Biology 2 Final

1.Distinguish the components of the scientific method—observation, question, hypothesis, prediction, result/conclusion, and theory—in a description of research.

"Popperian" Scientific Method Model Observations Question Hypothesis (Aka "Tentative explanation") ● Will ALWAYS have a how or a why; attempts to explain Prediction ● NO explanation, just presents a possible outcome Experiment Hypothesis supported or rejected (cannot "prove" a hypothesis) A new question can be proposed; if so, the process starts again Theory: A widely supported hypothesis within the scientific community "When we've got multiple support from different studies and we're testing a big picture hypothesis, then we call that a theory."

What was LUCA? In general terms, how do the 4 hypotheses of LUCA differ?

- 4 hypothesis of LUCA: - Non-cell: a film of metabolism on an iron sulfur mineral that later formed membranes and became bacteria or archaea - Proto-cell: metabolism and RNA but no membrane because it was in a protected micro compartment in a volcanic rock and then two pre proto cells acquired membranes separately becoming bacteria and archaea (shows why there are some similarities between metabolism and genetic information between bacteria and archaea) - Community: a communal membrane bound metabolism that kept budding off different experiments at different places and at different points in history until we saw the differences in the domain of life - Cell: was a cell and some sorting mechanisms allowed the different membrane molecules to separate into bacteria and archaea

When might a circulatory system not be needed?

- A circulatory system is not needed in single celled organisms because it's a circulation but not a system*. - Plants aren't a system because they don't possess organs, tissues, and cells with different functions. Plants are not a circulation either - it's a vascular system and nothing is circulating around and around, it's going from source to sink. It's a different way of transporting and distributing needed substances. - *A system is made up of organs, organs are made up of tissues, and tissues are made up of cells. - Flatworms, nematodes, and Cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals) do not have a circulatory system and thus do not have blood. They obtain nutrients and oxygen directly from the water that they live in.

How does herd immunity work, and why do we have to reach it to be safe from the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus?

- After that protein is now in your tissue spaces and circulating - that's when the B cells get recruited. They proliferate, they turn into plasma B cells, but some of them become memory cells and those are the ones that we're counting on to protect us. And then when the virus hits, they become plasma B cells and secrete anti spike antibodies that tag SARS-Cov-2 for destruction. - We avoid the problem of bringing the protein to the cells that the traditional vaccines sometimes present. - Vaccines are a form of active immunity

Which (B or T cells) attacks a cancer cell? How might they each differently attack a virus or bacteria?

- B cells work in the tissue spaces and the bloodstream. - Interacting with your invaders are your dendritic cells and your B cell. They interact with the invaders and then activate the specialists to then go out and get that specific invader. - A mast cell and a macrophage are patrolling the spaces in the tissues. - The (big eater) macrophage ingests or engulfs invaders. - After *, the macrophage signals, with special, small signaling molecules that diffuse through the tissues and serve as attractant to our immune warrior. And it responds by stopping, changing shape, and squeezing through the crack between the cells of the capillary wall - its a neutrophil. It will then go and start gobbling up and blasting these invaders and they'll come in large numbers, and this is what causes the inflammation to become tender and pus is actually their dead bodies. - The mast cell detects the invaders and responds by creating histamine* - T cells work when the invader has gotten into your cells. - *Histamine is a small protein that has the effect of causing inflammation (swelling). Swelling causes the capillary walls to become more porous and that allows more plasma, more fluid, [not the proteins], to leak out into the tissue spaces that swells them up, but it also makes it easier for the white blood cells to move around in the EM and find and take out invaders.

4.Which feature of bacteria is most informative for reconstructing their phylogeny?

- Bacterial phylogeny is based on rDNA gene sequences and other DNA that does not change in evolution. (Form, function, and ecology are homoplasious and not informative)

In general, how do C4 and CAM pathways "patch" onto C3 photosynthesis to favor carbon fixation? How do C4 and CAM differ? Why don't all plants employ these innovations?

- C4 takes place in the mesophyll and bundle sheath - Not all plants employ these innovations because it require more energy

What is the function of Rubisco? Why is it Earth's most abundant enzyme?

- Carbon fixation enzyme rubisco - Is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, a process by which the atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose.

What are the key features of bacterial structure?

- Cell wall (outer mesh not a solid wall and is made from peptidoglycan) - - gram positive bacteria: thick porous peptidoglycan membrane - - gram negative bacteria (2 membranes): thin peptidoglycan membrane and a bilayer that is selectively permeable - Cell membrane - Chromosome in the middle (almost always circular in the nucleoid with no membrane) - Flagella - Cytoplasm

50.What is countercurrent exchange, and how does it maximize gas exchange?

- Concurrent: water and blood flowing in the same direction. As oxygen flows out of the water to the blood, the concentration of oxygen in the water is decreasing while the oxygen in the blood is increasing. Eventually they meet and equilibrium is reached, diffusion stops. There is no more net exchange now. - Countercurrent exchange: because blood and water are flowing in opposite directions there is a constant exposure of new water to new blood. As the blood gets more oxygenated, the fresh water with the most oxygen is coming into contact. The blood gets more oxygenated - it's getting more oxygenated water rather than less in contact with it. So, even after the blood has flowed completely to the end of the capillary, it will still get oxygen from the water, the freshly oxygenated water.

What evidence supports the hygiene hypothesis?

- Evidence: Mice prone to type one diabetes, which is the autoimmune diabetes in which your immune cells make a mistake and attack your insulin producing cells. Mice were followed for their lifetime (70 weeks) for scientists to observe the percentage of mice that developed diabetes. In one environment it's not sterilized - 40% of mice got diabetes. In the other environment it's sterilized, about 80% of mice got diabetes. - Diabetes prone mice that grew up in a pathogen free environment were more likely to get type 1 diabetes than control mine. This supports the hygiene hypothesis for autoimmune disease.

What are the 3 lines of immune defense in humans?

- First line of defense: Non-specific natural barriers which restrict entry of pathogen. Examples: Skin, Mucous membranes, Secretions of skin and mucous membranes. - Second line of defense: Innate non-specific immune defenses provide rapid local response to pathogen after it has entered the host. Examples: Fever, natural killer cells, phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils), inflammation, and interferon (antimicrobial proteins). - Third line of defense: Antigen-specific immune responses, specifically target and attach invaders that get past first two lines of defense. Examples: Lymphocytes, Antibodies, and Macrophages and other antigen-presenting cells.

What is the evidence for secondary endosymbiosis of chloroplasts?

- Has 4 layers -That the chloroplasts are surrounded by more than two membranes and their own separate DNA (Multiple membranes more evidence).

What are the 3 main components of a circulatory system?

- Heart (pump) - Vessels (plumbing) - Blood (liquid) - Function of the Heart: Pump blood throughout your circulatory system. - More specific but not required: "Since the right side of the heart sends blood to the pulmonary circuit it is smaller than the left side which must send blood out to the whole body in the system circuit." (Openstax) - Function of the Vessels: push blood through the body. Arteries transport blood away from the heart. Veins return blood back toward the heart. Capillaries surround body cells and tissues to deliver and absorb oxygen, nutrients, and other substances. - (Openstax) "A network of cylindrical vessels: the arteries, veins, and capillaries that emanate from a pump, the heart. In all vertebrate organisms, as well as some invertebrates, this is a closed loop system, in which the blood is not free in cavity. In a closed circulatory system, blood is contained inside blood vessels and circulates unidirectionally from the heart around the systemic circulatory route, then returns to the heart again. As opposed to a closed system, Arthropods - including insects, crustaceans, and most mollusks- have an open circulatory system. In an open circulatory system, the blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels but is pumped into a cavity called a hemocoel and is called hemolymph." - Function of the Blood: Transports nutrients, wastes , and oxygen and CO2 (gases), water, hormones (signaling) - this is circulated in your blood. - (Openstax) "Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, and by eliminating excess heat. Blood supports growth by distributing nutrients and hormones, and by removing waste. Blood plays a protective role by transporting clotting factors and platelets to prevent blood loss and transporting the disease-fighting agents or white blood cells to sites of infection."

The rise of O2 levels and the drop of CO2 levels can be associated with the evolution of plants and trees as time moves on.

