Chapter 1 Anatomy and Physiology

What are the 6 levels of organization that the body can be studied at?

1. Chemical Level 2. Cell level 3. Tissue level 4. Organ level 5. Organ system 6. Organism level

List the steps for Negative-Feedback Mechanism: Body Temperature.

1. Receptors monitor the value of a variable, in this case, receptors in the skin monitor body temperature. 2. Information about the value of the variable is sent to a control center. The control center compares the value of the variable against the set point. 3. If a response is necessary, the control center causes an effector to respond. Here, it is the sweat glands. The effector produces a response. 4. Once the value of the variable has returned to the set point, the control center shuts off its control of the effector. For body temperature, sweating stops.

What are the three components of negative feedback?

1. receptor 2. control center 3. effector

What are the nine regions of the abdomen?

(1) epigastric (2) right and left hypochondriac (3) umbilical (4) right and left lumbar (5) hypogastric (6) right and left iliac

What is a stimulus?

A changed variable is a stimulus because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism.

Longitudinal section

A cut through the length of the organ

In what three ways can you cut an organ?

A cut through the length of the organ is a longitudinal section. A cut at a right angle to the length of an organ is a transverse (cross section). If a cut is made across the length of an organ at other than a right angle, it is called an oblique section.

Nervous System

A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.

Endocrine System

A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions. Consists of glands such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones.

What is a serous membrane and its function? Differentiate between the parietal and visceral portions of a serous membrane.

A serous membrane covers an organ causing less frictions between its surroundings when organs move. The visceral serous membrane covers the organ, while the parietal serous membrane covers the cavity which holds serous fluid. Visceral, cavity, parietal.

Superior

A structure above

Inferior

A structure below another

Tibialis anterior m.

Action: Dorsiflexion of foot Inversion of foot Origin: Tibia (anterior lateral shaft) Interosseous membrane Insertion: Metatarsal I Medial cuneiform Innervation: Deep fibular nerve

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body

Deep

Away from the surface, internal.

Retroperitoneal

Behind the peritoneum

What are the parts of the nervous system?

Brain Spinal cord Nerve Cauda equina

What two directional terms indicate "toward the head" in humans? What are the opposite terms?

Cephalic and superior. Caudal and inferior.

What is blue baby syndrome?

Certain blood vessels arising from an infant's heart are not attached in their correct locations; blood is not effectively pumped to the lungs, and so the tissues do not receive adequate oxygen.

What two directional terms indicate "the back" in humans? What are the opposite terms?

Dorsal and Posterior Anterior and Ventral

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure

What happened to Molly's heart rate just before she fainted? Why did Molly faint?

Her heart rate dropped. Because her heart has less blood to pump causing her to faint in order for hher to help blood flow to her heart.

What is Homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body.

Define homeostasis and explain why it is important for proper body function.

Homeostasis is the state of equilibrium in the body with respect to functions and composition of fluids and tissues. Homeostasis is important to body function because when processes in the body sway from their normal range of values disease or death could result.

What are the parts of the urinary system?

Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Urethra

Brain

Location: -Cranial cavity Description: -Major organ of central nervous system (CNS) -Composed of neurons and glia Comment: -Considered the seat of consciousness, intelligence, learning, emotion, and memory

Central nervous system (CNS)

Location: -Cranial cavity (brain) -Vertebral canal (spinal cord) Description: -Division of nervous system -Includes brain and spinal cord Function: -Integrates and processes nervous information -Brain considered the seat of consciousness, intelligence, learning, emotion, and memory -Control center (i.e.,hypothalamus) for endocrine system -Spinal cord provides a pathway for sensory and motor impulses, and mediates some reflexes

Endocrine System

Location: -Head -Neck -Thorax -Abdomen -Pelvis -Scrotum Organs and tissues: -Head: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland -Neck: thyroid and parathyroid glands -Thorax: thymus and heart -Abdomen: pancreas, supernal glands, gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and kidneys -Pelvis: ovaries -Scrotum: testes Description: -Collection of organs (glands) and cells that secrete hormones -Endocrine glands are ductless Function: -Regulate body functions -Secrete hormones into bloodstream

Digestive System

Location: -Head -Neck -Thorax -Abdomen -Pelvis Organs and tissues: -Oral cavity -Pharynx -Esophagus -Stomach -Small intestine -Large intestine -Teeth -Tongue -Salivary glands -Liver -Gallbladder -Pancreas Description: -Muscular tube lined by epithelium -Gastrointestinal (GI) tract: oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus. -Accessory digestive organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), liver, gallbladder, and pancreas Function: -Ingestion -Digestion -Propulsion -Secretion -Absorbtion -Elimination of wastes Comment -GI tract also known as alimentary tract The colon is part of large intestine from the cecum to the sigmoid colon.

Respiratory System

Location: -Head -Neck -Thorax Organs and tissues: -Noses -Paranasal sinuses -Pharynx -Larynx -Trachea -Bronchi -Lungs Description -Upper respiratory tract: nose (external nose and nasal cavity), paranasal sinuses, and pharynx -Lower respiratory tract: larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Function: Air passes through nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Air is cleaned, warmed, and humidified -Phonation -Lungs are primary organs of respiration (gas exchange) -Acid-base balance

Appendicular skeleton

Location: -Limbs -Shoulder -Pelvis Description -Upper limb includes humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges of fingers -Pectoral girdle includes scapula and clavicle -Lower limb includes hip bone, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges of toes -Pelvic girdle includes hip bones and sacrum Comment -Pelvic girdle sometimes considered to include hip bones only (i.e., sacrum not included) -Hip bones also known as os coxae

Brachial plexus

Location: -Neck -Axilla -Shoulder -Upper limb Contributions: -Ventral rami of C5-T1 spinal nerves Composition: -Motor -General sensation Motor: -Nerves derived from brachial plexus distribute to muscles of upper limb General sensation: -Nerves derived from brachial plexus distribute to skin of upper limb Comment: -Divided into roots (C5-T1), trunks (upper, middle, lower), divisions (anterior, posterior), and cords (medial, lateral, posterior) -5 terminal branches (musculocutaneous, median, ulnar, radial, and axillary nerves) -11 other branches -A plexus is a network of nerves, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

Female Reproductive System

Location: -Pelvis -Perineum -Anterior thoracic wall Organs and tissues: -Oocytes -Ovaries -Uterine (Fallopian) tubes -Uterus -Vagina -External genitalia -Mammary glands Description -Gonads (ovaries) -Accessory glands (greater vestibular glands) -Uterus -External genitalia (mons pubis, labia major and minor, vestibule (between labia minor), bulb of vestibule, greater vestibular glands, vaginal and external urethral orifices, hymen, and clitoris) -Mammary glands (in breast on anterior thoracic wall) Function: -Produces oocytes (gametes or female sex cells) -Produces estrogen and progesterone, and inhibin (female sex hormones) -Receives sperm from male -Site of fertilization of oocyte -Site of growth of embryo and fetus -Lactation Comment: Perineum in female is area between thighs that includes anus, external urethral and vaginal orifices, clitoris, labia minor and major, and perineal muscles -Perineum in male is area between thighs that includes anus, distal urethra, penis, scrotum, and perineal muscles.

Cerebrum

Location: -Rostral portion of brain Description: -Includes two large cerebral hemispheres separated by longitudinal fissure -Hemispheres connected by corpus callosum -Surface gray matter of each hemisphere is known as cerebral cortex -Within each hemisphere there is a core of white matter -Additional masses of gray matter located within cerebrum include basal nuclei Comment: -Rostral = toward the nose (Latin: rostrum = beak)

Epididymis

Location: -Scrotum Description: -Convoluted muscular tube along posterolateral surface of testis -Between efferent ducts of testis and vas deferens -Divided into head, body, and tail Function: -Site for maturation and storage of sperm Comment: -Plural of epididymis is epiddymides -Sperm can be stored in epididymis for 5-6 weeks

Dermis

Location: -Skin (between epidermis and hypodermis Description: -Two layers: papillary (superficial), composed of areolar connective tissue; and reticular (deep), composed of dense irregular connective tissue -Contains appendages of skin: hair follicles and glands (sweat and sebaceous) -Contains sensory nerve endings and dense network of blood an lymphatic vessels -Includes part of hair follicle (which develops as invagination from epidermis) Function: -Support epidermis -Dense concentration of collagen and elastin gives skin strength -Receives general sensory stimuli (pain, touch, and temperature) via nerve endings and specialized receptors -Regulates body temperature Comment: -Muscles of facial expression insert on dermis

Lumbosacral plexus

Location: Abdominal wall (posterior) Pelvic wall (posterior) Contributions: Ventral rami of L1-S4 spinal nerves Branches: Iliohypogastric Ilioinguinal Lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh Femoral Genitofemoral Obturator Superior gluteal Inferior gluteal Pudendal Common fibular (part of sciatic) Tibial (part of sciatic) Posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh Muscular Comment: Innervates all muscles of pelvic floor, perineum, and lower limb Innervates skin on lower anterior abdominal wall, lower back, perineum, and lower limb A plexus is a network of blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

Sympathetic trunk

Location: Adjacent to vertebral bodies, from base of skull to coccyx Description: Nerve trunk comprised of axons connecting sympathetic (paravertebral) ganglia Sympathetic ganglia contain postganglionic nerve cell bodies Branches include gray and white rami communicans, and splanchnic nerves Also known as: Sympathetic chain Sympathetic chain ganglia Comment: Ganglia give trunk a "beaded" appearance

