bio II exam 3
adaptive immunity
- specific antigen - antigen being paired up with a specific antibody - specificity
In an open circulatory system there is (are)? a. no distinction between blood and tissue fluid b. no heart c. a gastrovascular cavity d. no blood vessels
- a
Which of the following factors does account for the efficiency of gas exchange in fish gills? a. Minimal surface area b. Minimized path length for diffusion c. Concurrent flow of blood and water over opposite sides of the gas exchange surfaces d. Bidirectional flow of water back and forth across the gills
- b
Ciliated gills in clams, sharks continuously swimming with their mouths partly open, countercurrent flow of blood and water in fish gills, and the use of air sacs to effect unidirectional flow of air through bird lungs are all adaptations that optimize what factor in the formula for Fick's Law of diffusion? a. D b. A c. delta p d. d
- c
In the humoral response, B cells produce plasma cells, which in turn produce large quantities of ______ that are specific for foreign antigens a. agglutinations b. interferons c. antibodies d. macrophages
- c
The most efficient lungs are found in which of the terrestrial vertebrates listed below? a. Amphibians b. Reptiles c. Birds d. Mammals e. Insects
- c
Which of the following best describes freshwater fish? a. hypotonic osmoregulators b. hypotonic osmoconformers c. hypertonic osmoregulators d. hypertonic osmoconformers e. isotonic osmoconformers
- c
CD8+ cells
- cytotoxic cells
Which of the following factors does not account for the efficiency of gas exchange in fish gills? a. Maximized surface area b. Minimized path length for diffusion c. Countercurrent flow of blood and water over opposite sides of the gas exchange surfaces d. Efficient, bidirectional flow of water back and forth across the gills
- d
______________ are used for respiration by terrestrial insects. a. Gills b. Moist skin surfaces c. Lungs d. Tracheal tubes
- d
endotherm
- heat production - internal sources - ex: shivering
CD4+ cells
- helper t cells
tolerance
- immune cells are not able to react with self antigens - self-reactive cells are destroyed during development of the immune response
specificity
- immune cells recognize and react with individual molecules (antigens) via direct molecular interactions
MHC class II
- important for stimulating the humoral pathway - humoral pathway involves b cells
memory cells
- long-lived cells that my produce new B and T cells in the future
helper T cells
- regulate immunity
mast cells
- release histamine which promotes blood flow to injured tissues - causes te blood vessels to dilate or constrict - inflammatory response
blood in the vasa recta near the loop on henle
- removes water that leaves the loop of henle
chemoreceptors
- sensing the changes in the metabolites
non-specific defense mechanisms
- skin - tears- lysozyme - pH of the gut - mucus
cytokines
- small proteins that are important in cell signaling - are released by cells and affect the behavior of other cells - ex: cell mediators, and sometimes the releasing cell itself - produced by a broad range of cells (only after the initial cell signaling/cytokine secretion from helper T cells), including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes an mast cells, as well as endothelial cells - a given cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell - they act through receptors, and are especially important in the immune system - they modulate the balance between humoral and cell-based immune responses, and they regulate the maturation, growth, and responsiveness of particular cell populations - some enhance or inhibit the action of other cytokines - they are important in health and disease, specifically in host responses to infection, immune responses, inflammation, trauma, sepsis, cancer, and reproduction
phagocytosis
- take in microorganisms - then they begin to break the microorganism down - the microorganism is linked with a lysosome
regulation of breathing
- the first sensor, which has the strongest effect by far on ventilation (at sea level) is the central chemoreceptor - the neurons responsible are located in the medulla - these are close to, but separate, from the neurons that generate the rhythm of breathing - small changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) in the systematic arterial blood flowing to the medulla produce pronounces changes in ventilation
memory
- the immune response to a specific antigen is faster and stronger upon subsequent exposure because the initial antigen exposure induced growth and division of antigen-reactive cells, resulting in multiple copies of antigen-reactive cells `
secretion
- the moving of a fluid or molecules through the body
how can some organisms thrive without a circulatory system?
