cleaving it from the rest of the DNA through the use of restriction enzymes. Next, the isolated insulin gene is placed into a plasmid, creating recombinant DNA. The plasmid or virus serves as a vector for the gene and transports it into bacteria. The transformed bacteria begins to reproduce and multiply, creating copies of the insulin gene alongside the transcription and translation of the rest of the plasmid's DNA. This will cause the bacteria to begin producing insulin. Finally, the insulin is extracted and purified, creating insulin for medical use.
Where does the electron transport chain occur?
The inner membrane of the mitochondria (cristae)
Clutch Size
The number of offspring/ reproductive event
Carbon Cycle
The organic circulation of carbon from the atmosphere into organisms and back again
Valence Shell
The outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the valence electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom. (Determines the chemical behavior of an atom)
Assimilation (Nitrogen Cycle)
The process by which nitrogen (N2) is transformed to Nitrae (NO2) or Ammonium (NH4)
noncyclic photophosphorylation
The production of ATP by noncyclic electron flow. Redox reactions & electron transport chain
Heat of Vaporization
The quantity of heat that a liquid must absorb for 1 gram of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state
Sucession
The replacement of a species by another species in an environment
Light Spectrum
The small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can see ROYGBIV
Atom
The smallest unit of matter that retains properties of an element. Composed of neutrons, protons, and electrons and have an equal number of protons and electrons resulting in no net charge
Origin of replication
The starting point of DNA replication
Ecology
The study of ecosystems (how living things interact with each other and their environment)
Microbiology
The study of microscopic organisms (viruses bacteria)
Solute
The substance that is dissolved in a solvent in a solution
Metabolism
The sum of all chemical reactions in the body
Net Charge
The sum of negative and positive charges (atoms contain equal amounts of protons and neutrons resulting in no net charge)
Nitrogen Cycle
The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere
Guard cells
The two cells that flank the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of the pore.
Carbon dating
The use of 14C and 12C (carbon) to determine the age of fossils. In a living organism, the ratio between 14C and 12C is 1:1 while in a dead organism, the 14C begins to decay while 12C remains stable.
independet variable
The variable that is consciously manipulated by an individual performing an experiment Ex: Independent: Type of Fertilizer Dependent: Plant growth
Dependent Variable
The variable that results and relies on the manipulation of an independent variable Ex: Independent: Type of Fertilizer Dependent: Plant growth
Natural Selection
Theory that states that: all living things adapt, survive, and reproduce, survivial of the fittest
Trisomy
Three copies of a chromosome: XXY- Klinefelter- sterile male appears feminine. XYY- fertile- tall normal male. XXX- triple X- fertile tall normal female
3 Types of Animal Cell Junctions
Tight junctions, anchoring junctions, communicating junctions
Photons
Tiny packets of light energy that result from light striking a leaf
Steps of an Experiment
Title Purpose Background Information Materials Procedure Data (qualitative: observations) (quantitative: numerical graphs or charts) Data Analysis Conclusion
Recessive
Trait expressed only when dominant allele is absent; written as lower case letter (t)
Gene Therapy
Treatment for a disease in which the patient is provided with a new gene
Chemical behavior of an atom with a complete valence shell
Unrreactive
X-ray diffraction
Used to study protein structure
Biogeography
Uses geography to describe the distribution of species.
C3 plants
Uses photorespiration Make PGA Does not make glucose A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate. Example: soybeans, oats, wheat, rice
Genetic engineering in agriculture/plants
Viruses cannot be used as vectors in plants. Instead, the Ti plasmid is used as a vector. This plasmid was found in a plant and first produced tumors. This gene is removed, being replaced by the plant gene of interest. The modified plasmid is finally placed into a plant. However, not all plants will accept the Ti plasmid. Other processes such as using a gene gun or nitrogen fixation are also used.
Which increases faster as a cell grows: surface area or volume?
Volume
Aposematic Coloration
Warning Coloration to warn predators
Replication bubble
When DNA replicates in both directions
Mimicry
When a harmless species copies a harmful species
resource partitioning
When species divide a niche to avoid competition for resources
Lag Phase
When the species is adjusting to the environment at the beginning of the growth gap
What causes allosteric enzymes to shut down?