Lymph nodes

Location: Along pathways of lymphatic vessels throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) Description: Small, round or oval (usually bean-shaped) lymphatic organ (1-25 mm in length) Surrounded by connective tissue capsule Two regions: cortex (outer) that contains lymphoid nodules and medulla (inner) comprised of connective tissue cords lined by lymphatic cells Found in prominent clusters (e.g., in axillary, inguinal and cervical regions) Function: Production of new lymphocytes Filtration of antigens and other foreign matter from lymph Initiation of immune responses Comment: Can become enlarged when cancerous cells, white blood cells, or infectious agents become trapped Lymph nodes filter lymph, whereas the spleen filters blood

Thymus

Location: Anterior and superior mediastinum Thymus can extend into inferior neck Description: Large, bilobed gland in children Atrophies during adolescence Remnant in adults consists primarily of fibrous and adipose tissue Function: Secretes thymopoietin and thymosins that stimulate and promote differentiation, growth and maturation of T-lymphocytes Site for maturation and differentiation of T-lymphocytes (primarily in young individuals)

Hair root

Location: Hair follicle (deep portion) Between hair bulb and mature hair shaft Description: Portion of hair within follicle (i.e., deep to surface of skin) Function: Site for hair elongation

Skull

Location: Head Description: Paired and unpaired bones divided into cranial and facial groups Cranial group: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal (2), occipital, and temporal bones (2) Facial group: maxilla, mandible, vomer, nasal (2), lacrimal (2), and zygomatic bones (2)

Oral cavity

Location: Head Description: Two parts: oral vestibule and oral cavity proper Oral vestibule is space between lips and cheeks (superficial) and teeth and gingivae (deep) Oral cavity proper is space between maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) dental arches Floor is tongue; roof is hard palate Function: Mechanical digestion (mastication, i.e., chewing) Chemical digestion (initial stage of polysaccharide digestion) Taste (via the tongue) Ventilation (breathing) Phonation (speaking) Also known as: Buccal cavity or mouth

Upper respiratory tract

Location: Head Neck Description: External nose Nasal cavity Paranasal sinuses (paired frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses) Pharynx (naso-, oro-, and laryngopharynx) Function: Air passes through nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Air is cleaned, warmed, and humidified Phonation Comment: Oro- and laryngopharynx shared by respiratory and digestive systems

Skeleton of lower limb

Location: Hip Thigh Leg Foot Description: Includes hip bone, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges of toes

Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)

Location: Lamina propria of mucosa of gastrointestinal, respiratory, genital, and urinary tracts Description: Large collections of lymphatic nodules, collectvely called mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) MALT prominent in ileum of small intestine, where they are known as Peyer patches Function: Detect antigens and initiate immune response

Name and describe the three major ways to cut an organ.

Longitudinal which is the length of an organ Oblique section cut other than right angle Transverse which is horizontal through the organ.

Prone

Lying face downward

Know the terms for the parts and regions of the body.

Mental- chin Nuchal- Posterior neck Cervical- anterior neck Scapular- shoulder blade Crural- anterior leg Sural- posterior leg Perineal- between gluteal

What are metabolic pathways?

Metabolic pathways are chemical reactions driven by biological protein catalysts called enzymes.

What are the four basic types of tissues?

Muscle Connective Epithelial Nervous

What type of physiology is employed when studying the endocrine system?

Neurophysiology because some glands in the brain regulate and secrete hormones that produce growth, metabolism, and sexual development.

What are the parts of the respiratory system?

Nose Nasal cavity Pharynx (throat) Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs

Muscular system

Organs and tissues: -Muscle -Tendon Description -Three types of muscle tissue: skeletal (striated), cardiac, and smooth -Skeletal muscles divided into axial and appendicular -Cardiac muscle found in walls of heart -Smooth muscle found in walls of hollow organs (e.g., gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels); in iris and ciliary body of eye. Function: -Movement of body -Maintenance of posture -Communication (especially muscles of facial expression) -Body functions, including respiration, circulation, digestion, defecation, urination, childbirth -Temperature regulation Commet: -Skeletal muscle under voluntary control -Cardiac and smooth muscle under involuntary control

Why is the skin considered an organ? What characterizes the integumentary system as an organ system?

Organs are composed of two or more tissues with a common function so the skin functions to protect the body from harm and excretes sweat. The integumentary system is the set of organs that forms the external covering of the body and protects from many threats such as infection, desiccation, abrasion, chemical assault and radiation damage.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Organs emit energy, we give them glucose and as the glucose breaks down the organ emits positively charged subatomic particles called positrons. When the positrons collide with electrons the two particles annihilate each other and gamma rays are given off. The gamma rays can be detected, pinpointing the cells that are metabolically active.

Name the serous membrane-lined cavities of the trunk.

Parietal pericardium Visceral pericaridum Heart Parietal pleura Visceral pleura Lung Parietal peritoneum Visceral peritoneum Trunk region.

Describe the serous membranes, their locations, and their functions.

Parietal pericardium covers the pericardial cavity and the visceral pericardium Pericadrial cavity holds the pericardial fluid to prevent friction. Viscera pericardium covers the heart Parietal pleura covers the pleural cavity and the viscera pleura. The pleural cavity holds the pleural fluid to prevent friction The visceral pleura which covers the lungs The parietal peritoneum line the walls of the trunk The peritoneum cavity contain peritoneal fluid The visceral peritoneum covers the organs in the abdominal cavity.

Digestive System

Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients and elimination of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.

What are the parts of the digestive system?

Pharynx Oral cavity Salivary glands Esophagus Stomach pancreas Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Appendix Rectum Anus

What is the viscera?

Relating to the internal organs.

Parts of the muscular system

Temporalis Pectoralis major Biceps brachii Rectus abdominis Sartorius Qaudriceps femoris Gastrocnemius

What does the abdomen contain?

The abdomen contains organs such as the (1) the liver, (2) the stomach, and (3) the intestines.

How is the abdomen subdivided?

The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into quadrants by two imaginary lines--one horizontal and one vertical--that intersect at the navel

Peritoneal cavity

The abdominopelvic cavity contains a serous membrane-lined cavity.

Where does the arm extend from?

The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow.

What is the difference between the arm and the upper limb? Between the leg and the lower limb?

The arm is the brachial region while the upper limb contains the brachial, antecubital, ante brachial, carpal, palmar, digital. The leg is the bottom half of the lower limb, the lower limb consist of the coxal, the femoral, the patellar, the crural, the talus, the dorsum, and the digital.

Posterior

The back of the body

What two internal cavities does the body contain?

The body contains two types of internal cavities: (1) the dorsal cavity and (2) the ventral cavity.

What are the major organs of the body?

The body's major organs include the brain, lungs, heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, stomach, gallbladder, kidneys, large intestine, small intestine, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Pleural cavity

The cavity between visceral and parietal layers that contains serous fluid.

What does the central body consist of?

The central region the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk.

Development

The changes humans undergo as they grow older. The greatest developmental changes occur before birth, but many changes continue after birth, and some go on throughout life. Development usually involves growth, but it also involves differentiation and morphogenesis.

What structures separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity? The abdominal cavity from the pelvic cavity?

The diagphragm, and the pubic symphysis.

What does the dorsal body enclose?

The dorsal body encloses the organs of the nervous system, the brain and spinal cord.

What does the mediastinum contain?

The heart, thymus, the trachea, the esophagus, and other structures, such as blood vessels and nerves.

Visceral pericardium

The inside layer that touches the heart.

Visceral pleura

The inside layer that touches the lungs

What do the retroperitoneal organs consist of?

The kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder.

Use as many directional terms as you can to describe the relationship between your kneecap and your heel.

The knee cap is anterior to the heel The heel is posterior to the knee cap The Knee is superior to the heel The heel is inferior to the knee The knee is proximal to the heel The heel is distal to the knee

Where does the leg extend from

The leg extends fro the knee to the ankle.

What is set point?

The normal value for function or process in The body. Example is temperature and blood pH.

Parietal pleura

The outside layer of the lungs

Parietal pericardium

The outside layer that covers the heart.

What does the pelvis contain?

The pelvis contains the bladder and reproductive organs.

What is the largest organ of the body?

The skin

What does the abdominal cavity contain?

The stomach, the intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys.

Where does the thigh extend from?

The thigh extends from the hip to the knee.

Etymology

Where the word comes from.

Pericarditis

inflammation of the pericardium

Peritonitis

inflammation of the peritoneum

Pleurisy

inflammation of the pleura

Digital Subtraction Agiography (DSA)

one step beyond CT scanning a 3-D radiographic image of an organ, such as the brain, is made and stored in the computer. Radiopaque dye is injected into the blood, and a second radiographic computer image is made. The first subtracted from the second to enhance the picture. These dynamic computer images are the most common way angioplasty, is performed. Angioplast uses a tiny balloon to unclog an artery.

Tissue level

A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. The characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue. The body is made up of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

Deltoid m.

Action: -Anterior part: flexion and medial rotation of arm -Lateral part: abduction of arm -Posterior part: extension and lateral rotation of arm Origin: -Anterior part: clavicle (lateral 1/3) -Lateral part: scapula (acromion) Posterior part: scapula (spine) Insertion: -Humerus (deltoid tuberosity Innervation: -Axillary nerve

Biceps brachii m.

Action: -Supination of forearm -Flexion of forearm -Flexion of arm (weak) Origin: -Long head: scapula (supraglenoid tubercle) -Short head: scapula (coracoid process) Insertion: -Tendon: radius (tuberosity) -Aponeurosis: deep fascia (proximal medial forearm) Innervation: -Musculocutaneous nerve

Pectoralis major m.