- they can readily flow nutrients in and wastes out - ex: sponge, cnidarians, flatworms, and round worms
partial pressure of oxygen at sea level
- 159.2 mm Hg
how many liters of blood a day are filtered by the glomeruli?
- 180
how many liters of urine are produced per day?
- 2
lamprey and fish
- 2 chambered heart
countercurrent flow
- 2 flows are in opposite direction - the change in pressure between the two systems is high which allows for good exchange between the two systems - ex: flipper of a whale or dolphin - ex: forearms of a beaver
mammal respiration
- 2 way flow - dead ends - mixed air - alveoli - diaphragm - not high altitude
how many liters of blood a day pass through kidney
- 2000
dinosaurs
- 4 chambered heart - endotherm - birds are modern day dinosaurs
- countercurrent flow
- 50 % saturation of oxygen
- concurrent flow
- 50% saturation of oxygen
CO2 in the body
- 8% plasma - 20% hemoglobin - 725 converted to bicarbonate in RBC, then exported to plasma - CO2 does not compete with O2 but lowers hemoglobin affinity for O2 - ventilation keeps CO2 low in alveoli
vasopressin
- ADH - large quantities of vasopressin can stimulate uterine contractions
hemoglobin
- O2 is reversibly bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells - each molecule of hemoglobin can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2 - because of positive cooperativity, the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 depends on the PO2 to which the hemoglobin is exposed - therefore, hemoglobin picks up O2 as it flows through respiratory exchange structures and gives up O2 in metabolically active tissues
In tissue capillaries, __________ combines with water to form carbonic acid, which after being transported to the lungs, dissociates back to its constituents. a. CO2 b. O2 c. H2CO3 d. hemoglobin e. HCO3-
- a
Innate immunity a. is activated immediately upon infection. b. depends on a newly infected animal's previous exposure to the same pathogen. c. is based on recognition of antigens that are specific to different pathogens. d. is found only in vertebrate animals. e. utilizes highly specific antigen receptors on B cells.
- a
Select the incorrectly matched vertebrate and its urine concentration relative to its blood. a. amphibians—isotonic b. marine reptiles—isotonic c. desert mammals—strongly hypertonic d. marine mammals—strongly hypertonic e. terrestrial birds—weakly hypertonic
- a
The fish heart is a modified tube with _____ chambers arrayed one after the other. a. Two b. Three c. Four d. Six e. Eight
- a
The general term that describes the uptake of oxygen from the environment and the disposal of carbon dioxide at the body system level is? a. respiration. b. diffusion. c. exhalation. d. cellular respiration. e. inspiration.
- a
The lymphatic fluid? a. is a filtrate of the blood, as is urine. b. is completely separate from the circulatory system for blood. c. carries both red and white blood cells. d. functions in adaptive immunity but not in innate immunity. e. carries a toxic gas that kills cancerous cells.
- a
The reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, and many other molecules needed by the body is driven by ______________. a. active transport carriers b. diffusion d. facilitated diffusion e. homeostasis
- a
single circulation system
- a type of blood circulation in which the system only has one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues - in this circulation, the heart is only a single pump - pressure dissipated by resistance in lamellae limits oxygen to the tissues - this type of system is common in fish
in terms of oxygen diffusion rates, is it better to live in water or air?
- air
bird respiration system
- air sacs are there for bringing in a large amount of air not for gas exchange - inspiration 1- bird brings in air all the way back to the posterior air sac - expiration 1- push air from posterior sac to the lungs - inspiration 2- air moves to the anterior air sacs - expiration 2- air is pushed out - no mixing of air - most efficient system - 1 way flow - no dead ends - all fresh air - air sacs - air capillaries into bones - parabronchi - crosscurrent - sternum - high altitude
leukocytes
- all white blood cells
salamander and lizard
- amphibians/reptiles - 3 chambered heart - 2 atriums, 1 ventricle - advantage- self delivery of oxygen - disadvantage- partial separation of the ventricles
circulatory system
- an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis - often seen to compromise both the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph and are two separate systems
conformers
- animals who allow their internal condition to fluctuate in response to changes in their external environment - ectotherms -poikilotherms - ex: fish
regulators
- animals who can tightly maintain a constant internal condition even if there are changes in their external environment - homeotherms - endotherms - ex: mammals, birds
antigen
- any molecule that stimulates the immune system - the piece of the pathogen that is left behind and presented to the helper T cells
all endotherms?