When there is excess products
Reciprocal exchange
When two nonsister chromatids cross over and exchange DNA. This leads to genetic variation.
Bundle Sheath
Where carbon fixation is transfered over. Where carbon dioxide is released for entry in the Calvin Cycle
Pore
Where water exits the plant through transpiration
Turner syndrome
XO monosomy - sterile short female
Klinefelter
XXY trisomy
Which sex chromosome contains a sex-determining region?
Y chromosome - required for male sexual development. If this region is absent, embryo develops as a female.
Can a blood type WITH the Rh Factor (O+) accept blood WITHOUT the Rh factor? (O-)
YES! If the blood has the Rh factor it can receive blood without it!
What is the first thing you must do when you have a Dihybrid Cross? Ex: what do you do with TTbb
You must distribute to get 4 different allele combinations: Tb, Tb, Tb, Tb
Silencer
a DNA sequence that is capable of binding repressors to sections of DNA to prevent them from being transcribed
2 types of chlorophyll
a and b Both reflect green light
Deserts
a barren region with little or no rainfall, usually sandy and without trees, contains succulents such as cactus
Terminator
a base-pair sequence in TRANSCRIPTION signaling the end of that specific mRNA transcript.
Promoter
a base-pair sequence in TRANSCRIPTION that designates where transcription should begin
what is the ETC like?
a cascade of e- falling down the chain like a slinky going down stairs
phosphodiester bond
a chemical bond of the kind joining successive sugar molecules in a polynucleotide. Bonds between the nucleotides
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms
Okazaki fragments
a fragment of the lagging strand synthesized discontinuously by DNA polymerase away from the movement of the replication fork
R group
a functional group that defines a particular amino acid and gives it special properties and produces the 20 different amino acids Can be polar, nonpolar, charged, or uncharged
Lac operon
a gene system whose operator gene and three structural genes control lactose metabolism; when lactose is absent, the operon is off and repressor protein prevents enzyme synthesis. When lactose is present, the operon is on and repressor protein is removed.
Homeotic gene
a gene that regulates the formation of the body during early embryonic development
Global Warming
a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants.
Bar Graph
a graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons among two or more items
Operon
a group of genes made of structural and functional genes
Organic Solvents
a liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances; 'the solvent does not change in forming a solution Used in chromotography to separate pigments
Wetlands
a lowland area, such as a marsh or swamp, that is saturated with moisture, especially when regarded as the natural habitat of wildlife.
Prion
a misfolded protein that can spread its malformed shape to other, normally folded versions of the protein
Oncogene
a mutated gene with the potential to cause cancer
3 examples of marker protein uses
aids immune system (help identify bacteria), transplantation (marker proteins must match), allergies (harmless things thought of as harmful)
Autosomal recessive disorders
albinism, PKU, Tay Sach (lipid in brain), cystic fibrosis, sickle cell (codominant)
Tetraploid
all cells have four copies of chromosomes (4n)
Triploid
all cells have three copies of chromosomes (3n)
Gene Pool
all genes/alleles in a population at a given time
Endomembrane system
all membranes inside cell - includes cell membrane, ER, membrane of all organelles (except ribosomes) responsible for functions that are carried out by organelles
What kind of enzyme is PFK from glycolysis?
allosteric enzyme
Communicating junctions
allow flow of substances between cells (ex. in embryonic cells)
Gene therapy
alterations of afflicted individual's genes; in people with disorders traceable to a single defective gene (theoretically) should be able to replace/supplement defective gene with normal allele; new allele could be inserted into somatic cells of tissue affected by disorder.
The rails of the ladder shaped DNA structure are made up of...
alternating sugar and phosphate The bases are always bonded to the sugar
How are peptide bonds formed
amino acids joined by dehydration synthesis
Nitrification
ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-). by nitrifying bacteria
What causes Down syndrome?
an aneuploidy (3 copies) of chromosome 21 - total chrom. Count = 47.