- Metta Patterns associated with origin of life: centers( genetic information), borders (membranes), webs/networks (metabolism) - Genes First: RNA World - Simple nucleotides formed into RNA, RNA started making proteins, RNA started making DNA to store information more durably, started making proteins that did many things - Metabolism FIRST: - Involves iron and sulfur (no enzymes or phosphorus yet), metabolism had to happen without phosphorus so that was when RNA came to be and started coding for proteins and then the metabolic network. - Membrane First (protocells) - Needed membranes first to enclose everything, so they had to form little bubbles with the help of clay as a catalyst, it formed little lipid bubbles in a solution

What is photorespiration?

- Photorespiration consumes ATP and NADPH, the high-energy molecules made by the light reactions. Thus, photorespiration is a wasteful process because it prevents plants from using their ATP and NADPH to synthesize carbohydrates.

Innate immunity includes

- Primed and ready to fight at all times. - Non-specific immune response is the immediate protective response of the immune system, which does not require previous exposure to the antigen. - First line or second line defense of the body - Phagocytes such as macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells, monocytes, mast cells, and dendritic cells are involved. - Helps the production of antibodies - Does not generate an immunological memory - Comparatively less effective

Compare B and T cells for: location of the invader that they attack, how they recognize the invader (their receptor and what it binds to), what they secrete, and the effect on the target.

- Should the invader penetrate your outer barrier, now they're in your body but not in a cell - (INNATE) there's an array of white blood cells that can destroy invaders in general and a series of proteins that can also eliminate these invaders. Should they get past that defense - (ADAPTIVE) B cells tag the invader to be killed by the generalist cells of DNA immune system. These cells remember when they've encountered and tagged an invader, they're called memory cells, and this is crucial for vaccination. And if that level is awarded, the B cells, and now the invader gets inside one of your cells, we've got the T cell immunity, this detects an infected cell and destroys it. It's this level of immune attack that causes damage in your body and that's often the symptoms of an illness. That's what makes you feel sick, the T cells blasting your infected cells, desperate last attempt to destroy this invader before it destroys you.

adaptive immunity characteristics

- Specific immune response against a specific antigen - Third line of defense of the body - Lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells are involved - Antibodies are produced - Generates an immunological memory - More effective - Takes a longer time to develop - Slower response time to threats and infections

In general terms, how do the COVID-19 vaccines work?

- The antigen that we chose to make the vaccines from is this outer spike protein that's a good target because it sticks out from the virus. The next generation vaccines, such as the Pfizer and Moderna, not J&J, put NOT the protein but the mRNA code for that protein into our tissue spaces. And it's taken up into cells, the cells read the code, make the protein and then secrete it. Because the mRNA is customized to instruct the cell to secrete the protein. And then the cells secrete the protein and the mRNA code is degraded. WHICH IS REALLY GOOD- this means that there's nothing left of the vaccine.

Compare innate immunity and adaptive immunity—in terms of specialization, response time, and complexity.

- The first two lines of the body's defenses are innate (non-specific) defense mechanisms. - The third line of the body's defense is adaptive (specific) defense mechanisms.

How might skin cells, skin oil, sweat, and our skin and gut microbiota contribute to the function of the immune barrier in humans?

- The primary role of the skin is to serve as a physical barrier that protects from microbial invasion. Healthy bacteria found in your gut is also used to stimulate the development of T‑cells, which are responsible for distinguishing your body's cells and tissue from potentially harmful things in your body. - Physical barrier that prevents many organisms from getting inside us.

What is the role of vaccines in immunity?

- The way here immunity works is even if people haven't gotten their vaccine, if there are enough people vaccinated then the virus never contacts another susceptible person and it's stopped dead in its tracks.

What are the key features of viral structure and replication?

- Virus Structure: - Genome (RNA or DNA) - Capsid (protein case protecting the genome) - Some have: - Envelope (surrounds the capsid and is stolen from a host) - Envelope proteins ( they direct the host to make it for them)

Identify monophyletic and non-monophyletic groups.

. A monophyletic group has a MRCA and all of its descendants, while a non-monophyletic group (para- or poly-phyletic) does not have a MRCA or may have only some of its descendants listed.

What are the advantages of dispersal by seeds vs. dispersal by spores?

.Plant survival depends heavily on seed dispersal. Plants that grow too close together compete for light, water, and nutrients in the soil. Plants that disperse their seeds over a large area are less likely to compete for the same resources. Producing spores requires the least amount of energy and resources. When it comes to spore dispersal, wind distribution of very light spores provides a lot of capacity. Since they have almost no nutritional value, spores are less vulnerable to animal predation than seeds.

Steps of the Na/K pump:

1) 3 Na from the cytoplasm move into the pump and bind. 2.) ATPase activated to hydrolyze ATP into ADP and Pi which blocks both openings. 3.) ADP released causing a shape change that allows 3 Na to exit the pump to the outside of the cell. 4.) 2 K enter the carrier from the outside, releasing the Pi. 5.) Pump returns to original shape and releases 2 K to the inside. Information credit: physiology course.

What is the function of the myelin sheath? How is it made?

1) Allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. It acts as an electrical insulator for the neurone - it prevents electrical impulses travelling through the sheath. Prevents the movement of ions into or out of the neurone/ it prevents depolarisation. 2) Myelin is formed by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system

What are the 5 hypotheses we discussed for the vast diversity of insects?

1. They're the right size! 2. Coevolution with flowering plants. 3. Mandibles and modified mouthparts. 4. Insect Flight. 5. Their simple metamorphosis.

In vertebrates, how did the number of circulatory loops and number of heart chambers facilitate the transition from water to land?

A 4-chamber heart & 2 circulatory loops allow the systemic (body) blood pressure to be higher than the pulmonary (lung) blood pressure. This in turn allows higher muscle performance on land.

What is a clade? A MRCA?

A clade is a group of organisms that are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor. In simple terms: MRCA + ALL DESCENDANTS. MRCA stands for "most recent common ancestor".

What are the advantages of a body cavity (coelom)?

A coelom provides cushioning for the organs, organization and folding of the organs, and helps with flexibility

What is a homology? A homoplasy? What are some examples?

A homology is a shared trait from a common ancestor, while a homoplasy is a shared derived trait obtained by convergent evolution. Homoplasy: shared character not inherited from a common ancestor. An example would be the morphological evolution of whales and penguins.

What is a pathogen?

A microorganism that causes disease

Bacteria form

A monophyletic group

What is a potential solution to the industrial and local practices that are endangering fisheries?

A potential solution for these savage fishing practices is the catch share program. Scientists assess the health of a given fish population, based on that they determine what percentage of the population must be protected so that the population can be replenished and the other cut will be split up by the fishing community to split.

Interpret diagrams of muscle contraction on the cell or molecular level. Identify on a diagram or from a description: sarcomere, myosin and actin filaments, action of ATP, action of troponin and tropomyosin, relative movement of the filaments and sarcomere.

A sarcomere is a unit of muscle tissue that contracts and relaxes. Myosin is the thick filament and actin is the thin filament. When ATP attaches to myosin, the myosin head detaches from the actin, relieving muscle tension/contraction. Tropomyosin blocks the myosin binding sites (at rest) on the actin filaments. Troponin secures that tropomyosin stays in place. When Ca2+ binds to troponin, a shape change occurs, troponin moves and allows tropomyosin to move out of the myosin binding site. This allows myosin to bind at its corresponding binding site.

What is a lichen?

A simple plant which grows commonly on trees.

Define and explain what a phylogenetic tree is

A simplification and hypothesis of the evolutionary history of a species. It uses homologies as the base for the phylogenetic tree.

What are sister taxa? Compare rates of evolution and speciation on branches of a phylogeny.

A sister taxa is a taxon that is closely related to each other. Branch length does not equal the age. DO NOT ASSUME THAT A TAXON EVOLVED FROM THE TAXON NEXT TO IT.

For a given phylogeny, what is a synapomorphy?

A synapomorphy is a trait that is shared exclusively in a clade. It is a shared, derived trait. Synapomorphies are derived, homologous, and unique traits.

What is the ecological importance of viruses?

A virus particle injects its genetic material into a living cell's existing genetic code. The host cell then makes copies of the viral genome as well as new protein shells, and eventually the cell bursts open (cell lysis) releasing new viral particles into the environment. Viruses can have an impact on the bacteria in an ecosystem.

According to the Rivet-popper hypothesis, how does biodiversity loss affect ecosystem function?