- are not homeotherms
lymphocytes
- are responsible for specific immunity
If your body is too warm, it will? a. constrict blood vessels b. dilate blood vessels c. cause muscles to shiver d. both 1 and 3 e. None of the above
- b
Which factor does not account for the efficiency of gas exchange in fish gills? a. Maximized surface area b. Maximum path length for diffusion c. Countercurrent flow d. Increasing pressure gradient
- b
Which of the following choices is the correct path for the filtrate to follow through the nephron in the production of urine? a. Bowman's capsule → distal convoluted tubule → loop of Henle → proximal convoluted tubule → collecting duct b. Bowman's capsule → proximal convoluted tubule → loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct c. Bowman's capsule → loop of Henle → proximal convoluted tubule → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct d. Bowman's capsule → collecting duct → proximal convoluted tubule → loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule e. collecting duct → proximal convoluted tubule → loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule→ Bowman's capsule
- b
Which of the following is unique to the adaptive immune defense system? a. cells that ingest invading microbes b. antibody synthesis c. inflammation d. fever
- b
Which of the following releases histamines? Red blood cells a. Mast cells b. B-cells c. T-cells d. Plasma cells
- b
kidney
- bean shaped - outer part: renal cortex - inside renal cortex: renal medulla - renal medulla contains: nephrons - juxtamedullary nephron: concentrates urine; longer - cortical nephron: perform excretory and regulatory functions of the kidney; shorter - counter current multiplier: loop on henle and vasa recta (blood) flow in different directions - loop of henle: where the fluid is most concentrated - filtrate enters through the afferent - filtrate leaves through the efferent - proximal convoluted tube contains reabsorption (active transport) - descending loop loses water through osmosis - ascending loop loses ions such as salts and potassium through active transport - distal convoluted tubule is responsible for blood pH; can reabsorb potassium if needed
mechanisms of temperature regulation
- behavior - evaporative cooling (panting, sweating) - vasodilation, vasoconstriction - insulation (fat, fur) or lack of thereof - thermogenesis (shivering, mammals brown fat) - regulated hypothermia - appendage size - counter-current heat exchange
closed cardiovascular system
- blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins, and capillaries - no mixing of the fluids in the body - ex: vertebrates, humans
bony saltwater fish
- body compared to environment is hypotonic - drink sea water and lose ions - isotonic urine
amphibians
- body compared to the environment is hypertonic - hypotonic urine - eliminate water and keep ions
marine bird
- body is hypertonic compared to the environment - drink salt water - salt glands - urine is hypertonic
birds/mammals
- body is hypertonic compared to the environment - reabsorb water and salts - urine is hypertonic: 2X (birds)- 22X (mammals)
reptiles: fresh water
- body is hypertonic compared to the environment - eliminate water - hypotonic urine
reptiles: land
- body is hypertonic compared to the environment - reabsorb water and salts - urine is up to isotonic
reptiles: salt water
- body is hypotonic compared to the environment - drink salt water - lose ions through salt glands - urine is isotonic
sharks
- body is hypotonic compared to the environment - reabsorb urea - isotonic urine
homeotherm
- body temperature - body temperature is tightly regulated - temperature is constant
poikilotherm
- body temperature - body temperature will vary widely because of the external environment
immunity
- body's capability to repel foreign substances, pathogens, and cancer cells
where are all of the cells of the immune system (leukocytes) coming from?