Vander Waals
an attraction due to close proximity of particles. WEAKEST bond along with hydrogen bond
is aerobic or anearobic respiration involved in fast twitch muscles?
anaerobic
Protobionts
ancestors of cells; organic molecules were isolated by borders (like membranes) called protobionts
Primordial Soup
as earth cooled, gases condensed to form primordial soup (water and minerals)
Cloning
asexual reproduction of cells to produce identical cells
Lysosomes
assists in autolysis of cell (cell suicide); help recycle cellular matter of dead cells and destroy bacteria
Hierarchy of Life in order
atom, molecule, macromolecules, organelles, cells, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere (Earth).
Bound ribosomes
attached to ER; synthesize proteins for cell membrane and proteins to be secreted outside of cell
Dynein protein knob
attached to each doublet of microtubule; grabs the neighboring doublet and helps it to bend
Actinomyces
bacteria in soil; look like fungi and make antibiotics like them; ex: streptomyces
Monera Kingdom
bacteria, unicellular, prokaryotic
Coding Sequence
base-pair sequence in TRANSCRIPTION detailing the exact coding information needed to form the specific polypeptide chain
Check point/restriction point
cells in G1 phase can proceed to S phase after crossing this point, or they go back to G0 phase
Prokaryotic
cells that do not have a nucleus or organelles except for ribosomes. Contains bacteria
Example of catabolic pathway
cellular respiration
Exclusive organelles in plant cells
central vacuole, chloroplasts, cell wall, cell plate, plasmodesmata, plastid, tonoplast
Differential Centrifugation
centrifuge in steps increasing the speed after every step in order to separate components of different masses in cells
Mutations
change in alleles that is spontaneous; environment can be cause
Voltage-gated channel proteins
change in electric impulses will cause them to open
Transformation
change in traits of an organism by taking in foreign DNA (ex. the ability of live uncoated bacteria to make coats from dead coated bacteria); discovered by Griffith
Neutrotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons In neural cells, brain
Restriction enzymes
chemical scissors that recognize and cut DNA at specific site on DNA
ChromatiN
chromosome in Nondividing cell; thin, fiber-like, CANNOT be counted
ChromatiD
chromosome in a Dividing cell, thick condensed form - you can count the chromosomes.
ChromatiD
chromosome in a Dividing cell; thick, condensed, CAN be counted
ChromatiN
chromosome in a Nondividing cell, thin string-like - you can not count the chromosomes.
Genome
chromosome library (human genome has 3 bil bases)
Continental drift
created geological boundaries (seas, etc)
where are cytochromes located in prokaryotes?
cytochromes are located in the cell membranes of prokaryotes
where are cytochromes located in eukaryotes?
cytochromes are located in the cristae of mitochondria in eukaryotes
Where does translation occur?
cytoplasm
where does glycolysis occur?
cytosol
Ammonification
decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia
Sugar in DNA
deoxyribose sugar, pentose
Peroxisomes
detox organelle high in liver cells contains enzymes that transfer hydrogen from toxic substances to oxygen-producing hydrogen peroxide, which is then broken down to water by peroxidase
Saprophytic
detrivores/decomposers
What happens when chemical-gated channels are faulty?
diabetes
Phylogenetic tree/cladogram
diagram tracing evolutionary relationship between species
disruptive or diversifying selection
different environment favors extreme traits at both ends. Ex. Height variation in weeds of lawns (short adapt best) and in the wild (tall adapt best)
Facilitated diffusion
diffusion with the help of carrier/channel proteins; no energy required
Examples of Passive Transport
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
Somatic Cells
diploid body cell, produced by mitosis
Diaphragm (microscope)
disc that regulates the amount of light that can enter through microscope; sits under stage and has different-sized holes
Watson and Crick
discovered that DNA is a double-helix: a spiral staircase of 2 strands of nucleotides with bases facing each other; won Nobel Prize. in 1962
Hershey and Chase
discovered that DNA is the hereditary material; 32P to label DNA, 35S to label protein coats. New viruses that burst out had 32P not 35S
Avery
discovered that DNA is the transforming principle
Griffith
discovered transformation in bacteria
Rf
distance of band/distance traveled by dye front
CAM plants
does not carry out photorespiration plants close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night which is converted to OAA, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis Crassulacean acid metabolism Examples: pineapples, cacti, ice, jade, succulents
What are cytochromes?
e- acceptors in ETC
Isomer
each of two or more compounds with the same formula but a different arrangement of atoms in the molecule and different properties. Ex: Glucose and Fructose
Stabilizing Selection
elimates those with extreme traits (ex: medium height weeds adapting best)
On early earth, abiotic chemical evolution started or ended?
ended
Reactions are either:
endergonic or exergonic
First Law of Thermodynamics
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can change from one form to another
Most of the eukaryotic DNA is...
exons (less introns).