According to this hypothesis, each species is like a rivet in the body of an airplane. So, the ecosystem would be the airplane that can't be put together and work without the rivets, which would be the species/biodiversity.

During the life cycle of pines the female gametophyte starts to develop:

After the pollen grains reach the ovule and the micropyle closes

Which other organisms besides plants use photosynthesis?

Algae, phytoplankton and bacteria

how do an incomplete gut, complete gut, mesoderm, and coelom form, in embryonic development?

All animals have an embryo that is a hollow ball at its first stage, which is the blastula. Then, the blastula bends in and makes two layers, this would become the Gastrula. The inner pocket becomes the gut and if it keeps growing upwards a tube forms, this would be a complete gut where food can come in and come out (this allows us to eat more). A third layer also forms in the Gastrula called the Mesoderm between the Ectoderm and Endoderm, and this is where the Coelom forms (body cavity).

Are most bacteria pathogenic? In general, how do bacterial pathogens enter host cells?

All the pathogenic prokaryotes known to date are bacteria, however pathogenic bacteria represent only a small fraction of prokaryotic species. Bacteria are much larger than viruses, and receptor-mediated endocytosis cannot take them in. Phagocytosis allows them to invade host cells. Bacterial phagocytosis is a natural macrophage function. They patrol the body's tissues, ingesting and destroying unwanted microbes. Some pathogens, on the other hand, have developed the ability to survive and reproduce inside macrophages after they have been phagocytosed.

What is the Hygiene Hypothesis?

Allergic diseases may be prevented by certain infections in early childhood - eg children with older siblings more likely exposed to childhood infections and have lower incidence of asthma Idea of 'cytokine balance' - presence of older siblings, early exposure to daycare, viral infections, country life - TH1 CD4 protective immunity - widespread AB, Western lifestyle, urban environment, diet (poly-unsaturated fats) - TH2 CD8 allergic diseases

For a given clade, what is an ancestral vs. a derived character?

An ancestral character is a trait obtained from an ancestry, while a derived character is a trait that arose independently.

What are ecosystem services? Identify for mangroves.

An ecosystem service is a benefit provided by nature. Mangroves hold sediment in place, buffer coastlines against hurricanes, and act as a nursery for young organisms.

What is an outgroup? How is one chosen?

An outgroup is a taxon that has branched out of the group because it does not belong to the group whose evolutionary relationship is being investigated. the outgroup must be similar enough to the ingroup in evolutionary history but it lacks certain traits. Example: a pigeon cannot be an outgroup for a phylogeny with monkeys, because they are not closely related.

What are the 4 types of life cycles? "Ask two questions" to identify from diagrams?

Ancestral, Haploid Dominant, Diploid Dominant, and Alternation of Generations. 2 questions= Is the diploid stage multicellular? Is the haploid stage multicellular?

What are the ecological roles of Angiosperms ?

Angiosperms are a good source of food. The function of their flowers is to ensure pollination and to also protect the ovule and developing embryo inside a receptacle. The function of the fruits is seed dispersal and they also protect the developing seed.

Which of the following are produced by the gametophytes of bryophytes and ferns

Antheridia

Which of the following applies to Archaea

Archaea produce very few human diseases

Which of these are the gametes of the females gametophyte of pine

Arquegonia

In general, how do bacteria affect the biosphere—e.g. soil nutrients and the composition of the Earth's atmosphere?

Bacteria causes an increase in o2 and a decrease in co2-> great o2 event, recycle nutrients, are decomposers

What are the 3 domains of life?

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Identify radial or bilateral symmetry in a flower

Bilateral symmetry means the flower can be visibility divided equally one time. Radial symmetry is more than two times.

What are the roles of bile salts and lipoproteins in lipid digestion and transport?

Bile salts combine fats and break them down into smaller particles which gives the enzyme lipase a greater surface area to act on during digestion of fats. The primary function of lipoproteins is the transportation and delivery of fatty acids, triacylglycerol, and cholesterol to and from target cells in many organs.

What is a biofilm? Is it multicellular? What are the advantages of being in a biofilm as opposed to being free-living?

Biofilms are a microbial community held together in a gummy-textured matrix that consists primarily of polysaccharides secreted by the organisms, together with some proteins and nucleic acids. Biofilms are similar to not the same as multicellular organisms in that they are able to divide labor between the species it contains. Biofilms are also like multicellular organisms in that when they reproduce only some species allow for dispersal. Interactions amongst organisms in a biofilm make the community more robust. The sticky substance that holds bacteria together also excludes most antibiotics and disinfectants, making biofilm bacteria hardier than their planktonic counterparts.

Interpret the human "cardiac cycle" diagram of heart volume, pressures, EKG, and heart sounds. What causes the heart sounds?

Blood flowing through the heart chambers whenever the heart valves open or close during the cardiac cycle. - Cardiac Cycle (General Terms): Depolarization: Contraction of Chambers (First atria, then ventricles). Repolarization: Relaxation of Chambers EKG: P wave- atrial depolarization (A.K.A. contraction) QRS wave- ventricular depolarization (A.K.A. contraction) T wave- ventricular repolarization (A.K.A relaxation)

What is segmentation?

Body parts that are repeated in animals with bilateral symmetry

What are the 3 basic physics components of movement (what is needed for movement) ?

Bones, Muscles and Joints.

Ovules have

Both diploid and haploid cells

What are the differences in function of xylem vs. phloem?

Both facilitate transportation. Xylem is dead cells which carry water and minerals through the roots up to the leaves. It does not use energy, instead it uses diffusion, adhesion and cohesion (properties of water) to carry it up through the plant. Phloem carries food (big molecules/glucose) to where it's needed in the plant from the leaves. It's living cells and uses energy (ATP).

How are archaea similar to, and different from, bacteria?

Both have similar morphology and are found everywhere. Archaea have different gene expression and different cell ultrastructure (membrane, s-layer cell wall, and flagella). Archaea has no known pathogens.

When and how does brain architecture form? How can we encourage brain architecture development that will lead to greater success in school and in life?

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up. The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood. Simpler neural connections and skills form first, followed by more complex circuits and skills. In the first few years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections form every second. After this period of rapid proliferation, connections are reduced through a process called pruning, which allows brain circuits to become more efficient. Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course. The brain is a highly integrated organ and its multiple functions operate in coordination with one another. Emotional well-being and social competence provide a strong foundation for emerging cognitive abilities, and together they are the bricks and mortar of brain architecture. The emotional and physical health, social skills, and cognitive-linguistic capacities that emerge in the early years are all important for success in school, the workplace, and in the larger community.

Discuss the plant tree of life as a succession of innovations, each building on the last. Identify a plant as a "Bryophyte", Lycophyte, Monophyte (fern), Gymnosperm, or Angiosperm based on the innovations it has, as shown in a description or illustration.

Bryophytes consist of Liverworts,mosses and hornworts. Liverworts developed Alternation of generations, embryo, cuticle, mycorrhizas traits and are gametophyte dominant the sporophytes are tiny & dependent. Mosses developed differentiated sporophyte as well as photosynthesis in sporophyte. 3-D gametophyte structure is a derived trait. Mosses are gametophyte dominant with the being sporophyte small & dependent. Hornworts developed long-lived sporophyte. The sporophytes emerge from the parent gametophyte and continue to grow throughout the life of the plant. Vascular Plants include lycophytes, monophyte, gymnosperm, and angiosperms that have developed the following characteristics: Sporophyte dominant & independent, Vascular tissue, stems, Multi-celled apical meristem. Lycophytes developed the trait(derived) of roots and microphylls. Monilophytes consist of mostly ferns and have developed roots(ancestral) and megaphylls(derived).Gymnosperms and angiosperms have developed the following traits: Secondary growth, female gametophyte & embryo retained, seeds, as well as megaphylls (again). Angiosperms have developed the following traits: Flowers, Endosperm (a nutritive sibling to the embryo), and fruits.

Which of the following applies to Bundle Sheat Cells

C4 Photosynthesis

Regarding the evolution of CAM in flowering plants

CAM plants form a polyphyletic group

Which of the following applies to Stroma

Calvin cycle

Identify the general functions of the central and peripheral nervous system, and of the nested components that make up the peripheral system.