Action: Adduction of arm Medial rotation of arm Clavicular head: flexion of arm Sternocostal head: extension of arm (from flexed position) Origin: Clavicular head: clavicle (medial part) Sternocostal head: sternum, costal cartilages 1-6, and aponeurosis of external abdominal oblique muscle Insertion: Humerus (lateral lip of intertubercular sulcus) Innervation: Lateral pectoral nerve (C5-7) Medial pectoral nerve (C8-T1) Comment: Pectoralis major and minor muscles also known as "pecs" Pectoralis major active during forced inspiration

Qaudriceps femoris m.

Action: Extension of leg Flexion of thigh at hip joint (rectus femoris only) Origin: Vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis: femur (shaft) Rectus femoris: ilium (anterior inferior iliac spine) Insertion: Patella (via a common, quadriceps tendon) Innervation: Femoral nerve Comment: Comprised of four muscles: rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, and vastus medialis Quadriceps tendon extends from patella to tibial tuberosity as patellar ligament Rectus femoris is only muscle of quadriceps group that acts on thigh

Sartorius m.

Action: Flexion of thigh Lateral rotation of thigh Abduction of thigh Flexion of leg Origin: Ilium (anterior superior iliac spine) Insertion: Tibia (proximal medial shaft) Innervation: Femoral nerve Comment: Longest muscle in body Important in assuming "scissor-legged" or "cross-legged" position

Rectus abdominis m.

Action: Flexion of trunk (sit-ups) Compression of anterior abdominal wall Origin: Pubis (crest and symphysis) Insertion: Sternum (xiphoid process) Costal cartilages 5-7 Innervation: Ventral rami of T7-12 spinal nerves Comment: Three or four bellies, separated by tendinous intersections Encased in fibrous (rectus) sheath Important in "straining" (e.g., lifting, defecation, urination, child-birth) Functions in respiration ("abdominal breathing")

Sternocleidomastoid m.

Action: Unilateral: rotation of head so face turns to opposite side Bilateral: flexion of head Origin: Clavicle (medial) Sternum (manubrium) Insertion: Mastoid process of temporal bone Lateral one-half of superior nuchal line of occipital bone Innervation: Accessory nerve (CN XI)

External abdominal oblique m.

Action: Unilateral: rotation of trunk Bilateral: flexion of trunk (sit-ups) Compression of anterior abdominal wall and viscera (increases intra-abdominal pressure) Origin: Ribs and costal cartilages 5-12 Insertion: Linea alba Ilium (crest) Innervation: Ventral rami of T8-L1 spinal nerves Comment: Important in "straining" (e.g., lifting, defecation, urination, child-birth) Functions in respiration ("abdominal breathing") At right angle to internal abdominal oblique (strengthens abdominal wall)

Organ level

An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions. The urinary bladder, heart, stomach, and lungs are examples of organs.

Organ system level

An organ system is a group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit. For example, the urinary system consists of kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys produce urine, which the ureters transport the urinary bladder, where it is stored until being eliminated from the body through the urethra. In this text, we consider 11 major organ systems: the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

Organism level

An organism is any living thing considered as a whole-whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human. The human organism is a network of organ systems, all mutually dependent on one another.

What is the anatomical position in humans? Why is it important?

Anatomical position refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward. The position of the body can affect the description of the body parts relative to each other. In the anatomical position, the elbow is above the hand but, in the supine or prone position, the elbow and hand are at the same level. The anatomical position is important because we are able to distinguish where parts of the body are.

How does the study of anatomy differ from the study of physiology.

Anatomy is the structures within the body. Organs, bones and tissues. Physiology is how these structures work together to perform a function.

Describe the normal response to a decrease in blood pressure on standing.

Blood pressure drops because the heart has less blood to pump.

What are one of the most well-known examples of homeostasis?

Body temperature is a variable that increases when you are too hot and decreases when you are too cold. Homeostatic mechanisms such as sweating or shivering, normally maintain body temperature near an ideal normal value, or set point.

What are the parts of the cardiovascular system?

Carotid artery Jugular vein Superior vena cava Pulmonary trunk Heart Brachial artery Aorta Inferior vena cava Femoral artery and vein

The anatomical position of a cat refers to the animal standing erect on all four limbs and facing forward. One the basis of the etymology of the directional terms, which two terms indicate movement toward the cat's head? What two terms mean movement toward the cat's back? Compare these terms with those referring to a human in the anatomical position.

Caudal and posterior Cephalic and anterior Caudal is toward the tail For humans the belly is anterior to the back The back is posterior to the chest The cats head is anterior to his trunk The cats tail is posterior the cats head. The cats hind legs are caudal to his neck The cats front legs are cephalic the butt

Cell level

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of plants and animals. Molecules combine to form organelles, which are the small structures inside cells. For example, the nucleus is an organelle that contains the cell's hereditary information, and mitochondria are organelles that manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule cells use for energy. Its important to know the differences and similarities between different cells because this will aid you to have a better understanding of anatomy and physiology.

What are the anatomical terms for the following common body terms-neck, mouth, hand, front of elbow, calf, sole?

Cervical, oral, manual, antecubital, sural, plantar.

What are variables?

Changes in our environmental conditions, such as hot or cold outdoor temperatures, are called variables because their values are not constant.

From simplest to complex list and define the body's six levels of organization.

Chemical- atoms and other molecules that help carry out the function for the body and organs. Cell- individual units of life that make up the plant and animal, understanding the difference and similarities can make a difference in how you understand anatomy and physiology. Tissue- cells that are similar make up tissue, the book gives an example of four tissue muscle, connective, epithelial, nervous Organ- similar tissues come together to form an organ system. Organ system- individual organs that work together to carry out functions. Organism- organ systems come together to form organisms.

Cephalic

Closer to the head than another structure (usually synonymous with superior)

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure

Caudal

Closer to the tail than another structure (usually synonymous with inferior)

How does differentiation differ from morphogenesis?

Differentiation involves changes in a cell's structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state. Morphogenesis is the change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism.

Mesenteries

Double layer of peritoneum extending from the abdominal wall to the abdominal viscera conveying to it its vessels and nerves. The mesenteries anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs.

What are the parts of the male reproductive system?

Ductus deferens Seminal vesicle Prostate gland Testis Epididymis Penis

X-ray

Electromagnetic radiation travels through the body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph. Bones and radiopaque dyes absorb the rays and create underexposed areas that appear white on the photographic film. However, a major limitation of radiographs is that they give only flat two-dimensional (2-D) images of the body.

Respiratory System

Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.

What's an example of positive feed mechanisms?

For example, during blood loss, a chemical responsible for blood clot formation, called thrombin, stimulates production of even more thrombin. In this way, a disruption in homeostasis is resolved through a positive-feedback mechanism. What prevents the entire vascular system from clotting? The clot formation process is self-limiting. Eventually, the components needed to form a clot will be depleted in the damaged area and no more clot material can be formed.

Give an example of how the organ systems help keep the body's internal environment relatively constant.

For example, the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, and urinary systems work together, so that each cell in the body receives adequate oxygen and nutrients while also ensuring that waste products do not accumulate to a toxic level.

List and describe the three planes of the body.

Frontal or coronal is a cut through the width of the body from head to heel. Midsagital plane is a vertical cut through the middle of the body from head to perineal region. Transverse plane, is a horizontal cut through the body .

Name and describe the three major planes of the body.

Frotal or coronal which is a vertical section through length of the body anterior and posterior Transverse which is horizontal to the body superior and inferior section. Sagittal plane which is left and right halves vertical cut. The oblique plane which is a 45 degree angle down.

What is studied in gross anatomy? In surface anatomy.

Gross anatomy is the study of structures without the use of a microscope, region or systematically. Surface anatomy is the study of bones that poke out , rib cage, ankle bone, sternum.

Parts of the integumentary system

Hair Skin Nails

Why are these quadrants and regions important?

Health professionals use the quadrants and regions as reference points for locating underlying organs. For example, the appendix is in the right-lower quadrant, and the pain of an acute appendicitis is usually felt there.

Why is it important to recognize that humans share many, but not all, characteristics with other animals?

Humans and animals may have common features but are not the same, This is why scientist believe that studying other humans can help us understand human anatomy. Although much can be learned from studying other organisms, the ultimate answers to questions about humans can be obtained only from humans because other organisms differ from humans in significant ways. A failure to appreciate the differences between humans and other animals led to many misconceptions by early scientists.

What are the parts of the endocrine system?

Hypothalamus Pituitary Pineal gland Thyroid Parathyroids (posterior part of thyroid) Thymus Andrenals Pancreas (islets Ovaries (female) Testes (male)

Oblique section

If a cut is made across the length of an organ at other than a right angle, it is called an oblique section.

What another way the abdomen is subdivided?

In addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is sometimes subdivided into regions by four imaginary lines: two horizontal and two vertical. These four lines create a "virtual" tic-tac-toe grid not aha abdomen resulting in nine regions.

Ashley is on the track team and is running an 800-meter race. Throughout the race, her respiratory rate increases rapidly. Does this represent negative or positive feedback? Explain

Initially, we might think that Ashley's increased respiratory rate is indicative of positive feedback. However, we must first look at the underlying reason for her elevated breathing rate. If you have ever run a race, you know that eventually, your breathing rate goes back to normal once you stop running. However, during the race your body needs more oxygen to be able to keep running. Because running requires oxygen, oxygen levels in the blood go down. The lowered oxygen level is detected by receptors, which communicate with the control center. The control center stimulates the effector, the diaphragm, to increase breathing rate. Once oxygen levels are returned to the set point, the breathing rate returns to normal. This is the essence of negative feedback: The response is stopped when the variable returns to the normal range.