Chromosome puff
expansions of particular chromosome regions; sites of RNA synthesis.
Ocular lens
eye piece of compound/light microscope
The transport of sugars is what kind of transportation?
facilitated diffusion
Pedigree
family tree showing passing down of traits.
is ATP produced fast or slow in fast twitch muscles?
fast
slow/fast twitch muscles are good for quick bursts of energy and tire easily
fast are good for quick bursts of energy
What can abnormal lysosomes cause?
fatal diseases that are hereditary (ex. Pompe's disease, Tay-Sach's disease)
Cuvier
father of fossils
Building block of lipid
fatty acid and glycerol
Breakdown of fatty acids
fatty acid->acetyl CoA->Krebs Cycle
Directional Selection
favors one extreme trait at one end; one trait selected at a time; due to environment. Ex: industrial melanism (Kettlewell)
Gametic Isolation
female gametes don't recognize or are hostile to male gamete
Intermediate filaments (structure)
fibrous (super coiled cable)
G1
first growth phase in interphase
Plant cells in isotonic solutions are:
flaccid
Stroma
fluid portion of the chloroplast; outside of the thylakoids Where step 2 of photosynthesis takes place
Stroma
fluid within the inner membrane surrounding the grana; where dark reaction occurs
Post translation modification
folding of protein (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary)
Why are smaller cells more efficient?
food and waste can enter and leave the cell quicker
Botulism
food poisoning toxin; caused by anaerobic bacteria
Tryptophan Operon ('trp' operon)
for synthesis of tryptophan; When trp is present, operon is off and repressor protein blocks RNA polymerase. When trp is absent, operon is on and repressor protein allows RNA polymerase to synthesize more trp.
Advantages of endomembrane system
form compartments in cell (each organelle does its own job - creates local environments) increase efficiency by specializing increases surface area to carry out reactions enzymes that carry out different functions can be stored in the membranes
When cells want to store energy, what do they do?
form/make ATP
Speciation
formation of new species
allopatric speciation
formation of new species when population is divided by geographic barrier
sympatric speciation
formation of new species without geographic barrier. ex: plants that are polyploidy (more than 2 sets of chromosomes)
Allo-lactose
inducer of lac operon that binds to the repressor and pulls it off the operon
What happens when there are high levels of citrate(Krebs Cycle) or ATP?
inhibits PFK
Cristae
inner membrane of mitochondria that is folded to increase surface area house enzyme "ATP synthase" that helps to synthesize ATP
Integral proteins
inside cell membrane
Hormone protein example
insulin
Cell membrane proteins (by location)
integral and peripheral
Transformation
introducing naked DNA into a cell
Gene flow
introduction of new alleles due to migration
Transposons
jumping genes that move from one location in DNA to another; cause mutations
Intermediate filaments (proteins)
keratin family (in hair and nails)
Animalia
kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic heterotrophs
Golgi Bodies
labels/addresses/modifies proteins to prep them for their destination; "post office" of cell
lactic acid products
lactic acid, 2 ATP, 0 NADH, 0 FADH, 0 CO2
Endocytosis
large molecules transported in
Exocytosis
large molecules transported out
Macroevolution
large-scale evolutionary changes that take place over long periods of time
where are slow twitch muscles located?
leg muscle
Half-Life
length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay
is more or less ATP produced in fast twitch muscles?
less atp
does fast twitch muscles have more or less mitochondria?
less mitochondria
Organic molecules formed from inorganic molecules. What were the energy sources of this?
lightning, UV, volcanoes, heat, etc
Facultative aerobe
likes O2, but can survive without it
microaerophilic
likes small amounts of O2
Density-Independent
limiting factor that affects all populations in similar ways, regardless of population size Ex: Natural disasters, extreme clmate
Density-Dependent
limiting factor that depends on population size, Ex: Disease, predation, resources
Anchoring junctions
link and anchor cells
Micelles
lipid molecules orient with polar (hydrophilic) head toward water and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails away from water What phospholipids are added to water they assemble into micelles
Where is glycogen stored?