Central Nervous System: (Brain and spinal cord) responsible for integrating sensory information and control of body movement Peripheral Nervous System: carry sensory information to the brain and spinal cord (connects the CNS to our organs, limbs, and skin). - Sensory: convert external stimuli from the external environment into signals that are sent to the brain. (afferent) - Motor: carry signals to the muscles from the CNS (efferent) -Somatic: connect CNS to body muscle to control voluntary movement (skeletal muscle) - Autonomic: regulates involuntary processes like heartbeat and breathing -Sympathetic: Fight or flight - Parasympathetic: rest and digest

How are internal parasites adapted to that way of life? Compared to free-living relatives.

Cephalization in internal parasites is not as developed due to the fact that they are living inside a host and do not need sensory organs to watch out for threats. The digestive system is also not as advanced due to them living inside of a host because their life source is always present so they do not need to spend more energy into digesting and conserving food. The reproductive system is more advanced due to potential mates being more difficult to find so more often than not parasites such as these tend to show hermaphroditism. Free living parasites will have a more advanced cephalization as well as digestive system due to food and protection being harder to find. They have a less advanced reproductive system due to mates being easier to find.

Discuss the chordate tree of life as a succession of major innovations, each building on the last. What were the advantages of cephalization and evolution of the skeleton, especially vertebrae, jaws, and limbs?

Cephalization is head and cranium. It is the evolution for the nervous system and sensory organs that are positioned toward the head. Advantages of jaws is suction feeding, grazing on surface, more gill arches and teeth and also expands their food source. Advantages of vertebrates are frames that hold the body upright along with the endoskeleton, it grows as the animal grows. The advantage of limbs is for animals to move.

What is cephalization, and how is it related to bilateral vs. radial symmetry?

Cephalization is the collection of sensory organs in one area of the body, often known as the head. This is only present in bilateral symmetry, not radial.

Which of the following applies to Dinoflagellates

Chlorophyll

How is a chytrid fungus affecting amphibian biodiversity?

Chytrid fungus is parasitic and kills many amphibians. Bad for amphibian biodiversity!

Did circulatory and respiratory systems evolve once or more than once in animals?

Circulatory systems and respiratory systems evolved more than once in animals. Different animals also evolved different systems and at different times. This would be considered polyphyletic.

In formulating evolutionary hypotheses about circulatory systems, why is it more valid to compare clam and squid, rather than earthworm and grasshopper?

Clams and squid have similar metabolism and material transport. Clams and squid are aquatic which could contribute to the validity of their comparison with circulatory systems. Earthworms and grasshoppers also have different circulatory systems but are in similar environments.

How did coal swamp forests change the world, in terms of climate change then (as the forests were growing) and now (as we burn fossil coal)?

Coal swamp forests released oxygen into the atmosphere back in the Carboniferous period, which allowed large amphibians, reptiles, and insects to roam the planet. This allowed animals with respiratory systems that have adapted for air to thrive at the time. Today, burning fossil fuels releases mass amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, warming the planet and polluting the air and water.

innate vs adaptive immunity

Compared to the innate immune system, the adaptive immune system is slower acting, and is more specific in its action.

What is multicellularity? How is it an advantage?

Composed of many cells and not able to reproduce. Specialized in certain functions which makes them more efficient, grow bigger, complex . Some cells give up reproduction, a division of labor is present, and are a single species

What is coral bleaching and what causes it?

Coral bleaching is the loss of Zooxanthellae, which are tiny plant cells that provide corals with food resulting from photosynthesis.

2.Does correlation show causation? Explain

Correlation means that there is a relationship between the variables tested, but it does not mean that x variable led to y variable.

Interpret a phylogeny of digestion.

Ctenophore is the phylum responsible for having an ancestral incomplete gut as it is the earliest development. It was the earliest development that took time in out phylogenetic tree in time and place. They also have a derived gut because it developed later in time, and most importantly was not the first time that it had been developed either. Animals with complete guts are polyphyletic because it is derived throughout different times as well as different locations

Which of the following applies to Tissue Tropism

Deformed wing virus of bees

How does a having a vascular cylinder, a ring of vascular bundles, or scattered vascular bundles determine whether or not the stem can form secondary growth?

Dicots are arranged in a ring, whereas monocots are arranged in scattered bundles of xylem and phloem.

Which arrangement is seen in "dicots," and which is derived in monocots?

Dicots can form secondary growth but monocots cannot, since it needs a vascular cambium; monocots lack this.

How might different MHC alleles in a mate promote the fitness of their offspring?

Different MHC can protect an offspring against a wider variety of invaders to their cells.

What are the functions of the dorsal hollow nerve cord (aka spinal cord) of chordates?

Dorsal hollow nerve cord: also known as spinal cord, develops into brain and spine

What other hypotheses might explain the open circulatory system of insects, or the closed circulatory system of annelids?

Earthworms have a dual circulatory system. The first one is a closed circulatory which deals with food, waste, and gases having to do with the respiratory. They have three blood vessels, the dorsal vessel pumps blood forward, while the other 4 pump blood to the rear. The second circulatory system deals with the digestive system.

Which of the following applies to the mitochondria:

Endosymbiosis involving two prokaryotes

Describe the hypothesis of primary endosymbiosis of mitochondria and chloroplasts. What cellular and molecular evidence supports it?

Endosymbiosis is the theory that eukaryotic cells came from prokaryotic cells by means of absorbing cells similar to mitochondria and chloroplasts. The evidence we have for this is that mitochondria and chloroplasts have separate DNA than that of the eukaryotes that they reside in, and that their DNA resembles that of prokaryotes.

★ What are the roles of energy and protected micro spaces in the origin of life? You don't have to know the various hypotheses of where life originated.

Energy is needed for metabolic processes within the cell which is a fundamental part of life on Earth. The first organisms were autotrophs and then heterotrophs evolved to consume autotrophs for energy.

Contrast the 3 strategies of escape, conform, or regulate.

Escape: This is when organisms escape from the world by hibernation (bears), aestivation (lungfish), and Cryptobiosis (Water bear) → Hibernation: Eat a lot of food and sleep for a few months, Aestivation: When water dries up some fish are able to dig up and stay in a moist place, Cryptobiosis: Make the organism look dead with no sign of life.

what is an excitatory potential ?

Excitatory potential- if they increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring

True or false: During the malaria cycle haploid individuals of plasmodium enter the liver cell where they reproduce asexually

False

What is the hypothesis for human female mate choice based on MHC (major histocompatibility complex)?

Females can smell the MHC and be attracted to individuals with heterozygous MHC to better protect their children from cellular invaders.

How is fetal hemoglobin in humans adaptive?

Fetal hemoglobin, or fetal hemoglobin is the main oxygen carrier protein in the human fetus. Hemoglobin F is found in fetal red blood cells, and is involved in transporting oxygen from the mother's bloodstream to organs and tissues in the fetus. It is produced at around 6 weeks of pregnancy and the levels remain high after birth until the baby is roughly 2-4 months old. Hemoglobin F has a different composition from the adult forms of hemoglobin, which allows it to bind oxygen more strongly. This way, the developing fetus is able to retrieve oxygen from the mother's bloodstream, which occurs through the placenta found in the mother's uterus.

Identify the pollination syndrome of a flower given a picture or description of its bloom time (day or night), shape, color, and fragrance.

Flowers have evolved specifically to attract certain pollinators (bees, butterflies, moths etc) in order to increase their chances of reproduction/ survival. Pollinators are each attracted to different flowers depending on their color, size, smell etc. See chart for specifics. A land pad aka big petals are often a sign of a butterfly or moth pollinator as they need to land on the flower (bees and birds just hover).

For a leaf or flower of a given color, relate the wavelengths (colors) of light absorbed and reflected to the absorption spectrum.

For a leaf that is green colored the absorption includes all light wavelengths except for those within the green spectrum that is why the leaf is green. Notice how the graph depicting absorption decreased in the green spectrum and increases in the other spectrums.

Which of the following applies to Lycophylls

Found in primitive plants that have vessels

What are the functions of fruits ?

Fruits disperse the seeds. Fruits- protection, dispersal, photosynthesis, and signal;

What ecosystem services do fungi provide?

Fungi are decomposers (they eat and break down dead matter and recycle its nutrients back into the ecosystem) They aid in tree growth and success.

Tomatoes have ________

Fused carpels

Define gametophyte and sporophyte. Contrast their ploidy and reproduction.