Differentiation

Involves changes in a cell's structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state. For example, following fertilization, immature cells differentiate to become specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differentiated cells form tissues and organs.

What are retroperitoneal organs?

Kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder.

Why are anatomy and physiology normally studied together?

Learning the function of a system or structure can be beneficial, it can help you connect the dots quicker.

Serous membranes

Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs within these cavities.

Organization

Living things are highly organized. Disruption of this organized state can result in loss of functions, or even death.

Cisterna chyli

Location: -Abdomen (posterior superior) Description: -Small, irregular-shaped lymph sac Function: - lymph from abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs Comment: -Origin of thoracic duct

Urinary System

Location: -Abdomen (posterior wall) -Pelvis -Perineum Organ and tissues -Kidneys -Ureters -Urinary bladder -Urethra Function: -Kidneys filter blood to remove waste products and concentrate waste products in urine -Ureters transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder -Urinary bladder stores and, with urethra, expels urine from body

Breast

Location: -Anterior thoracic wall -Axilla Description: -Pyramidal structure -Composed of skin with areola and nipple; fat and connective tissue; mammary gland, and associated ducts -Base located over pectorals major muscle -Extends into axilla (armpit) as "tail" -Divided into lobes by suspensory ligaments (connective tissue septae) Function: -Milk production -Fat storage (determines breast size and shape in non-lactating female) Comment: -Amount of fat determined by genetics, hormones, and dietary habits. -Fat partially replaced by glandular tissue during pregnancy and lactation.

Brainstem

Location: -Caudal portion of brain Description: -Vertical, stalk-like portion of brain -Includes midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Esophagus

Location: -Cervical part: neck (inferior) -Thoracic part: thorax (posterior mediastinum) -Abdominal part: abdomen (left upper quadrant) Description: -Muscular tube -Superior third: striated muscle -Middle third: striated and smooth muscle -inferior third: smooth muscle -Passes through diaphragm (esophageal hiatus) Function: -Conveys food from pharynx to stomach -Peristaltic (wavelike) contractions during swallowing Comment -"Heartburn" (reflux esophagitis) results from regurgitation of stomach contents

Cervical plexus

Location: -Neck Contributions: -Ventral rami of C1-4 spinal nerves Compostion: -Motor -General sensation Motor: -Phrenic n. (C3-5) supplies diaphragm -Ansa cervicali (C1-3) supplies infrahyoid mm. (sternohyoid, omohoyoid, and sternothyroid) -Other nerves supply rhomboids (dorsal scapular ,.), serrates anterior (long thoracic n.), and prevertebral mm. General sensation: -Nerves derived from cervical plexus (esp. C2-4) distribute to skin over shoulder, anterior and lateral neck, and parts of head (auricle and posterior scalp) Comment: - A plexus is a network of nerves, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

Cardiovascular System

Location: -Throughout body (blood and vessels) -Thorax (heart) Organs and tissues: -Blood -Blood vessels (arteries and veins) -Heart Description: -Two circulatory division: pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation Function: -Heart moves blood through blood vessels -Blood and blood vessels distribute hormones, nutrients, and gases, and transport waste products -Pulmonary circulation: movement of blood between heart and lungs Systemic circulation: movement of blood between heart and peripheral tissues.

Lymphatic system

Location: -Throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) Organs and tissues: -Lymph -Lymphatic cells -Lymphatic vessels -Lymphatic nodules -Lymphatic nodes -Thymus -Spleen Description: -Lymphatic system cells: macrophages, T- and B- lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells -Red bone marrow is site of origin of lymphocyte precursors; their site of maturation differs -Lymph vasculature (smallest to largest diameter): lymphatic capillaries, lymph vessels, lymphatic trunks and ducts -Lymphatic nodules: clusters of lymphatic cells (usually not surrounded by connective tissue capsule), mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), and tonsils (palatine tonsils have a capsule) -Lymphatic organs: lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen (lymphatic cells surrounded by connective tissue capsule) Function: -Produces lymphocytes -Transports and filters lymph (lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes) -Filters blood (spleen) -Initiates immune responses Comment: -Lymph is fluid within lymphatic vessels; it originates as fluid that leaves capillaries and enters interstitial places between cells -Lymph is returned to venous system at junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins

Deep fascia

Location: -Underlies hypodermis (superficial fascia or subcutaneous tissue) -Around muscles and some organs Description -Layer of dense irregular connective tissue -Devoid of fat -Extensions of deep fascia, called epimysium (or investing fascia), surround individual muscles -Forms inter muscular septae that separate muscles into functional groups (e.g., flexor compartment of arm) -Forms retinacula (e.g., flexor retinaculum of hand) -Forms fibrous capsules (e.g., around parotid gland) Function: -Separates and supports individual muscles and neuromuscular bundles -Retinacula hold tendons close to joints -Encapsulates and defines shape of some organs Comment: -Fascia refers to connective tissue that can be seen with naked eye.

Liver

Location: Abdomen Immediately inferior to diaphragm In upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric and right hypochondriac regions Description: Accessory digestive organ Four lobes: right, left, quadrate, and caudate Largest visceral organ Suspended from diaphragm by peritoneum Function: Produces and secretes bile and plasma proteins Stores glycogen, minerals, and vitamins Detoxifies drugs and alcohol Modifies hormones Removes (phagocytizes) bacteria Comment: Adult liver typically does not project inferior to costal margin Alcoholism, drug abuse, and liver disease can lead to destruction of hepatocytes (liver cells) resulting in cirrhosis

Small intestine

Location: Abdomen In all abdominal quadrants; in left and right flank, umbilical, left and right inguinal, and pubic regions Description: Coiled, thin-walled, muscular tube (approximately 6-7 meters long) Three parts (proximal to distal): duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Continuous with pylorus of stomach (proximal) and cecum of large intestine (distal) Function: Receives bile and pancreatic secretions Primary site for digestion Primary site for absorption of nutrients Comment: Supported by double fold of peritoneum (mesentery)

Spleen

Location: Abdomen In contact with diaphragm and lower ribs on left In left upper abdominal quadrant; in left hypochondriac region Description: Largest lymphatic organ Highly vascular tissue surrounded by capsule Function: Initiates immune response to blood antigens Reservoir for red and white blood cells Phagocytoses (removes) old and damaged blood cells and bacteria and other foreign material Comment: Protected posteriorly by rib cage Spleen monitors blood for antigens whereas lymph nodes monitor lymph

Stomach

Location: Abdomen In upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric and right hypochondriac regions Description: Hollow, muscular organ Characteristic "J" shape Four parts (proximal to distal): cardia, fundus, body, and pyloric part Between esophagus and duodenum Function: Initiates digestion of protein Mixes gastric contents Peristaltic contractions move contents toward pyloric sphincter Comment: Concave superior border forms lesser curvature Convex inferior border forms greater curvature Pyloric part of stomach includes an antrum, canal, and pylorus (the latter includes a sphincter and orifice)

Large intestine

Location: Abdomen Pelvis In all abdominal quadrants; in all abdominal regions Description: Part of gastrointestinal tract Composed of cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid), rectum, and anal canal Characteristic features include vermiform appendix, taeniae coli, haustra (sacculations), and omental appendices (epiploic appendages or appendices epiploicae) Approximately 1.5 m in length Function: Water and electrolyte absorption Absorption of vitamin B and vitamin K produced by bacteria in colon (normal gut flora) Storage of feces for defecation (sigmoid colon and rectum) Defecation

Pancreas

Location: Abdomen Posterior to stomach In upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric region and left hypochondriac region (tail) Description: Accessory digestive organ Elongated nodular gland Divided into head, neck, body, and tail Head adjacent to duodenum Function: Endocrine (regulation of glucose metabolism): pancreatic islet cells release hormones (insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin) into blood Exocrine (digestion): acinar cells produce digestive enzymes (pancreatic juice) and pancreatic duct cells produce bicarbonate ions; these are released into duodenum via pancreatic ducts Comment: Reduction in insulin production or release by pancreatic islet cells can result in diabetes mellitus

Kidney

Location: Abdomen (posterior wall) Retroperitoneal Left kidney higher than right Description: Paired, bean-shaped organ Concave, medial border is point of entrance/exit of renal vessels and ureter Contains cortex, medulla, and renal sinus Function: Removes excess water, electrolytes, and wastes of protein metabolism from blood Urine formation Synthesizes calcitrol, a form of vitamin D, which stimulates uptake of calcium and phosphate by intestinal cells Releases erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low blood oxygen (EPO causes increased production and maturation of erythrocytes) Produces renin, an enzyme that helps form angiotensin II, a hormone involved in blood pressure regulation and water (fluid) balance Comment: Surrounded and supported by layers of connective tissue and fat

Gallbladder

Location: Abdomen (right upper quadrant) Inferior to liver in shallow fossa on quadrate lobe In right upper abdominal quadrant; in epigastric and right hypochondriac regions Description: Pear shaped, hollow, muscular organ Cystic duct connects to neck of gallbladder Function: Storage, concentration, and release of bile Comment: Bile passes from the liver to gallbladder for storage and from the gallbladder to the duodenum for emulsification and digestion of lipids Precipitation of bile salts or cholesterol forms gallstones (cholelithiasis)

Suprarenal gland

Location: Abdomen (upper quadrants) Adjacent to superior pole of kidney Description: Paired, pyramidal-shaped, endocrine gland Two parts: cortex (outer) and medulla (inner) Function: Cortex: secretes hormones (corticosteroids and androgen) Medulla: chromaffin cells secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) Also known as: Adrenal gland Comment: Epinephrine and norepinephrine also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline

Ureter

Location: Abdominal cavity (posterior abdominal wall) Lateral pelvis Description: Muscular tube 25-30 cm in length Begins at hilum of kidney Enters base of urinary bladder as ureteric orifice Function: Transport urine from kidney to urinary bladder Comment: Lies anterior to bifurcation of common iliac artery In female: passes inferior to uterine artery In male: crossed by vas deferens Flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

Skeletal muscle

Location: Axial and appendicular muscles Description: Skeletal muscles composed of multiple muscle fascicles (bundles) Muscle fascicles formed by multiple muscle fibers Muscle fibers are elongated, unbranched, cylindrical contractile cells Each skeletal muscle cell contains multiple nuclei located at regular intervals Arrangement of contractile elements gives appearance of cross-striations (stripes) Function: Movement (e.g., walking) Maintenance of posture Communication (e.g., facial expression) Body functions, including respiration, circulation, digestion, defecation, urination, and childbirth Temperature regulation (e.g., up to 85% of body heat from skeletal muscle) Also known as: Striated or voluntary muscle Comment: Approximately 600 muscles formed by skeletal muscle in body

Axial mm.