- bone marrow but are derived from stem cells
right atrium
- brings in deoxygenated blood (blue, veins)
left atrium
- brings in oxygenated blood (red, arteries)
A person with diabetes insipidus fails to respond to ADH. Which of the following is a symptom of this condition? a. Glucose in urine b. Copious hyperosmotic urine c. Copious dilute urine d. Small volume of concentrated urine e. Failure to urinate
- c
Chemoreceptors located in the aortic and carotid bodies stimulate the respiratory control center in the brain when the blood __________ decreases. a. PCO2 b. hemoglobin concentration c. pH d. PO2 e. HCO3- concentration
- c
Which of the following is not part of the inflammatory response? a. Histamine and other chemicals are released, which produce redness, warmth, and edema. b. Neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages attack the invading microbes and contribute to the pus. c. Antibodies and interferons are produced against the antigens. d. Invading agent causes the release of pyrogens, which produce a fever.
- c
_________ are molecules released by activated helper T cells. a. Antigens b. Immunoglobulins c. Cytokines d. Antibodies
- c
aquatic organisms and nitrogenous wastes
- can afford to lose water - secrete ammonia which is the most toxic
osoconformers
- change osmolarity of body fluids to that of the environment - synthesize substances (amino acids) upon a rise in external salt concentration to keep internal and external osmolarity equal - does not expend energy regulating body fluids - match their body osmolarity to their environment actively or passively - most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers, although their ionic composition may be different from that of seawater - isotonic - ex: marine invertebrates, hagfish, sharks
complement
- complements the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism - it is part of the immune system called the innate immune system that is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime - can be recruited and brought into action by the adaptive immune system - involves proteins that initially freely float in the blood stream - once a specific cytokine is secreted, that cytokine serves as a signal to proteases which will cleave the complement proteins and make them active - they them will move to the area of infection and group together with one another to form a tiny pore in that cell - this formation of the tiny pore allows fluid to move into the cell and now the cell will undergo cell lysis
sea birds drinking salt water
- countercurrent exchange
A high school cross-country runner follows her coach's rule about drinking water regularly and is well hydrated. She overheats, however, and collapses. The paramedics that come to her aid will? a. have a hard time starting an intravenous line because the blood vessels in her skin are constricted b. will have a hard time treating her because she will be shivering violently to regulate her temperature c. most likely give her an aspirin to lower her body temperature d. have an easy time starting an intravenous line because the blood vessels in her skin are dilated
- d
An epitope is? a. part of the interferons that penetrate foreign cells. b. a protein protruding from the surface of B cells. c. two structurally similar antibodies dissolved in the blood plasma. d. the part of an antigen that actually binds to an antigen receptor. e. a mirror image of an antigen.
- d
In which way are crocodilians different from other reptiles? a. They have open circulation b. They have bigger atria c. They have lungs but no gills d. They have a 4-chambered heart
- d
When an individual is first exposed to the smallpox virus, several days pass before significant numbers of specific antibody molecules and T cells are produced. However, a second exposure to the virus causes a large and rapid production of antibodies and T cells. This response is an example of? a. antigenic determinants. b. phagocytosis. c. interferon production. d. immunological memory.
- d
Which of the following is a function of excretory systems? a. They help regulate osmotic potential and the volume of extracellular fluids b. They excrete molecules that are present in excess c. They conserve molecules that are valuable or in short supply d. All of the above
- d
Which of the following is not a reason oxygen can be exchanged more easily in air than in water? a. The oxygen content of air is higher than that of water b. Oxygen diffuses more slowly in water than in air c. More energy is required to move water than air because water is denser d. Oxygen in air is exchanged by active transport, but by diffusion in water
- d
what adaptations migh high-altitude animals have?
- different hemoglobin, more myoglobin - more red blood cells - more effective breathing
how is kidney function regulated by ADH?
- diuretic hormone - positive and negative feedback - inhibition: negative - secretion: positive - thirst is due to secretion of ADH (vasopressin)
A two-cycle heart of a bird or a mammal is more efficient than the amphibian heart in all of the following except? a. it can pump twice as much blood. b. it creates a true double circulatory system. c. it separates oxygenated and nonoxygenated blood. d. it increases the speed of the blood through the lungs. e. it exchanges gases by mixing aerated and nonaerated blood.