Gametophytes are the multicellular haploid form that produces haploid gametes by mitosis. The haploid gametes unite and develop into sporophytes. Sporophytes are the multicellular diploid form that results from the union of gametes. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that develop into gametophytes. Fusion of two haploid gametes at fertilization results in a diploid zygote, which develops into the next sporophyte generation.

For hormones, what are gland and target tissue, multiple targets, plasticity of target response, antagonistic hormones, and hormonal cross-talk?

Glands can either be endocrine or exocrine. Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts, while endocrine glands secrete their products into the bloodstream and are ductless. Hormones have specific target cells that have receptors shaped to a specific hormone, and these cells are on target tissue. Hormones may have different target cells, and the same hormone may produce different effects depending on the proteins that are present in the target tissue. Antagonistic hormones work oppositely to agonistic hormones. For example, The pancreas releases insulin, which decreases blood sugar when blood sugar is too high. Glucagon increases blood sugar, which does the opposite effect of insulin.

Identify the 4 components of nephron function in mammalian kidney from a diagram. Explain the functions.

Glomerulus- filter plasma to produce glomerular filtrate, which passes down the length of the nephron tubule to form urine. Bowman's capsule- surrounds the glomerular capillary loops and participates in the filtration of blood from the glomerular capillaries. Also creates a urinary space where the filtrate can enter. Tubular region- reabsorption, the process can either be through active transport or passive transport. Secretions by tubules help in the urine formation without affecting the electrolyte balance of the body. Collection tubule- concentrate and transport urine from the nephrons, the main functioning units of the kidneys, to larger ducts that connect with the renal calyces, cavities in which urine gathers until it flows through the renal.

Compare the gymnosperm and angiosperm seed. How many fertilization events does each seed result from?

Gymnosperm= 1 fertilization event. Angiosperm= 2 fertilization events.

What are the ecological roles of Gymnosperms? angiosperms

Gymnosperms provide food and habitat for wildlife. They prevent soil erosion and reduce greenhouse-effect gasses.

Which of the following applies to Reverse Transcriptase

HIV

Gametophytes are _____ and produce ______

Haploid/gametes after mitosis

Which of the following applies to Charophytes

Haplontic life cycle

Interpret the hemoglobin dissociation curves. How is the effect of pH on hemoglobin dissociation adaptive?

Hemoglobin molecules have a vital role to play in your body: they shuttle oxygen from your lungs to your tissues and help transport carbon dioxide back. The pH of the blood in your tissues is very slightly different from the pH of the blood in your lungs and this slight pH difference brings about a subtle change in hemoglobin's structure that is critical to its ability to perform.

Rhodophyte have red color as an adaptation to:

High transmission of blue-light in deep saltwater

23.How are plants adapted to very wet (submerged or on the water surface), mesic (medium moisture) or xeric (dry) environments?

Hydrophyte- Stomata on top for gas exchange above the water, big air spaces to float. Mesophyte- Palisade layer full of chloroplasts to absorb light for photosynthesis and spongy layer on the bottom for gas exchange (single-layer epidermis and wax protects from water loss due to evaporation). Xerophyte- Thick epidermis and cuticle to prevent extreme water loss and retain water, stomatal crypts to facilitate gas exchange without losing an excess of water, hairs to protect from the heat.

Which of the following applies to the principle of parsimony

Hypothesis that requires the fewest assumptions

Interpret the graph showing the overshoot by a population of its carrying capacity.

If the human population were to far overshoot its carrying capacity, many people would die, and the capacity of the Earth to support people would be decreased.

From the Guardian article "What is biodiversity and why does it matter to us?" How does biodiversity benefit us? What is causing the loss of biodiversity, how serious a threat is this loss, and what can we do about it?

In a nutshell, without biodiversity there wouldn't be life on Earth. The air we breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink and use for basically everything, is all thanks to biodiversity. We further benefit from it by harvesting medicine from plants, such as aspirin. Anthropogenic activity is the main cause of the loss of biodiversity. A few examples are: overfishing - we are fishing for fish faster than they can reproduce, deforestation - destroys habitats that animals live in, forcing them to migrate elsewhere for their safety or unfortunately die due to starvation, bounty hunting - reducing populations of animals by killing them for trophies (this happened in Yellowstone where wolves were listed as endangered in the 1900s, which had a direct correlation to the decline of Aspen trees in Yellowstone). To sum, if biodiversity is threatened, humanity is threatened. On a macro level, we should be demanding promising legislation that protects wildlife areas, wildlife populations, and ecosystems. The root of the needs to be tackled, i.e corporations and politicians need to be held accountable. On a micro level, we can grow our own food, plant local flowers, fruits and vegetables to attract pollinators, support local farms, and be as environmentally friendly as possible on every level that is feasible.

How are some plants adapted as mangroves, epiphytes, carnivores, or parasites? Identify from descriptions or illustrations.

In order for a plant to be a mangrove, it must be able to survive in waterlogged and anoxic (no oxygen) soil, and tolerate brackish waters. Epiphytes must be able to attach to vertical surfaces and gather their nutrients and water from places other than soil. Epiphytes are NOT parasites. For a plant to be a carnivore, it must have a way to capture and decompose animals and bugs, and then absorb their nutrients. Parasitic plants must have adapted in a way that allows them to find a host plant, then be able to leech off the nutrients and water that the host plant receives.

What is the advantage to plants or animals of an external or internal branching architecture?

Increases the surface area for efficient intake of gases and distribution and diffusion of materials during certain mechanical processes.

what is inhibitory graded potential?

Inhibitory potential- if they decrease the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring

Use the labeled diagram of "Photosynthesis: the big picture" to identify inputs, outputs, and main processes.

Inputs: Sunlight, water and carbon dioxide Outputs: Glucose or Starch and Oxygen

Interpret Fick's law, given the equation and the variables. Identify in examples.

Involves the amount of particles that move over a period of time. V=[(P1-P2)*A*D] / T V= Rate of particles moving (the amount in moles or the volume) (P1-P2)= Change in pressure (initial minus final) A= surface area D= diffusion constant T=Thickness of membrane

Why is iodide added to salt, and vitamin D added to milk? Under what circumstances might you not get enough of each of these nutrients?

Iodized salt is a form of table salt that has had iodine added to it to prevent a disease called goiter. Goiter is characterized by the swelling of the thyroid gland due to iodine deficiency. Iodine is a nutrient that usually occurs naturally in vegetables, which absorb it through the soil in which they grow. But a diet consisting of food grown in soil that lacks iodine can cause an iodine deficiency, leading to goiter.

Why is the anterior pituitary called the "master gland"?

It controls the functions of many other endocrine glands.

What is radial cleavage?

It is a type of embryonic development in deuterostomes in which the planes of cell division that transform the zygotes into a ball of cells that are parallel or perpendicular to the vertical axis of the embryo.

Contrast relatively how long it takes for gymnosperms vs. angiosperms to have sex.

It is faster for the gymnosperm because it is "indoors"

How do LDL and HDL differ in normal functioning, and what are their roles in cardiovascular disease? How might sugar contribute? Interpret diagrams and results of studies (graphs).

LDL, or low-density lipoproteins, transport cholesterol to cells in your body, which can lead to cholesterol buildup in your arteries. Since HDL particles transport cholesterol away from your heart and other organs and deliver it to your liver, where it is passed from your body, it can help your health. Sugar-rich diets cause the liver to produce more LDL cholesterol. A high-sugar diet reduces HDL cholesterol levels.

What are the hypotheses for the diversity of tetrapod? How is each feature an adaptation to life on land?

Land first: "shrinking waterhole hypothesis" Limbs first: "woodland hypothesis" Obtained lungs and limbs first and then obtained tough skin, internal fertilization, amniotic egg.

Which of the following applies to bryophytes

Large size gametophyte

Which of the following applies to Gymnosperms

Large-size sporophyte

What are the advantages of having larva and adult stages in an animal life cycle?

Larva can disperse (marine life), eat different foods, and specialize for feeding vs. reproduction.

Roughly how long ago (to the nearest ½ billion years) ...did life originate? ...did eukaryotic cells originate? ...did animals and plants originate?

Life- 3.5 billion years ago. Eukaryotic cells- 1.5 billion years ago. Animals and plants- 500 million years ago.

How is the length of the loop of Henle related to the environment that a mammal lives in?