liver and muscle cells of animals
Enzymes and substrate fit into each other like a:
lock and key
Flagella
long, hair-like; used for movement
Chromosome
long, string-like DNA wrapped around protein called histones; only found in eukaryotic cells
water always moves from ____ solute concentration to ____ solute concentration
low solute to high solute
hypotonic solution
lower concentration of solute outside cell than inside
Does PSI absorb higher or lower energy light?
lower energy light
Product of transcription
mRNA
Translation
mRNA, tRNA, & rRNA to proteins; in cytoplasm
3 types of RNA
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA (messenger, transfer, ribosomal)
Transcribe this DNA sequence: ATT GCA
mRNA: UAA CGU
Lagging Strand
made discontinuously in opposite direction of replication fork; made up of Okazaki fragments
DNA
made up of deoxyribose (sugar), phosphate, and bases
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
main function is protein synthesis
Tissue culture
maintenance and growth of pieces of explanted tissue (plant/animal) in culture away from source organism🡪technique of cell culture, using cell dispersed from tissues or distant descendant of such cells.
Balanced polymorphism
maintenance of different phenotypes in a population. alleles of advantageous traits increase in frequency
Bacteria that cause anthrax do what and have what structures?
make toxins, endospores, capsules
What does substrate level phosphorylation mean?
making ATP by transferring PO4 from substrate to ADP (ETC or enzyme ATP not involved)
Mechanical isolation
male and female incompatible because of anatomical barrier
80% slow twitch muscle: marathon runners or sprinters?
marathon runners
Outbreeding
mating with unrelated partners
MPF
maturation promoting factor - cyclins that acts as a master switch to move cell into mitosis
Surface Tension
measure of force necessary to stretch or break surface of a liquid which causes water to form a film
Resolution
measure of image clarity
pH Scale
measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14. 0-7 are considered acidic, 7 is considered neutral, and 7-14 are considered basic
Tonoplasts
membrane of central vacuole (only in plant cells)
mRNA
messenger RNA; working copy of DNA
Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies
natural selection, mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, nonrandom mating
Oligate aerobe
need o2 to live
Microaerophilic aerobe
needs a little o2
Anions
negatively charged ions
example of voltage-gated proteins
nerve cells
What is the optimum pH for most enzymes?
neutral (except stomach enzymes that work at lower levels)
What happens when H+ leak out by themselves?
no ATP is produced
Uncatalyzed reaction
no enzyme, big activation energy, long reaction
What steps are missing in the break down of fatty acids?
no glycolysis or grooming
Vestigial Structures
no known use. ex: appendix, tailbone, tonsils(except for in infants)
Conditions Required for Genetic/Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium
no natural selection, no mutation, no gene flow(migration,isolation), no genetic drift(large population), random mating; environment doesn't alter
Noncyclic
no repeating pattern
Does glycolysis require oxygen?
no, can be in aerobic or anaerobic respiration
Hormones bind to ____
receptors
Behavioral isolation
one species does not recognize another as mating partners; ignores mating calls
Fimbriae (pili)
only found in bacteria; used for attachment
Where are centrioles found?
only in animal cells
chemical-gated channel proteins
open and close in response to chemicals like food or glucose
Pelagic Zone
open water above the ocean floor
Karyotype
ordered display of all chromosomes in diploid somatic cells (46 chromosomes in human karyotype)
Karyotype
orderly display/collection of all chromosomes in a cell.
What are coenzymes?
organic helpers
Most enzymes work on _______?
organic molecules/compounds (Organic=C-C bond)
template
original strand that is copied (blueprint)
Chloroplast structures
outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, thylakoids (in grana), stroma
Mitochondria structures
outer membrane, matrix (fluid-filled), intermembrane space, inner membrane (cristae)
What type of respiration is the ETC?
oxidative phosphorylation
Dissolved Oxygen
oxygen dissolved in water, dissolved oxygen is important for fish and other aquatic animals measured in PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
Hardy Weinberg Formulas
p + q = 1 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
Every enzyme has its optimum:
pH and temperature
What does enzyme activity depend on?
pH, temp., salt concentration, amount of substrate, amount of enzyme, prescence of inhibitors, presence of cofactors/conenzymes, presence of activators
pH formula
pH=-log[H+]
Synapsis
pairing up of homologous chromosomes which give rise to tetrads; occurs during prophase I.