- e
key molecules involved in the immune system
- epitope: interaction of the antigen with a particular receptor - one particular epitope involves an antibody on a B-cell binding to that antigen on the B-cell which forms an epitope and another epitope can be formed between the binding of the t-cell receptor, the antigen, an the MHC class molecule
positive pressure breathing
- ex: frog 1. frog gulps in air 2. closes mouth and nares 3. raises jaw & tongue to make mouth cavity small - when the jaw is raised, the pressure of the air inside the mouth cavity increases - air moves from the mouth cavity (high pressure) to the lungs (low pressure)
concurrent flow
- exchange in heat is not as efficient as countercurrent flow
the immune system
- fights infections and cancer - lymphatic organs- red bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and spleen - tonsils and appendix are patches of immune tissue - most of these microorganisms are not pathogens - most are actually beneficial to your health
descending limb
- filtrate that enters becomes progressively more concentrated as it loses water
memory B cells
- freely float in the blood stream with the antibody attached to the cell surface - bind and neutralize a particular antigen
oxytocin
- has a mild antidiuretic effect
ectotherm
- heat production - external sources - ex: sun
gas exchange system of birds
- includes air sacs that communicate with the lungs, but are not used for gas exchange - air flows unidirectionally through bird lungs - gases are exchanged in air capillaries that run between parabronchi
what adaptation maximize gas exchange in fish relating them to ficks laws?
- increased surface area - minimize path length - ventilation (as fish take in water, water comes in with oxygen, so the oxygen concentration is high compared to blood - perfusion (as water moves across, availability of gas will be good) - countercurrent - unidirectional
what are the adaptations that maximize gas exchange in insects, relating them to ficks law?
- increasing the surface areas for gas exchange, maximizing partial pressure gradients across those exchange surfaces - ventilating the outer surface with the respiratory medium, and perfusing the inner surface with blood - insects distribute air throughout their bodies in a system of trachae, tracheoles, and air capillaries - rate of diffusion is fast - short path length
non-adaptive immunity
- indiscriminate
MHC class I
- involved in stimulating the cell mediated pathway - cell mediated can involve the t cells that come about (cytotoxic, memory)
osmoregulators
- keep the osmolarity of body fluids constant - need to be able to get rid of excess salts or actively promote uptake of salts from the environment - must expend energy to maintain the osmotic gradients via active transport - tightly regulate their body osmolarity, which always stays constant, and are more common in the animal kingdom - actively control salt concentrations despite the salt concentrations in the environment - hypertonic: water enters; eliminate water, actively transports ions in - hypotonic: water leaves; drink water, excrete ions
cytotoxic T cells
- kill virus-infected and cancer cells
natural killer cells
- kill virus-infected and tumor cells by cell-to-cell contact
MHC
- library of all of the proteins that are found along the surface of our cells - includes the protein receptors that would have been synthesized by tat organism that is associated with a particular antigen - a way for the organism to recognize self vs nonself - a set of cell surface molecules encoded by a large gene family in all vertebrates - MHC molecules mediate interactions of leukocytes which are immune cells with other leukocytes or body cells - of the three MHC classes identified, human attention commonly focuses on classes I and II - by interacting with CD4 molecules on surfaces of helper T cells, MHC class II mediates establishment of acquired immunity or adaptive immunity -by interacting with CD8 molecules on surfaces of killer/cytotoxic T cells, MHC class I mediates destruction of infected or malignant host cells