Loop of Henle, a long U-shaped portion of the tubule that conducts urine within each nephron of the kidney of reptiles, birds, and mammals. The principal function of the loop of Henle is in the recovery of water and sodium chloride from urine. This function allows production of urine that is far more concentrated than blood, limiting the amount of water needed as intake for survival. Many species that live in arid environments such as deserts have highly efficient loops of Henle. Kidneys of desert animals have longer loops of Henle to make the animals' urine as concentrated as possible and limit the amount of water and salt they lose. This helps desert animals live for long periods of time on minimal amounts of water.

In which of these stages the bacteriophages kill bacteria

Lytic stage

How are macroalgae, planktonic algae, and the termite parabasal important to ecosystems?

Macroalgae like kelp are helpful to ecosystems because they make oxygen, planktonic algae also produce oxygen, but they are also a major source of food for marine organisms.

What are the major trends in land plant evolution regarding plant size, morphological complexity, life cycle (size and ecological importance of gametophyte vs. sporophyte), and dependence on water?

Major trends in plant evolution are taller pants, more complex growth, sporophyte dominant/ gametophyte reduced, less dependent on water.

Which of the following applies to Apical complex

Malaria

Which of the following applies to CAM

Malic acid

What are the ecological roles of Monilophytes (ferns)

Monilophytes or ferns provide a source of food and medicine for animals and people.

Archosaurs form a ______ group

Monophyletic

The female gametophyte of gymnosperms has _____ cells than the females gametophyte of angiosperms

More

What is a known, non-coercive solution to limit human population growth?

More education available to women. Big correlation between educated women and lower birth rates in largely rural areas/third world countries.

During the malaria cycle, gametes are produced inside:

Mosquito cells

Identify lack of symmetry, radial symmetry, or bilateral symmetry in an animal.

Most have body symmetry. Radial symmetry has matching pieces when cut in all directions. Bilateral symmetry is when an animal is cut and there are only two matching halves. Bilateral: Anterior- posterior and Dorsal- Ventral. Lack of symmetry is when pieces have no symmetry at all.

What is multicellularity? Are there multicellular bacteria?

Multicellular organisms are composed of more than one cell, with groups of cells differentiating to take on specialized function. Cells must be of a single species, have a division of labor, and some cells give up reproduction. Yes, there are multicellular bacteria.

How does each partner in a mycorrhiza ("fungus-root") benefit?

Mycorrhiza is a mutualism relationship with the root of a plant. The fungus brings in nutrients (phosphorus is the main one) for the root to absorb, the root then gives the fungi extra sugar (glucose) for the fungi in return. This is super advantageous and plants with this relationship are super successful!

What is connected by the mycorrhizal network, and what are its hypothesized benefits?

Mycorrhizal networks are fungal (hyphal) connections underground found between plants. It's thought that they communicate with each other about nutrients, water, conditions and if needed they transport via the hyphal networks water, nutrients, carbon etc.

What are neurons and glia, and their function?

Neurons conduct impulses while glia do not conduct impulses but support the neurons.

Are embryos of plants homologous with embryos of animals?

No they are homoplasious because they resulted from convergent evolution.

Did humans come from (evolve from) monkeys?

No we had evolved differently but we do share a common ancestor. humans are equally as evolved as monkeys.

Are protists monophyletic?

No, they are paraphyletic. It contains organisms which are more closely related to members of other kingdoms

Have we reached the threshold for the 6th mass extinction of biodiversity? Do the trends suggest we will cause it, if we continue our current way of life?

Not just yet but we bring that threshold closer with the actions and inactions of our species everyday, we have been able to keep the threshold back. Trends do suggest we will cause the 6th mass extinction of biodiversity if we do not change our current way of life.

What are the functions of the notochord of chordates?

Notochord: -Flexible, muscle attachment, collagen, function: movement, may be replaced by bone (derived), shape for structure, becomes back bone in derived clades Notochord induced neural tube (spinal cord) The role of the notochord in the embryonic development of the nerve cord is that it induces the neural tube to form right next to it.

Which of the following applies to vertebrates?

Originated in aquatic environments

Prokaryotes form a _________ group:

Paraphyletic

interpret a parasite life cycle, such as that of the pork tapeworm. How many hosts are there in such a life cycle, and why is that an advantage? Which tapeworm stage is more dangerous for us to ingest: the encysted larva in undercooked pork, or the egg on unwashed vegetables?

Parasite eggs or in this case the eggs of the pork tapeworm are usually found in feces that is then ingested by pigs or end up on vegetables that may be grown in the vicinity of said feces. Pigs will then eat the feces which in turn means ingesting the parasite. The tapeworm then develops within the pig and move to the muscle tissue, to be ingested by humans. When its larval stage is ingested by a human, it generally develops in their intestines and releases eggs into the feces. However, humans are capable of autoinfection either through unwashed vegetables or uncooked pork. In this situation, the entire life cycle of the Pork Tapeworm is contained within the human. Instead of the larval stage of the tapeworm migrating from a pig's intestines to its muscle tissue, the (encysted)larva migrate from the human intestines to other parts of the body; most commonly the brain. These cyst in the brain lead to cysticercosis which can cause seizures which makes cyst more dangerous to eat.

What environmental conditions favor photorespiration over photosynthesis?

Photorespiration generally occurs on hot, dry, sunny days causing plants to close their stomata and the oxygen (O2) concentration in the leaf to be higher than the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration.

Why doesn't photosynthesis violate the law of entropy?

Photosynthesis creates entropy so it doesn't violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Photosynthesis creates small spatial regions with low entropy density

What is the action spectrum of photosynthesis, and why is it different from the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll?

Photosynthetic action spectrum absorbs mores of the light wavelength because of accessory pigments. These pigments absorb much of the light spectrum.

How are photosynthetic protists important to ocean ecosystems?

Photosynthetic protists serve as producers of nutrition for other organisms. Protists like zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship with coral reefs; the protists act as a food source for coral and the coral provides shelter and compounds for photosynthesis for the protists.

Describe the modular growth of vascular plant shoots. Contrast to the growth of animals.

Plants grow in modules at a time (like sections). Animals grow in quarterly enlargement.

How does the male gametophyte get to, and have sex with, the female gametophyte?

Pollen from pollinators attaches onto the stigma, and it travels down the pollen tube to get to the ovary.

Use the graph of the sizes of biological structures to compare them.

Prokaryotes are roughly 10x larger than viruses, according to the chart.

Which of the following terms applies to Specialized Transduction

Prophage

Which of the following applies to the Coronavirus

RNA

Which of the following applies to Rhodophyta

Red algae

Why are reef-building corals ecologically important?

Reef-building corals (Ecosystem Engineers) protect coastlines from storms and erosion, they create and maintain the structure of sea life, as well.

Explain or identify homeostasis regulation by negative feedback.

Regulation of a signaling process involves not only its initiation but also its termination. Negative feedback is a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change. A control circuit or loop that decreases, or "damps," the stimulus is known as negative feedback or feedback inhibition. In the case of insulin, for example, the hormone's secretion causes a drop in blood glucose levels, which reduces the need for more insulin.

What in the resting potential of the inside of a neurons membrane is...

Resting potential- the electrical potential of a neuron or other excitable cell relative to its surroundings when not stimulated or involved in passage of an impulse

What are the 4 whorls of flower structure, in a eudicot? What are their functions?

Sepal- help protect the unopened bud, petal-bright colors to attract pollinators, stamen- holds pollen, carpel-female reproductive organs

What are the derived features of eukaryotes that we discussed in class?

Sex, has cytoskeleton & flagella, mitochondria

In general terms, how do short term and long term memories form in the brain?

Short term memory can be referred to as working memory, and is formed when the brain gathers information through visual and auditory cues and are received by neurons, and this information gets sent to the frontal lobe. This information is not held onto for a long time, and the neurons eventually reset to how they were before the stimulus. Long term memories are developed initially like short term memories, but remain as long term memories through means of repetition and activity from the hippocampus as it gets the info, which changes the brain's neural wiring in order to accommodate for this new information.

In big picture overview, how is blood pressure regulated, short and long term?

Short term: Regulation of blood vessel diameter, heart rate and contractility (self contraction). Long term: Regulation of blood volume

What are the warning signs of a heart attack?