Location: Axial skeleton Description: Muscles with origin and insertion on axial skeleton Axial muscles include intrinsic back muscles, muscles of head and neck, primary respiratory muscles, and muscles of pharynx, abdominal wall, and pelvic floor Function: Movement of head and vertebral column (intrinsic back muscles) Communication (muscles of facial expression) Eye movement (extrinsic eye muscles) Mastication (chewing) Speaking, chewing, food manipulation, and swallowing (intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles) Swallowing (pharyngeal muscles) Respiration (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) Compression of abdominal wall (muscles of abdominal wall) Support of pelvic viscera, evacuation of contents of digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts (muscles of pelvic floor) Comment: Axial skeleton includes bones of skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage

Appendicular mm.

Location: Back, thorax, and upper limb Posterior abdominal wall, gluteal region, and lower limb Description: Upper limb: muscles that move scapula, glenohumeral and elbow joints, the sternoclavicular, and joints of the hand Lower limb: muscles that move hip, knee, ankle, and foot Function: Movement of pectoral girdle and upper limb Movement of pelvic girdle and lower limb Comment: Movement of scapula controlled by muscles that originate on back, thorax, and skull Some muscles that move hip joint originate from vertebral column (e.g., psoas muscles)

Nasal cavity

Location: Between hard palate and base of skull Description: Paired cavities separated by nasal septum Irregular space with mucous membrane lining Anterior openings (nares) Posterior openings (choanae) Conchae on lateral wall Function: Warm, filter, and humidify inhaled air Olfaction (smell) Comment: Part of upper respiratory tract Mucosa has respiratory and olfactory parts Communicates with paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal duct

Hypothalamus

Location: Brain Ventral diencephalon Description: Collection of nuclei located inferior to thalamus Includes infundibulum and mammillary bodies Function: Considered master control center for endocrine system Secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones that control anterior pituitary gland Produces hormones that are transported to and stored in posterior pituitary gland Controls autonomic nervous system Regulates body temperature, food, and water intake Regulates emotional behavior Maintains sleep/wake cycle

Bone marrow

Location: Central (marrow or medullary) cavities of all bones Description: Soft pulpy tissue Two forms: red and yellow Function: Red marrow, found throughout fetal and postnatal skeleton, is site of hemopoiesis Yellow marrow contains predominantly adipose tissue and blood vessels Comment: After about 5 years of age, red marrow gradually replaced by yellow marrow In early twenties, red marrow found only in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicles, scapulae, pelvis, cranial bones, and proximal end of femur and humerus

Subcutaneous tissue

Location: Deep to integument (skin) Description: Composed of loose connective tissue and fat Contains sweat glands, superficial blood and lymphatic vessels, and cutaneous nerves Function: Fat storage Thermoregulation (insulation) Protection (padding) Comment: Also called superficial fascia or hypodermis

Hair follicle

Location: Dermis May extend into hypodermis Description: Tube that surrounds hair root Courses obliquely through dermis Two coats: epidermic (inner) and dermic (outer) Characteristic parts include: dermal papilla bulb, hair shaft, cuticle layer, internal follicular sheath, and external follicular sheath Associated with hair receptors and arrector muscle of the hair Function: Hair formation and growth Comment: Hair follicle develops as invagination from epidermis Follicle associated with a sebaceous gland, an arrector muscle of the hair, and an apocrine gland (in axilla and anogenital regions) Apocrine glands release part of apical cytoplasm with secretion Arrector muscle of the hair also known as arrector pili (piloerector) muscle

Pineal gland

Location: Diencephalon (epithalamus) Description: Pea-sized endocrine gland Attached to roof of third ventricle Function: Secretes melatonin (involved in sleep/wake cycles) Modified activity in endocrine organs (pituitary, pancreas, parathyroid, suprarenal, and gonads) Also known as: Pineal body

Integumentary system

Location: External surface of body Organs and tissues: Skin Hair Nails Exocrine glands (sweat, sebaceous, ceruminous, and mammary glands) Description: Skin has two distinct layers (superficial to deep): epidermis and dermis Function: Protection (e.g., prevents trauma) Immune defense (e.g., prevents infection) Barrier function (e.g., prevents water loss) Secretion (e.g., sweat, sebum) Thermoregulation Vitamin D synthesis Cutaneous sensation Social functions (e.g., facial expression) Comment: Hypodermis (also known as subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia) lies deep to skin

Muscle of facial expression

Location: Face Description: Origin: subcutaneous tissue (superficial fascia) or bones of skull Insertion: subcutaneous tissue Four groups: (1) muscles of scalp, forehead, and eyebrows; (2) muscles of mouth, lips, and cheeks; (3) muscles of orbital opening; and (4) muscles of nose and ears Function: Nonverbal communication (i.e., control movement of skin of face) Verbal communication (i.e., oral muscles modulate mouth opening) Comment: Includes 23 muscles Muscles of facial expression innervated by facial nerve (CN VII)

Accessory digestive organs

Location: Head Abdomen Description: Teeth Tongue Salivary glands: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Function: Ingestion Digestion Propulsion Secretion Storage of bile

Pharynx

Location: Head Neck Description: Muscular tube continuous with nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx Three subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx Comment: Nasopharynx: part of respiratory tract Oropharynx: part of respiratory and digestive tracts Laryngopharynx: part of digestive tract Latin: pharynx = throat

Gastrointestinal tract

Location: Head Neck Thorax Abdomen Pelvis Description: Oral cavity Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine (duodenum, ileum, and jejunum) Large intestine Function: Ingestion Digestion Propulsion Secretion Absorption Elimination of wastes Comment: GI tract also known as alimentary tract or canal The colon is part of large intestine from the cecum to the sigmoid colon

Axial skeleton

Location: Head Neck Trunk Description: Skull-cranial cavity bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal (2), occipital, and temporal (2) Skull-facial bones: maxilla (2), mandible, vomer, inferior nasal concha (2), nasal (2), lacrimal (2), palatine (2), and zygomatic (2) Vertebral column bones: vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx) Thoracic cage bones: ribs and sternum

Salivary glands

Location: Head Oral cavity Description: Parotid gland Submandibular gland Sublingual gland Function: Salivary glands produce and secrete components of saliva Parotid gland produces 25-30% of saliva (serous secretions only) Submandibular gland produces 60-70% of saliva (primarily serous secretions; some mucous secretions) Sublingual gland produces 3-5% of saliva (primarily mucous secretions; some serous secretions) Comment: Functions of salivary glands and saliva include: moistening and lubrication of food before swallowing; secretion of amylase for initial digestion of polysaccharides; dissolving some food molecules to aid in taste; and secretion of lysozyme, which has antibacterial activity

Paranasal sinuses

Location: Head (around nasal cavity) Description: Hollow cavities within some skull bones Paired frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses Communicate with nasal cavity via ducts Function: Warm and humidify air Decrease weight of anterior skull Contribute to voice resonance Comment: Sinuses named for bones in which they are found

Tonsils

Location: Head (tongue and wall of pharynx) Description: Lingual, palatine, and pharyngeal tonsils Collections of lymphoid nodules in submucosal connective tissue Not surrounded by connective tissue capsule Function: Trap foreign material and facilitate identification by lymphocytes Produce lymphocytes Comment: Pharyngeal tonsils also known as "adenoids" when infected or inflamed

Teeth

Location: Mandible (alveolar processes) Maxilla (alveolar processes) Description: 32 permanent teeth Mandibular teeth: 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars, and 6 molars Maxillary teeth: 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars, and 6 molars Function: Mastication (first part of mechanical digestion) Comment: One or more third molars (mandibular or maxillary) may fail to form or remain impacted in bone

Exocrine glands of skin

Location: Merocrine sweat glands: most numerous (3-4 million in the adult) and widely distributed sweat gland Apocrine sweat glands: hair follicles of axillae (armpits), areolae (nipples), and the pubic and anal regions Sebaceous glands are associated with hair follicles Description: Merocrine sweat glands have coiled, tubular secretory part in dermis or subcutaneous tissue and a duct that carries secretion to epidermal surface Apocrine sweat glands have coiled, tubular secretory part in dermis or subcutaneous tissue and a duct that carries secretion into hair follicle Sebaceous glands are acinar ("grape-shaped") and have short ducts that open into hair follicle Function: Merocrine sweat gland secretion (99% water) functions in thermoregulation, secretion (excess water and electrolytes), and protection Apocrine sweat gland secretion is a viscous, cloudy liquid that contains protein and lipids; when secretion acted upon by bacteria, it produces distinct odor that may function in signaling and communication Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance that waterproofs and lubricates hair shaft Comment: Other integumentary glands: ceruminous glands, in the external acoustic meatus that produce ear wax; and mammary glands, which are modified apocrine sweat glands that produce milk