Neutrotransmitters bind to ____
receptors
Diploidy
recessive, dominant
Recombinant DNA
recombining 2 DNAs from different organisms
slow twitch muscles are red/dark meat or white meat?
red/dark meat
Homologous Structures
parts anatomically different, but evolved from common ancestor. Ex: forelimb of cat, bat, whale, human
Analogous Structures
parts resembling each other because of environmental adaptations and have similar functions, but have different ancestors. ex: fin of shark, penguin, and porpoise
"trans" side of golgi body
passes the proteins to vesicles
What does the flow of energy depend on
passing high electrons from one molecule to another
Some organisms are opportunisitc, some are saprophytic, and some are __________
pathogenic (capsule, toxin, endospore)
Exclusive organelles in animal cells
peroxisomes, lysosomes, centrioles
ATP
phosphate and ADP
example of anabolic pathway
photosynthesis
How did autotrophs form?
photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria produced O2 (prokaryotes)
Sexual Selection
picks and selects mate
What organisms does alcoholic fermentation take place in?
plants and yeast
PDGF
plate derived growth factor; stimulate division
2 types of covalent bonds
polar and nonpolar
Product of translation
polypeptide (protein)
Capsule
polysaccharide; phagocytosis
Cations
positively charged ions
Hybrid inviability
postzygotic barrier; the offspring (called a hybrid) does not survive
What is required for aerobic respiration/oxidative respiration to occur?
presence of oxygen
Osmotic pressure
pressure due to water
definition of cellular respiration
process by which organisms release energy stored in the bonds of food molecules; carrying out metabolism while breathing
Chemiosmosis
process proton pumps use for helping to make ATP for cells
Feed back inhibition
product fed back to enzyme (in cellular respiration rxn; make ATP (product that comes back shuts down enzyme)
Human genome project
project to map the location of all of the genes on the human genome; use DNA technology; goal is to map all the human DNA down to the level of its nucleotide sequences🡪the effort to map the entire human genome by finding complete nucleotide sequence of human DNA. It is expected to help better understand and treat diseases.
Cyclins
regulatory proteins that act as mitotic clock
Capsid
protein coat that encloses the viral genome
What are the 4 Macromolecules
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid
unicellular eukaryotes
protists
Oparin and Haldane
proved that organic molecules formed in absence of O2
Microtubules (functions)
provide tracks for organelles to move (found in centrioles, flagella, cilia), chromosome separation (spindle fibers made up of microtubules)
Proton pump
pump H+
Sodum-potassium pump
pumps Na+ and K+ ions
2 types of bases
purines and pyrimidines
Anthocyanin
purple-pink pigment used in chromatography
What are the intermediates of CR?
pyruvate, acetyl CoA, anything formed before ATP
what happens during grooming?
pyruvic acid loses one carbon and becomes acetyl and attaches to CoA
Most allosteric enzymes have what kind of structure?
quaternary structure (2 or more polypeptides)
Asters
radial spindle fibers extending from centrosome.
Genetic drift
random change in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations; chance event
adaptive radiation
rapid evolution of many species from single ancestor; when species colonize area of diverse geological/ecological conditions. ex: marsupials in Australia; 14 species of Darwin's finches
Magnification
ratio of object's image to its real size (for light microscope - 1000x)
Substrate
reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
Substrate
reactant on which an enzyme acts on
"Cis" side of golgi body
receives proteins from ER
Cell membrane proteins (by function)
receptor, channel/carrier, marker
antiparallel DNA strands
the complimentary stand of DNA that runs in the opposite direction; one strand of DNA runs from the 5' carbon to the 3' carbon, the other side runs from the 3' carbon to the 5' carbon
C-terminal
the end amino acid in a peptide chain with a free -COO- group
N-Terminal
the end amino acid in a peptide with a free NH3+ group.