Shortness of breath, chest pain, discomfort or tingling in arms, back,or jaw. Sudden dizziness, heartburn like feeling, cold sweats, tiredness, doom, nausea/vomiting

What do the error bars on a bar graph signify?

Signify variability of data; indicate uncertainty of measurement.

What is the difference between a spore and a seed?

Spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain a developing embryo produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete formed by the megagametophyte within the ovule. Spores germinate to produce haploid gametophytes, while seeds germinate to produce diploid sporophytes

What is the difference between a spore and a pollen grain? Between a spore and a seed? What are the advantages of dispersal by seeds vs. dispersal by spores?

Spores grow into gametophytes, which are intermediate plants. Flowering plants use pollen to fertilize their seeds. Fertilized seeds, not intermediate gametophytes, grow into adult plants. Seeds contain a developing embryo developed by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete created by the megagametophyte within the ovule.

What are the functions of stems, roots, and leaves? What makes them organs?

Stems transport the water and nutrients from the roots of the plants to the leaves. The roots extract the water and nutrients from the soil and also anchor and support the plant. The leaves capture sunlight and do photosynthesis. They are all organs because they are composed of more than one type of cell and they perform various functions as opposed to tissues that only perform one specific function.

What are the advantages of having synapses?

Synapses allow for a quick and coordinated response of muscles and receptors. Since it takes longer for a signal to be transmitted, it allows for a pause and re-evaluation of the decision. The advantage of having synapses is that the neuronal signal can be modified (enhanced or inhibited) and it can be extinguished if the signal is too weak.

Why is a tapeworm not segmented?

Tapeworms have proglottids, which are repeated egg sacs, but not segments

What is the advantage of there being multiple subunits in the hemoglobin molecule?

The 4 subunits are 2- α and 2- β to make a single hemoglobin molecule. The advantage of being multiple subunits is so there can be more O2 binding. since there are 4 subunits 4 there can be a total of 4 O2 molecules.

What were the advantages to plants of evolving greater height?

The advantage of plants with greater height is that they have better access to sunlight and can attract pollinators better and promote outcrossing he great height also allows plants to be outreach from soil predators. The polymer lignin strengthens the xylem and phloem giving more support for allowing the plants to grow taller.

What does P ≤ 0.05 mean?

The alternative hypothesis was accepted and the null hypothesis was rejected.

How might activity level and metabolic rate influence whether an open or closed circulatory system evolved?

The circulatory system of insects differs from that of vertebrates and many other invertebrates in being "open". In insects, "blood" is confined to vessels during only a portion of its circuit through the body. The remainder of its journey takes place within the body cavity (called the hemocoel). For this reason, insect "blood" is called hemolymph. In the grasshopper, the closed portion of the system consists of tubular hearts and an aorta running along the dorsal side of the insect. The hearts pump hemolymph into the sinuses of the hemocoel where exchanges of materials take place.

What two major structural innovations allowed plants to greatly increase their height?

The evolution of true roots and of the vascular system also allowed for plants to grow taller

What are the 5 key derived features of land plants? What was the advantage of each innovation in adaptation to land?

The five derived features of land plants are apical meristems, alternation of generations, multicellular embryo that is dependent on the parent plant, sporangia that produces walled spores and gametangia that produce gametes.

What are the hypotheses we discussed for the diversity of ray-finned fishes? How did each adaptation open up new ecological opportunities for these fishes?

The hypothesis is that they have complex jaws and are the right size. They have adaptations to land such as lungs and limbs. These adaptations helped them eat and avoid predators.

How does the length and complexity of an animal's gut relate to its diet? Compare from descriptions or diagrams

The longer the length of the gut the harder it is to digest the food. They need specialized organs to help them digest food. E.g. Tree leaves are hard to digest.

Where do the male and female gametophytes of an angiosperm develop?

The male gametophyte (pollen) develops in the stamen. The female gametophytes develop in the carpels.

How do endocrine and nervous systems compare to other mechanisms of chemical signaling?

The nervous system sends signals via neurons using electrical signals or impulses, while the endocrine system uses hormones as chemical messengers to transmit signals to the target cell through the bloodstream. Hormones control the function of body cells, so the endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis. A trigger regulates the release of hormones into the bloodstream. The amount of hormone secreted, for example, is either increased or decreased as a result of the stimulation.

What is the basic structure of a neuron? How does structure inform function?

The neuron is made up of dendrites, cell body, axon, and synapses. Neurons send signals using action potentials.

From the Vice videos "Post-antibiotic world / Indonesia's palm bomb," why do we need to preserve these forests? How do palm oil plantations affect local people and biodiversity?

The palm trees produce a substance to combat a fatal super-bug that works better than most antibiotics. Palm oil plantations are ruining the forests where people live since they depend on the rainforest for all of their life processes and survival. Decreases biodiversity and habitats for animals and indigenous communities.

How do the endocrine and nervous systems contribute to homeostasis?

The reaction to a stimulus then alters internal conditions and can become a new stimulus in and of itself. By monitoring and regulating the rest of the body, the nervous system maintains homeostasis. A deviation from a standard set point stimulates a receptor, which sends nerve impulses to a brain controlling center.

Given the graphs, interpret biosphere O2 and CO2 levels and their association with biodiversity events.

The rise of O2 levels and the drop of CO2 levels can be associated with the evolution of plants and trees as time moves on.

What are the ecological roles of Bryophytes?

The role of Bryophytes is to initiate soil formation on barren terrain, recycling soil moisture, and in recycling nutrients in forest vegetation.

What is the Na+/K+ pump? Does it require energy to function?

The sodium/ potassium pump is a protein pump in the cell membrane of neurons. It transports sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane. 3 sodium ions OUT/ 2 potassium ions IN. The hydrolysis of ATP provides the necessary energy since its active transport against the gradient.

What is ecdysis (aka molting)?

The stippling of the old cuticle layer to make way for a new cuticle

How does a leaf regulate its water loss and gas exchange? How is this a trade-off?

The stomata on the underside of the leaf can open and close. An open stomata allows for gas exchange, but also water loss. A closed stomata conserves the water, but does not allow for gas exchange.

How are stimuli of different strength or duration communicated by a neuron?

The stronger the stimuli, the neuron will fire more frequently but it does not change the strength of the action potential. Action potentials are an "All or nothing" process, which means that the action potential much surpass the threshold in order to fire. When there's a longer duration of the stimuli, the action potential will fire in specific intervals at a time.

Is the structure that nourishes the embryo its mother or its sibling, in each seed?

The structure that nourishes the embryo is the sibling.

What has the new (2016) phylogeny told us about bacterial and archaeal diversity (do we know most of it?) and phylogeny (might one of the domains be non-monophyletic?)

There are lots of bacteria and archaeal diversity that we have not discovered.

What are the two main functions of the lymph system?

There are two major functions of the lymphatic system. The first is to drain interstitial fluid and maintain the fluid balance between blood and tissue fluid. The second is to fight infection and mediate immunity.

From the Vice video "Countdown to extinction," what are the industrial and local practices that are endangering fisheries?

These dangerous fishing practices are hurting the fish population immensely at a time where the human population is skyrocketing. This means that if there is not a change in fishing practices soon, there will be a big starvation crisis. On any given day, a boat can have around 400 hooks in the water a day with about 3000 hooks on each which counts massive amounts of fish. Since shark fins are sought after and expensive they are the ones to be fished out first and are like an indicator species.

How are symbiotic parabasal in termites, some dinoflagellates, and Plasmodium harmful to humans?

These parabasal may be symbiotic in termites, dinoflagellates, and Plasmodium, but they are parasitic to humans. These parasites can live in the intestines and digestive tracts in humans and feed off the food that humans digest, lessening their nutritional intake from the food they ate.

How do mycelial fungi grow and feed?

They are heterotrophs, meaning they eat other organisms. Absorptive nutrition- absorbing small molecules from their environment. It secretes enzymes which break down the food and then they digest the food. A lot of fungi are decomposers and some are parasitic.

How are lichens useful to conservationists?

They are super helpful for absorbing pollutants (are bioindicators), providing nitrogen, they can be medicinal, food for animals, protection for animals

How do fungi and feed disperse?

They disperse through haploid spores, thick durable cells which don't grow into fungi until conditions are favorable. They are spread by wind.

Why is conserving tropical forests, such as rainforests and mangroves, especially crucial?