Pituitary gland

Location: Midline of middle cranial fossa Rests in hypophysial fossa of sphenoid bone Description: Small, oval bilobed endocrine gland Two functional lobes: anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis) Connected by infundibulum to hypothalamus Function: Anterior pituitary produces the following hormones: thyroid-stimulating (TSH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), growth (GH), luteinizing (LH), melanocyte-stimulating (MSH), and follicle-stimulating (FSH) Posterior pituitary stores and releases: antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT) Also known as: Hypophysial gland or hypophysis Comment: Posterior pituitary does not produce any hormones; ADH and OT produced in hypothalamus

Larynx

Location: Neck Between pharynx and trachea Description: Skeleton formed by nine cartilages Contains vocal cords Mucous membrane-lined cavity Superior end of lower respiratory tract Function: Conducts air to and from lower respiratory tract Sound production ("voice box") Prevents swallowed food from entering lower respiratory tract Comment: Laryngeal cartilages include: paired arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages, and unpaired thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottic cartilages

Parathyroid glands

Location: Neck Posterior surface of thyroid gland Description: Small nodules, partially embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland Usually four in number Contains two cell types: chief cells and oxyphil cells Function: Chief cells: synthesize and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) PTH stimulates release of calcium into blood stream Oxyphil cells: secretion unknown Comment: Parathyroid glands lie external to capsule of thyroid gland

Trachea

Location: Neck Thoracic cavity (mediastinum) Between larynx and tracheal bifurcation Description: Rigid tube held open by a series of "C-shaped" cartilaginous rings (open end of rings directed posteriorly) Cartilaginous rings connected by anular ligaments of trachea Posterior aspect of tracheal rings closed by fibroelastic trachealis muscle Also known as: "Windpipe" Comment: Tracheotomy is surgical procedure to open trachea in neck to bypass an airway obstruction

Lower respiratory tract

Location: Neck Thorax Description: Larynx is a mucous membrane-lined cartilagenous passageway between pharynx and trachea Trachea is a tube with C-shaped cartilagenous plates Bronchi are continuations from trachea to lungs Lungs in right and left pulmonary cavities Function: Larynx conducts air between pharynx and trachea; it is also involved in sound production (phonation) Trachea conducts air to and from bronchi, which enter the lungs Lungs are primary organs of respiration Acid-base balance Comment: Larynx also known as "voice box"

Thyroid gland

Location: Neck (anterior inferior) Description: Bilobed endocrine gland Normally composed of left and right lateral lobes connected across midline by isthmus of gland An additional, superiorly-directed, conical pyramidal lobe present 50% of the time Function: Follicular cells: synthesize and secrete thyroid hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) Parafollicular cells: synthesize and secrete calcitonin Comment: Lobes lie lateral to trachea and larynx Enlarged thyroid gland known as a goiter, typically due to insufficient dietary iodine

Tongue

Location: Oral cavity proper (floor) Oropharynx Description: Muscular organ with thick mucous membrane Mucous membrane contains taste buds Intrinsic muscles alter shape; extrinsic muscles move tongue Dense concentration of papillae gives dorsal surface "felt-like" appearance Divided by V-shaped sulcus terminalis into anterior (oral) part and posterior (pharyngeal) part Anterior part has median furrow Posterior part is nodular due to presence of lingual tonsils Lingual frenulum connects tongue to floor of mouth Function: Mastication (chewing) Deglutition (swallowing) Phonation (production of speech sounds) Comment: Extrinsic muscles: genioglossus, hyoglossus, palatoglossus, and styloglossus Latin: papilla = nipple

Eye

Location: Orbit of skull Description: Globe-like structure Composed of three tunics (layers): fibrous, vascular, and neural Fibrous tunic composed of cornea and sclera Vascular tunic composed of choroid, ciliary body, and iris Neural tunic composed of retina and pigment epithelium Function: Optical components collect and focus light Neural components process and transmit light-driven signals to brain Also known as: Eyeball or globe

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Location: Outside cranial cavity and vertebral canal Description: Cranial nerves Spinal nerves and their branches Autonomic nerves (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and their plexuses Ganglia, including sympathetic, parasympathetic, and sensory (dorsal root) Function: Transmits information to, and receives information from, central nervous system Functional divisions: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) Mediates some reflexes Comment: A spinal nerve is the junction in the intervertebral foramen between dorsal and ventral roots and the dorsal and ventral rami; however, some use this term to describe all nerves derived from the spinal cord

Uterine tube

Location: Pelvis Between lateral aspect of body of uterus and ovary Extends into lower abdominal quadrants Description: Part of female reproductive tract Paired, muscular tube Four parts (proximal to distal): interstitial (uterine), isthmus, ampulla, and infundibulum Infundibulum has fimbriae (finger-like processes) Approximately 10 cm in length Function: Conduit for movement of germ cells (oocyte and sperm) Site of fertilization (ampulla) Also known as: Fallopian tube or oviduct Comment: Suspended by mesosalpinx of broad ligament (peritoneal fold) Common site for ectopic implantation of fertilized egg (tubal pregnancy) Bisected during tubal ligation (voluntary sterilization)

Uterus

Location: Pelvis Description: Part of female reproductive tract Pear-shaped organ with narrow cavity Divided into body and cervix Body has thick, smooth muscle layer (myometrium) Cervix pierces superior, anterior wall of vagina Function: Conducts sperm Implantation site for blastocyst Supplies nutrients and oxygen, via placenta, to embryo and fetus Contracts to expel fetus and placenta during parturition (childbirth) Comment: Position varies with fullness of urinary bladder and rectum Contacts diaphragm in late pregnancy Hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus) performed for treatment of cancer, fibroids, or endometriosis

Urethra

Location: Pelvis Perineum Description: Fibromuscular tube Proximal end: internal urethral orifice of urinary bladder Distal end: external urethral orifice in perineum Male (18-20 cm in length): preprostatic, prostatic, membranous, and spongy (penile) parts Female (4 cm in length) not subdivided Function: Male: transports semen and urine Female: transports urine Comment: Flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra Urinary tract infection (UTI) more frequent in females due to shorter urethra and proximity to anus

Urinary bladder

Location: Pelvis When distended, extends into lower abdominal quadrants; in pubic region Description: Hollow organ with smooth muscle wall (detrusor muscle) Three openings define trigone of bladder: two ureteric and one urethral Superior aspect covered by peritoneum Function: Storage of urine Micturition (urination) Comment: Size and position varies with volume of urine Volume of urine affects position of surrounding organs, especially uterus Flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

Seminal vesicle

Location: Pelvis (between bladder and rectum) Description: Paired, sacculated, contorted muscular tube Duct connects to vas deferens Function: Accessory reproductive gland Contributes 60% of semen volume Secretes thick, alkaline fluid that contains fructose and prostoglandins Also known as: Seminal gland Comment: Duct of seminal vesicle and vas deferens unite to form ejaculatory duct

Ovary

Location: Pelvis (lateral wall) Near distal end of uterine tube Extends into lower abdominal quadrants Description: Paired, female gonad Almond shape and size Contains oocytes (egg) Function: Maturation (oogenesis) and release (ovulation) of oocytes Produces the female sex hormones progesterone, estrogen, and inhibin Comment: Suspended by mesovarium of broad ligament (a peritoneal fold) Suspensory ligament of ovary (a peritoneal fold) contains ovarian vessels and nerves Size decreases after menopause

Prostate

Location: Pelvis (posterior to pubic symphysis) Description: Glandular and muscular regions Contains prostatic urethra, ejaculatory ducts, and 15-20 prostatic ducts Dense outer capsule Function: Accessory reproductive gland Contributes 30% of semen volume Secretes thin, milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citric acid, seminal plasmin, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) Comment: Benign enlargement of prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia, or BPH) is common from middle age

Penis

Location: Perineum (urogenital triangle) Description: Attached part composed of erectile bodies (paired crura and unpaired bulb) covered by muscle Unattached part (body of penis) composed of erectile bodies (paired corpora cavernosa and unpaired corpus spongiosum) Expanded distal end (tip) of corpus spongiosum forms glans Function: Male organ of copulation Body of penis contains dense network of sensory nerve endings important in sexual response Transmits urine and semen Comment: Dorsal surface directed anteriorly when penis is flaccid (non-erect)

Vagina

Location: Perineum (urogenital triangle) Pelvis Description: Smooth muscle sheath (anterior and posterior walls in contact) About 9 cm in length Receives cervix of uterus (superiorly) and opens into vestibule (inferiorly) Has annular fornix at upper end Function: Female organ of copulation Lower birth canal Duct for menstrual fluid Comment: Vaginal walls contain no glands

Vertebral column

Location: Posterior midline of axial skeleton Description: Composed of 33 vertebrae and intervertebral disks (C2-S1), distributed in five regions 7 cervical (C) vertebrae 12 thoracic (T) vertebrae 5 lumbar (L) vertebrae 5 sacral (S) vertebrae, fused into single bone (sacrum) 3-5 coccygeal (Co) vertebrae, variably fused Has series of curvatures along length Also known as: "Spinal column", "spine", or "backbone"