antigen presenting cells
- macrophages - B cells - dendritic cells - when they present an antigen to a helper cell they are called professional antigen presenting cells
osmoregulatory organs of insects
- malpighian tubules - have the necessary filtrate (sodium and potassium) that is pushed through via active transport and water follows via osmosis - builds up in the lumen, water will follow - this accumulation is moved to the hind gut - water and ions are reabsorbed via active transport - low pressure - open circulatory system - waste is uric acid
crocodile, pigeon, mouse, and chimp
- mammals (exception is a crocodile) - 4 chambered heart - advantage- no mixing of the blood (oxygenated and deoxygenated) - disadvantage- high pressure
bird and mammal circulation
- max respiratory exchange - left side: only oxygen rich blood - right side: oxygen poor blood
ficks law
- measures the effects of factors on the rate of diffusion - R=D x A x change in P/ d - R= rate - A= area - D= diffusion coefficient or constant - d= distance - P= change in partial pressure - the greater the distance the slower the rate of diffusion (inverse relationship between the distance and the rate of diffusion) - partial pressure determines the diffusion (exchange) of gases or their availability - if the distance is short, partial pressure will be high
small body size for metabolic rate and oxygen consumption
- metabolic rate is fast and oxygen consumption is high
large body size for metabolic rate and oxygen consumption
- metabolic rate is slow and oxygen consumption is low
osmoregulatory organs of earthworms
- metanephridia - consists of a capillary network that is wrapped around the nephridium - pressure is created due to the movement of the body segments (pushing forward and pulling back) which pushes fluid to the nephridia through the circular muscle cells - high pressure - where fluid accumulates and then is filtered - contains cilia - closed circulatory system - reabsorption and secretion
osmoregulatory organs of flatworms
- metanephridia - a network of dead-end tubules lacking internal opening - the cilia provide the necessary pressure that is used to bring in water and waste in the collecting tubule - whatever is not needed is excreted out - conserves ions (hypertonic)
heterotherm
- mix between both endothermic and ectothermic processes - depends on the region - ex: bees
open circulatory system
- mixing of the fluids in the body - mollusks, arthropods, invertebrates
excretory system
- molecules and any additional nutrients that are not needed are flushed out - dispose of metabolic wastes - regulate solute concentrations in the body - transport epithelia arranged in tubes - filtration: the filtrate (kidneys) being introduced to the proximal tube - reabsorption: the reclaiming of valuable solutes through the proximal tubule; can be reabsorption of water via the collecting ducts (aquaporins) - secretion: addition of larger molecules like toxins and other excess solutes from the body fluids to the filtrate; hormones (vasopressin, oxytocin) - excretion: the filtrate leaves the body; urine
myoglobin vs hemoglobin
- myoglobin- O2 reserve in muscle - hemoglobin- O2 reserve in blood
terrestrial egg later organisms and nitrogenous wastes
- need to conserve water - need to protect embryo egg - secrete uric acid
terrestrial organisms and nitrogenous wastes
- need to conserve water - secrete urea
human respiration system
- negative pressure
binding of antibodies to antigens inactivates antigens by?
- neutralization (blocks viral binding sites, coats bacteria) which enhancs phagocytosis - agglutination of microbes which enhances phagocytosis - precipitation of dissolved antigens which enhances phagocytosis - activation of complement system which leads to cell lysis
are red blood cells apart of the immune system?