They help stabilize climate, they also serve as a home for many plants and animals and lastly, they prevent erosion.

What do muscle cells require to contract? Include the neuromuscular junction as well as the sarcomere.

They need a nerve cell to send a signal and "tell" the muscle to contract through a stimulus.

How do reef-building corals obtain most of their food?

They obtain most of their food by using their tiny tentacles that allow them to capture their food and direct it to their mouths.

Which of the following applies to Photoelectric effect

Thylakoid membrane

Virus can be involved in one of these mechanisms of the life cycle of bacteria

Transduction

Which of the following applies to Phage

Transduction

What are the 3 mechanisms of genetic recombination in bacteria ?

Transformation-free DNA Transduction- by virus Conjugation- plasmid transfer

True or false: During the malaria cycle cysts are produced inside the mosquito and these cysts release diploid cells inside the salivary glands of the mosquito

True

What are the two main morphologies of fungi? How are they different?

Unicellular (Yeast) and multicellular (hyphae). Yeast reproduce asexually by budding/fission- hyphae reproduce both sexually and asexually.

What are the lifestyle "lifesavers" for cardiovascular health?

Unsaturated fats non-vegetable/non- industrial oils best? e.g. olive, nut, avocado* - -Much less sugar - -Less processed food - -Fruits & vegetables - -Moderate exercise - -Lower stress - -Laughter - Go outside

During HIV infection

Viral RNA is used as a template to produce new DNA molecules that are inserted inside the nuclear DNA of the cell host.

How is water transported upwards in a tree, at no energy cost? Explain the roles of water potential, diffusion, adhesion, cohesion, and evaporation of water.

Water potential means that water has potential energy- which is used to diffuse from high to low water concentrations (gradient). Adhesion is the ability to stick to non-water molecules, cohesion is water sticking to water. This allows water to "climb" up the root and stem of the plant.

What is an ocelloid, and why is it remarkable?

Weirdest protist. It is a dinoflagellate. It has an image forming eye and nematocysts (stinging).

What can cause our gut microbiota to vary or change?

What foods we consume

What is the Layering Hypothesis for immune system evolution ?

With increased complexity, there is also an increase in vulnerabilities towards invaders

How does wood form? How can it tell us the age and history of a tree? Interpret an illustration or description of a woody stem cross-section.

Wood is formed when the cells of the vascular cambium divide and form secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside. The thickening of the stem that occurs in secondary growth is due to the formation of secondary xylem and phloem. The age of a tree can be shown by the tree rings within the bark of a cut down tree, the more rings it has the older the tree is.

How can immunotherapy help our immune system to fight cancer?

Works by stimulating the immune system to help the healthy cells identify and fight the cancer cells.

Can pathogens evolve counter-defenses to the immune system? Use the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus as an example.

Yes pathogens can evolve counter defenses to a certain extent. They cannot develop their own version of an immune system but rather have techniques in order to evade or hide from host immune systems to not be tagged or destroyed. SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus uses spike proteins to invade a cell which is only vulnerable against neutralizing antibodies, and once the spike protein latches, the whole virus fuses with the healthy cell hiding it from any neutralizing antibodies.

Given a graph of radioactive decay, date a fossil based on the percent of the radioisotope remaining.

Zircon crystals can contain uranium from the beginning of the planet, so as the uranium breaks down into lead the crystal can be dated, amount of radioactivity.

3.Why does a controlled experiment allow the most confidence in a conclusion?

a controlled experiment assures that one group will get the independent variable, and assures that there were the same conditions between the control and experimental group. All factors should be kept constant except for the independent variable. Controlled factors signify that no other factors influenced the dependent variable besides the independent variable.

Presence of hair in mammals is an example of _________ in the cladogram of vertebrates

a derived trait

What are zygotes?

a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.

What are the advantages of a gut (even an incomplete one), a complete gut, and a complete processing gut?

a. Advantages of a gut: effective digestion Advantages of incomplete gut: able to eat larger amounts of food.

What are the distinguishing main features of Annelids ?

a. Annelids: unique segmentation with septa, setae (lost in leeches) hydroskeleton, complete gut

What are the distinguishing main features of arthropods ?

a. Arthropods: Hard cuticle, paired-jointed appendages, compounded eyes, segmentation, stigmatization, complete gut, reduced coelom- open circulation.

a. What are the distinguishing main features of Chordates ?

a. Chordates: Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, & post and anal tail, closed circulatory system.

What is convergent evolution? What are some examples?

a. Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last common ancestor of those groups. b. Examples: Mouse, Cat, & Wolf

What synapomorphies distinguish Bilateria; then Protostomes and Deuterostomes within Bilateria; and then Spiralia and Ecdysozoa within Protostomes? Interpret phylogenetic trees.

a. Deuterostomes: radial cleavage b. Spiralia: spiral cleavage c. Ecdysozoa: Idiosyncratic cleavage

What are the distinguishing main features of Echinoderms?

a. Echinoderms: all marine environment, pentaradial symmetry (adult) & bilateral (larva), endoskeleton, water vascular system, no head or brain.

What are the main feeding and defense (from predators) strategies in animals? Identify in illustrations or descriptions.

a. FEEDING: Predation, Filter feeders, Sediment/ Detritus Feeding, Symbiotrophy, Parasitism b. DEFENSE: being large in size, camouflage, hard shell, toxins, bad taste, hidden

When might a gut not be needed?

a. Gut might not be needed if the food is already processed or is small enough to digest.

What are the distinguishing main features of mollusks ?

a. Mollusks: Mantle, Muscular Foot, Radula, reduced coelom

What are the main features of animals?

a. Multicellularity with patterning -using Hox Or Hox- like genes b. Embryo with blastula c. Body symmetry (most) d. Collagen in extracellular matrix e. Diploid‐dominant life cycle with larva

What are the distinguishing main features of nematodes?

a. Nematodes: Partially developed coelom, simple musculature movement

40.What are the distinguishing main features of Platyhelminthes ?

a. Platyhelminthes: 3 tissue layers, No coelom, Incomplete Gut, Little/ No cephalization.

What are the 3 main types of neurons, and what are their functions?

a. Sensory neurons:Sensory neurons are the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment i. Example- when you touch a hot surface with your fingertips, the sensory neurons will be the ones firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system. b. Interneuron: responsible for connecting the input from sensory neurons and the output for motor neurons. i. The connections between interneurons in the brain are responsible for things like thoughts, emotions, and memory. c. Motor neurons: responsible for carrying a signal from the central nervous system (CNS) to an effector cell, which then carries out the desired response. i. Example- if you were driving, the motor neurons would take the message from your central nervous system to your hand telling you to turn the key.

What is a blastula?

an animal embryo at the early stage of development when it is a hollow ball of cells.

What is a parasite?

an organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at the host's expense.

How do most bacteria reproduce?

asexually by binary fission

What is a gastrula?

blastula transforms into a 2-layered cup shape as cell division continues

When do plants use cellular respiration?

cellular respiration at all times of the day

Lack of tails in frogs provides evidence of ________ in the cladogram of vertebrates

convergent evolution trail

What is spiral cleavage ?

daughter cells are located at an angle instead of on top of each other, found in Protostomes.

What is an action potential?

electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters

What are the warning signs of a stroke?

face drooping, arm weakness, speech difficulty, or stuck out sideways tongue

What are cnidarians?

jellyfish , invertebrates that have stinging cells and take food into a central body cavity

What are leaf endophytes, and what are their benefits to plants?

leaf endophytes= beneficial bacteria that live inside plants MUTUALISM, they help the plant with nutrients and protect plants from being eaten

Science

organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world

What are porifera? Why are they called form taxon?

sponges; grouped based on superficial similarity

What is homeostasis?

the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world

What are the functions of seeds ?

the seeds start up new plants to increase the population. seed- protection, dispersal, dormancy, and nutrition (endosperm)

What is a life cycle?

the series of changes in the life of an organism, including reproduction.

Which of the following applies to the Cambrian explosion?

~500 million years ago

What are the hypotheses for how climate change will affect plant growth? Interpret results such as the "Metabolism of tomato plants vs. temperature."

● Nutrient limitation on photosynthesis ● Plants grow more, but incorporate less nutrients ● Insects grow faster, and are hungrier ● Less nutritious food & more crop losses