Lungs

Location: Pulmonary cavity (in lateral thoracic cavity) Surrounded by pleural cavity Description: Cone shape with dome-shaped apex and convex base (rests on diaphragm) Left lung has two lobes: upper (or superior) and lower (or inferior), separated by oblique fissure Right lung has three lobes: upper (or superior), middle, and lower (or inferior), separated by two fissures - oblique and horizontal Two lung surfaces: costal (anterior, lateral, and posterior) and mediastinal (medial) Medial surface has hilum with airway and pulmonary vessels Surface of lung covered with visceral pleura Function: Primary organ of respiration Comment: Thoracic cavity divided into three parts: mediastinum, and right and left pulmonary cavities

Testis

Location: Scrotum Description: Paired, oval, male gonad Dense outer capsule (tunica albuginea testis) Interior divided into 200-300 lobules Each lobule contains up to three seminiferous tubules Function: Produces sperm cells Produces androgens (male sex hormones) such as testosterone Comment: Plural: testes The testis begins development near the kidney, and later descends along the posterior abdominal wall to the scrotum Development of sperm cells is temperature dependent (scrotal temperature ~3° lower than body cavity) Temperature of testis regulated by: (1) distance from body cavity, and (2) heat exchange between testicular artery and pampiniform venous plexus Testosterone regulates hair pattern, sperm production, skeletomuscular growth, and libido

Vas deferens

Location: Scrotum Inguinal canal Pelvis Description: Muscular tube between epididymis and ejaculatory duct Function: Transport sperm and fluid from epididymis during emission Also known as: Ductus deferens Comment: Emission is stage of male sexual response when components of semen are brought together in prostatic urethra Scrotal part bisected during vasectomy (voluntary sterilization)

Skeleton of upper limb

Location: Shoulder Arm Forearm Hand (including wrist) Description: Includes clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges of fingers

Hair shaft

Location: Surface of epidermis Description: Filamentous, pigmented, keratinized structure Projects from epidermal surface, i.e., extends beyond skin surface (length varies by body region) Function: Protection (e.g., from sunburn) Heat retention (esp. on scalp) Cutaneous sensation Dispersion of chemical signals Facial recognition/visual identification

Hair

Location: Thin skin Description: Accessory organ of skin Fine, keratinized filament Grows from oblique tube in skin called hair follicle Each hair has three zones: bulb, root, and shaft Projects from epidermal surface (length varies by body region) Usually pigmented (hair color due to melanin pigment granules in hair cortex) Function: Protection (e.g., from sunburn) Heat retention (esp. on scalp) Cutaneous sensation Dispersion of chemical signals Facial recognition/visual identification Comment: Hair not found in thick skin of palms (hands) or soles (feet) Genetic and hormonal factors determine body hair distribution Single hair also known as pilus (plural, pili)

Thoracic cage

Location: Thorax Description: Skeletal framework of chest Twelve pairs of ribs and sternum All ribs: articulate with thoracic vertebra True ribs (ribs 1-7): attached directly to sternum by costal cartilages False ribs (ribs 8-10): attach indirectly to sternum via shared costal cartilages Floating ribs (ribs 11-12): not associated with costal cartilages and thus not attached to sternum Alternate definition: some include the floating ribs (11-12) as a subcategory of false ribs

Bronchi

Location: Thorax (mediastinum) Lung Description: Continuation of trachea into right and left lungs Bifurcation from trachea called main bronchi Each main bronchus branches sequentially into lobar (secondary), and segmental (tertiary) bronchi, followed by smaller branches that end in bronchioles Terminal bronchioles form respiratory bronchioles that lead eventually to alveoli Function: Conduct air between trachea and lungs Comment: Gas exchange occurs along airway between respiratory bronchiole and alveoli

Heart

Location: Thorax (middle mediastinum) Description: Conical, muscular organ with four chambers: two atria and two ventricles Function: Pumps blood to body Modified cardiac muscle cells in right atrium secrete the hormone atriopeptin (atrial natriuretic peptide) in response to distension (stretching) of the atrial wall Atriopeptin reduces blood volume by causing water loss and sodium excretion into urine (with less blood volume, blood pressure is reduced)

Thoracic duct

Location: Thorax (posterior mediastinum) Between thoracic aorta and azygous vein Neck (left inferior) Description: Originates from cysterna chyli Deviates to left side as it ascends along thoracic vertebral bodies Arches anteriorly to end at junction of left internal jugular and subclavian veins Function: Receives lymph from body inferior to diaphragm, and left side of thorax, upper limb, neck, and head Comment: Lymph from right side of thorax, right upper limb, and right side of head and neck enters right lymphatic duct, which empties into junction of right internal jugular and subclavian veins Thoracic duct is the longest (38-45 cm) lymphatic vessel, extending from L2 vertebral level to base of neck

Arties

Location: Throughout body Description: Blood vessels that carry blood away from heart Three basic types: elastic, muscular, and arterioles Arterioles connected to venules via capillaries Function: Arteries of pulmonary circulation carry deoxygenated blood Arteries of systemic circulation carry oxygenated blood

Veins

Location: Throughout body Description: Blood vessels that drain capillaries and carry blood toward heart Three basic types: large, medium-small, and venules Capillaries connect arterioles to venules Function: Veins of pulmonary circulation carry oxygenated blood Veins of systemic circulation carry deoxygenated blood

Lymphatic vessels

Location: Throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) Typically follow veins Description: Lymph vasculature (smallest to largest diameter): lymphatic capillaries, lymph vessels, lymphatic trunks and ducts Thoracic duct is the longest (38-45 cm) lymphatic vessel, extending from L2 vertebral level to base of neck Function: Transports lymph Comment: Lymph is fluid forced from blood into interstitial spaces between cells Lymph returned to venous system at junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins

Spinal cord

Location: Vertebral canal Description: Long, cylindrical portion of central nervous system Ends at level of L2 vertebra in adults Composed of inner core of gray matter and outer coat of white matter (opposite of brain) Divided, from superior to inferior, into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions Comment: Continuous with brain at foramen magnum Gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves

Nervous system

Location: -Central nervous system (CNS): within cranial cavity and vertebral canal -Peripheral nervous system (PNS): throughout body Organs and tissues: -Brain -Spinal cord -Nerves -Ganglia Description: -Structural division: CNS and PNS -CNS includes brain and spinal cord -PNS includes nerves that extend from brain and spinal cord, and ganglia -Functional divisions: afferent (sensory_ and efferent (motor) Function: -Primary communication and control system for body -Afferent division receives sensory information from receptors and transmits to CNS -Efferent division transmits motor impulses from CNS to muscles or glands -Afferent and efferent divisions have somatic (related to structures of the body wall such as skeletal muscle, skin, and mucous membranes) and visceral or autonomic (related to smooth muscle, glands of internal organs, and blood vessels) parts. Comment: -Latin: afferens = to bring to -Latin: efferens = to bring out

Integumentary system

Location: -External surface of body Organs and tissues: -skin -hair -nails -exocrine glands (sweat, sebaceous, ceruminous, and mammary glands) Description: - Skin has two distinct layers (superficial to deep): epidermis and dermis Function: -Protection (e.g., prevents trauma) -Immune defense (e.g., prevents infection) -Barrier function (e.g., prevents water loss) -Secretion (e.g., sweat, sebum) -Thermoregulation -Vitamin D synthesis -Cutaneous sensation -Social functions (e.g., facial expression) Comment: Hypodermis (also known as subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia) lies deep to skin

Male Reproductive System

Location: -Pelvis -Perineum Organs and tissues -Sperm -Testis -Epididymis -Vas (ductus) deferens -Spermatic cord -Ejaculatory duct -Accessory glands -External genitalia Description: -Gonads (testes -Accessory glands (e.g., prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands) -External genitalia (penis and scrotum) Function: -Testis produces sperm (gametes or male sex cells) and components of semen -Produces testosterone (androgen or male sex hormone) -Transfer semen to external urethral orifice of male Comment: -Plural: epididymides -Perineum in male is area between thighs that includes anus, distal urethra, penis, scrotum, and perineal muscles -Perineum in female is area between thighs that includes anus, external urethral and vaginal orifices, clitoris , labia minora and majora, and perineal muscles.

Epidermis

Location: -Skin (superficial to dermis) Description: -Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of variable thickness -Avascular -Major cell type is keratinocyte -Thick skin has five layers (superficial to deep): stratum corner, stratum lucid, stratum granulosum, stratum spinous, and stratum basale -Thin skin has four layers (stratum lucid is missing) -Cells of stratum lucid and stratum corner lack nuclei Function: -Physical barrier -Protection of underlying structures Comment: -Also contains stem cells, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and dendritic cells -Depends on underlying dermis for nutrients (i.e., vascular supply)

Supine

Lying face upward

What are the parts of the female reproductive system?

Mammary gland (in breast) Uterine tube Ovary Uterus Vagina

Do all organs have mesenteries?

NO. The mesenteries also connect certain organs' visceral peritoneum to the visceral peritoneum of other abdominoplevic organs. Other abdominopelvic organs are more closely attached to the body wall and do not have mesenteries. Parietal peritoneum covers these other organs, which are said to be retroperitoneal.

Describe Negative feedback.

Negative feedback is when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted; therefore, in a negative-feedback mechanism, the response to the original stimulus results in deviation from the set point, becoming smaller.

Distinguish between negative feedback and positive feedback.

Negative feedback works to stop something from becoming worse. We are sick and the body cannot maintain its normal temperature, so we begin to sweat. Positive feedback continues the change until completion. When a baby is being born the cervix does not try to close back to its original size instead the body helps the cervix stretch in order for the baby to be born.

Describe a negative-feedback mechanism and give an example.

Negative-feedback mechanism act to reverse a negative change in the body so that homeostasis can be achieved. When we exercise an example of negative feedback is when we breath harder in order to gain more oxygen to achieve equilibrium.