Kinetic Energy
the energy an object has due to its motion
Nondisjunction
the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division, usually resulting in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei.
Experimental Group
the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested (used as a comparison)
Control Group
the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.
Meteor impact-iridium
the high amount of iridium found in the KT boundary suggests asteroid killed dinosaurs
The farther the gene is from the centromere...
the more likely it will cross over.
Benthic Zone
the muddy bottom of a lake, pond, or ocean (bethos)
Atomic Number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (number determining order on the periodic table)
Upper epidermis
the part of the leaf above the palisades layer that prevents the loss of water
Radiometric dating
the process of measuring the absolute age of geologic material by measuring the concentrations of radioactive isotopes and their decay products (elements other than carbon usually)
electromagnetic spectrum
the range of wavelengths or frequencies over which electromagnetic radiation extends. Radio wave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x ray, gamma rays
Zoology
the scientific study of animals
Grana
the stacks of thylakoids embedded in the stroma of a chloroplast.
Competition
the struggle between organisms to survive in a habitat with limited resources
Mass Number
the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus
Cell Supernatant
the usually clear liquid that settles above the pellet after spinning cell lysate/homogenate in a centrifuge
Lamark
theory of use and disuse inheritance of acquired characteristics species do not become extinct and transform in each generation
Punctuated Equilibrium
theory; change followed by long periods of time of o change; change happens in spurts
Lysogenic phages
these phages do not kill their bacterial host. They shoot the DNA in and incorporate their DNA in the bacterial DNA. As the bacterial DNA replicates, the viral DNA replicates with it. Such phages are used in transduction (Process where by foreign DNA is introduced into a cell using a virus).
Lytic phages
these phages shoot their DNA into the bacteria, take over the bacteria and reproduce in the bacteria. When the baby phages are made, they burst open the bacteria and are released.
Enzymes are recycled, which means:
they carry reactions for only a certain amount of time
Coevolution
tit for tat evolution- one species evolve in response to another species. plant/pollinator. predator/prey. pathogen/immune system.
Role of light-dependent reaction
to capture visible light energy and convert it to chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH
Carbon Dating
used for fossils up to 50,000 years old. Used ratio of 12C (stable) to 14C (unstable)
What is Genetic/Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium used for?
used to figure out percent of alleles in population
Reproductive isolation
various mechanisms maintain isolation of species and prevent gene flow. can be prezygotic (before fertilization) or postzygotic (after)
Oceanic Zone
vast open ocean from the edge of the continental shelf outward
Bacteriophage
virus that attacks and infects bacteria
Sex-linked dominant disorders
vitamin D-resistant rickets
2 types of Channel proteins
voltage-gated and chemical gated
Factors affecting photosynthesis
water carbon dioxide light temperature
Cell Plate
what plants have to form in order to separate daughter cells after mitosis
Fertilization
when 2 gametes fuse to form a diploid cell (zygote)
Divergent Evolution
when 2+ species come from common ancestor because of speciation. ex: african and indian elephant
Genetic Equilibrium or Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium
when allele frequencies in a population are constant from generation to generation; population is said to be in "genetic equilibrium." no evolution, no gene frequencies.
Denature
when an enzyme's shape is changed and doesn't work anymore; some can renature
Niche Shift
when competition between two species causes a change in habit to access a wider range of resources; this may include accessing suboptimal resources
Temporal Isolation
when sepcies mate at different seasons/times of day
Interbreeding
when two members of the same species mate and produce offspring. Produces a genetically uniform populaiton, Increases the chance of homozygous recessive alleles occuring (which can cause genetic disease), and reduces a population's ability to fight off disease
Nucleolus
where mRNA and rRNA are synthesized
Operator gene
where repressor binds
Active site
where substrate binds; aka catalytic center
fast twitch muscles are red/dark meat or white meat?
white meat
Where do the light-dependent reactions take place?
within the thylakoid membranes (or grana)
Darwin
wrote On the Origin of Species traveled on HMS Beagle theory of natural selection, survival of the fittest, adaptation Galapagos Islands- studied finches Descent with modification
Xanthophyl
yellow pigments in plants and animal fats