- no
advantages of countercurrent flow in fish gills
- oxygenated water has a higher partial pressure for oxygen that the fish's blood - as the oxygenated water pass through the gill slits of a fish's gills, oxygen will be exchanged along the entire length of the countercurrent. exchanger - the % saturation levels of oxygen in the fish's blood will begin to increase but will never be higher that the % saturation levels of oxygen in the water - the % saturation level of oxygen will always be higher in the water
cardinal signs of inflammation
- pain - heat - redness - swelling - loss of function
macrophages
- phagocytize pathogens - inflammatory response and specific immunity
neutrophils
- phagocytize pathogens -inflammatory response
amphibians respiration system
- positive pressure
circulatory regulation
- pressure - blood flow - flow of blood across baroreceptors and chemoreceptors which send these back to the medulla and are involved in the regulation of circulation - autoregulation of capillaries by local carbon dioxide, oxygen, and acid concentrations - regulated by endocrine and autonomic nervous systems - baro- and chemoreceptors communicate back to the nervous system - the regulation of blood flow is achieved by the combined effects of multiple interacting mechanisms, including sensitivity to pressure, flow rate, metabolite and neural signals - the main effectors of flow regulation, the arterioles and small arteries, are located at a distance from the regions of tissue that they supply - flow regulation requires sensing of metabolic and hemodynamic conditions and transfer of information about tissue metabolic status to upstream vessels
B cells
- produce plasma cells and memory cells
plasma cells
- produce specific antibodies
double circulation system
- pulmocutaneous circuit: cutaneous respiration - partial separation reduces mixing - higher pressure to tissues - amphibians
ascending limb
- pumps out Na+, K+, and Cl-, and filtrate becomes hyposmotic
T cells
- regulate immune response - produce cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells
plasma B cells
- secrete antobodies
baroreceptors
- sensing pressure changes
inflammatory response
- series of events that occur whenever tissue is damaged - inflamed area has 4 outward signs (redness, heat, swelling, and pain) - mast cells release chemicals - histamine causes capillaries to dilate and become more permeable - excess blood flow causes skin to redden and warm - increased permeability allows fluid to escape causing swelling - swollen areas stimulates nerve endings resulting in pain - neutrophils are phagocytic white blood cells - migrate to site of injury - enclose pathogens in vesicle for digestion inside cell
interferon
- small proteins that will be secreted from cells that are infected by a pathogen - whether the pathogen is a virus or a pathogenic microorganism - once the interferons have been secreted by the cell, they can signal to neighboring cells - the release of interferons trigger the immune system by activating immune cells (natural killer cells and macrophages) - interferons also increase the up-regulation of antigen presentation to T helper cells - this protein is called interferon because it "interferes" with the host cells ability to replicate (cell division)
why do animals have circulatory systems?
- so there can be the flow and delivery of certain gases - so there can be an exchange between these gases - flow and delivery of nutrients or small hormones may play a role in regulation - delivery of waste to the kidneys for excretion
defining characteristics of adaptive immunity
- specificity: established via interaction of the receptors with a particular antigen - diversity: wide range of receptors that will exist of memory cells (T & B) - tolerance for self- because of the receptors - memory: remember the pathogen a second time -amplification: if you are exposed to a pathogen a second time there is a rapid response to the second exposure
Q10
- temperature coefficient - measures the change in a chemical reaction due to changes by 10 degrees celsius
differentiation
- the ability of cells to be able to differentiate into more specialized cells
chemotaxis
- the ability of cells to migrate - chemokines
osmoregulation
- the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of an organism's fluids to maintain the homeostasis of the organism's water content - keeps the organisms fluids from becoming too diluted or too concentrated
reptiles circulation
- the blood flows through the heart twice - in this type of circulation, the pulmonary circulation is separate from the systemic circulation - in this circulation, the heart consists of: the right side that pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary section and the left side that pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation -this is common among mammals and birds - this is in contrast to animals that have only one circulation system such as fish
what do bones have to do with the immune system?
- the lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system, comprising a network of conduits called lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph directionally towards the heart - bone marrow: where all of the leukocytes come from - basis of the lymphatic system - thymus - spleen: cleaning out of blood - lymph nodes
where do T cells mature?
- thymus
lungfish circulation
- transition water: land - partial separation of heart/lung blood (stomach outpocket, gulps air) - partially divided atrium - habitat often dries up (gills and "lung")
thymus
- where the T cells go to mature
red bone marrow
- where the leukocytes are derived from
do birds have the most efficient respiration system?
- yes
will percent of oxygen always be higher that what we see in the blood?
- yes
partial pressure of oxygen at mt. whitney?
-83 mm Hg
excretion
-complete flushing of any excess waste or fluids out of the body
what immunity responds first when a pathogen is first exposed?
-innate immunity because it is nonspecific
the lymph nodes
-where the cells of the system communicate with each other - talk about what is going on in the body
all ectotherms?
are not poikilotherms