Referring to figure 1.3. Which two organs are responsible for regulating the other organ systems? Which two are responsible for support and movement?

Nervous and Endocrine system Skeletal and Muscle

What is an example of a detrimental positive-feedback mechanism?

One example of a detrimental positive-feedback mechanism is inadequate delivery of blood to cardiac (heart) muscle. Contraction of cardiac muscle generates blood pressure and the heart pumps blood to itself through a system of blood vessels the outside of the heart. Just as with other tissues, blood pressure must be maintained to ensure adequate delivery of blood to the cardiac muscle. Following extreme blood loss, blood pressure decreases to the point that the delivery of blood to the cardiac muscle is inadequate. As a result, cardiac muscle does not function normally. The heart pumps less blood, which causes the blood pressure to drop even further--a deviation further from the set point. The additional decrease in blood pressure further reduces blood delivery to cardiac muscle, and the heart pumps even less blood, which again decreases the blood pressure. The process self-propagates until the blood pressure is too low to sustain the cardiac muscle, the heart stops beating, and death results.

Who was one of the first great anatomist? what did he describe? And what did others think of him?

One of the first great anatomists was a Greek physician, Claudius Galen. Galen describe a large number of anatomical structures supposedly present in humans but observed only in other animals. For an example, he described the liver as having five lobes. This is true for rats, but not for humans, who have four-lobed livers. The errors introduced by Galen persisted for more than 1300 years until a Flemish anatomist, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), who is considered the first modern anatomist, carefully examine human cadavers and began to correct the textbooks.

What are the six characteristics of life?

Organization Metabolism Responsiveness Growth Development Reproduction.

What are the six characteristics of living things? Briefly explain each.

Organization- all living things are organized, and without this organization could cause us result in loss of functions, or even death. Metabolism- all chemical reactions that take place in the body. Metabolism is necessary for other vital functions, such as responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction. Responsiveness- any response to internal or external stimuli. When we eat food that is bad for us, our body can respond in a negative way causing us to become sick. Growth- When we grow older our body grows taller, our muscles grow larger, hair grows longer. Development- Development usually involves growth, but it also involves differentiation and morphogenesis. Reproduction- the formation of new cells or new organisms.

Skeletal System

Organs and tissues: -Bone -Cartilage -Ligament -Tendon Description -Comprised of axial and appendicular skeleton -Axial skeleton formed by skull and associated bones (e.g., hyoid bone), vertebral column, and thoracic cage -Appendicular skeleton formed by bones of upper limb and pectoral girdle, and lower limb and pelvic girdle Function: -Support for, and protection of body -Provides site of attachment for muscles -Movement of body via joints -Hemopoiesis -Storage of calcium and phosphorus.

Describe a positive-feedback mechanism and give an example.

Positive-feedback mechanism act to push the stimulus to completion. Although mostly harmful, some processes help the body through positive feedback mechanisms. During birth the uterus stretches in order for the baby to be born, the body releases a hormone such oxytocin to ensure the stretching can be pushed to completion.

What is positive-feedback?

Positive-feedback mechanism occur when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater. In other words, positive means "increase." At times, this type of response is required to return to homeostasis.

Pleural cavity

Potential space between the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura

Male Reproductive System

Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis.

Muscular System

Produces body movements, monitors posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.

Female Reproductive System

Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mamary glands, and associated structures.

Skeletal System

Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and adipose. Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments and joints.

Integumentary

Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D, Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands.

Define the following directional terms and give the term that means the opposite: proximal, lateral, and superficial.

Proximal - closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure. Distal - Farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure. Lateral - Away from the midline of the body Medial - Toward the midline of the body Superficial - Toward or on the surface Deep - Away from the surface internal

What are the three components of a negative feedback mechanism?

Receptor is the 1st to receive the information needed to pursue negative or positive feedback. Control center receives information regulates what should be done to achieve homeostasis. Effector is the process carried out to achieve homeostasis. Receptor - skin Control Center - brain Effector - Sweat glands.

Lymphatic System

Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.

Urinary System

Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine

In what quadrant would the majority of the stomach be located? In which regions?

Right hypochondriac region and the epigastric region. The right upper quadrant.

What is the pubic symphysis?

Separates the abdominal cavity from the pelvic cavity

Parts of the skeletal system

Skull Clavicle Sternum Ribs Humerus Vertebral column Pelvis Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Fibula

Describe a person in the anatomical position

Standing erect, facing forward arms down to the side, palms facing forward.

Diagphragm

Structure: The diaphragm is the primary muscle used in respiration, which is the process of breathing. This dome-shaped muscle is located just below the lungs and heart. It contracts continually as you breathe in and out. Function: The diaphragm is a thin skeletal muscle that sits at the base of the chest and separates the abdomen from the chest. It contracts and flattens when you inhale. This creates a vacuum effect that pulls air into the lungs. When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and the air is pushed out of lungs.

Skin

Structure: Skin has three layers: The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone. Function: The skin protects us from microbe and the elements, helps regulate body temperature, and permits the sensations of touch, heat and cold.

Carotid artery

Structure: The right and left common carotid arteries have differing origins. That arises directly from the aorta, a large artery arising from the heart. The right arises from a higher branch of that artery called the brachiocephalic trunk (which supplies the right arm, head, and neck). Both of these terminate into separate branches at the upper level of the thyroid cartilage, at the level of the fourth neck vertebra. Only the left carotid artery, which arises directly from the aortic arch, has a thoracic section (corresponding to the upper spine, below the neck). This section travels through the superior mediastinum--a region of the thoracic cavity, which is the space surrounded by the ribs--to the sternoclavicular joint (where the clavicle meets the sternum at the top of the ribcage). Function: The common carotid artery is a primary source of oxygenated blood to the head and neck. Through its external carotid branch, it supplies the face, scalp, tongue, upper and lower teeth, gums, sinus, external and middle ear, pharynx and larynx in the thorax, as well as the thyroid. The internal carotid artery, meanwhile, is tasked with supplying the forebrain, which house the cerebral hemispheres (the sight of language and cognition), the thalamus (essential for sensory processing and sleep), and the hypothalamus (which regulates hormones and metabolism).

Explain why it is important to study other organism along with humans.

Studying other organism along with humans can help distinguish differences and similarities between organisms.

How has studying other organisms increased our knowledge?

Studying other organisms has increased our knowledge about humans because humans share many characteristics with other organisms. For example, studying single-celled bacteria has allowed scientists to utilize bacteria to synthesize certain human medicines such as insulin.

Define the directional terms for the human body and use them to locate specific body structures.

The eye is lateral to the nose The navel is caudal to the chin The mental is anterior to the nuchal The axillary is lateral to the sternum The cervical is inferior to the orbital The auricular is lateral to the nasal.

Where does the forearm extend from?

The forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.

Anterior

The front of the body

What makes up the central region of the body?

The head, neck, and trunk

Locate organs in their specific cavity, abdominal quadrant, or region.

The heart is in the thoracic cavity. The stomach is in the abdominal cavity The intestine are in the abdominopelvic cavity. The bladder is in the pelvic cavity The stomach is located in the right hypochondriac and epigastric region. The intestines is in the left lower quadrant.

What is the largest organ in the body?

The liver

How is the lower limb divided?

The lower limb is divided into (1) the thigh, (2) the leg, (3) the ankle, and (4) the foot.

What divides the thoracic cavity into left and right parts?

The mediastinum

What structure divides the thoracic cavity into right and left parts?

The mediastinum

What are mesenteries? Explain their function.

The mesenteries anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs.

What are the four quadrants?

The quadrants formed are (1) the right-upper, (2) the left-upper, (3) the right-lower, and (4) the left-lower quadrants.

Describe the major trunk cavities and their divisions.

The thorax is divided by into left and right parts by the mediastinum. The thorax and abdominal area are divided by the muscle diagphragm The abdominal cavity and pubic cavity are divided by the pubic symphysis The thorax is the chest part of the trunk The abdominal area is the stomach region The pelvic cavity is the pubic region. The abdominopelvic cavity is the stomach and pelvis because some organs stretch form the stomach to the rectum.

What is the thorax?

The thorax is the chest cavity where the heart and lungs are located.

What are three regions the trunk can be divided into?

The trunk can be further divided into three regions: (1) the thorax, (2) the abdomen, and (3) the pelvis.

What are the two subdivision of the dorsal body cavity?

The two subdivision of the dorsal body cavity art (1) the cranial cavity, which houses the brain, and (2) the vertebral canal, which houses the spinal cord. Both brain and spinal cord are covered by membranes called meninges.

What are the two major subdivision of the ventral body cavity?

The ventral body cavity also has two major subdivisions, which are (1) the thoracic cavity and (2) the abdominopelvic cavity.

What does the ventral body cavity house?

The ventral body cavity houses the vast majority of our internal organs, collectively referred to as the viscera.

How many cavities does the trunk contain and what are their names?

Thoracic Abdominal Pelvic

What must we do to achieve homeostasis?

To achieve homeostasis, the body must actively regulate conditions that are constantly changing.

Parts of the lymphatic system

Tonsils Thymus Cervical lymph node Axillary lymph node Mammary plexus Thoracic duct Lymphatic vessel Spleen Inguinal lymph node

Superficial

Toward or on the surface

Dorsal

Toward the back (synonymous with posterior)

Ventral

Toward the belly (synonymous with anterior)

Left

Toward the left side of the body

Medial

Toward the midline of the body

Right

Toward the right side of the body

Cardiovascular System

Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

What are two basic principles about homeostatic mechanisms?

Two basic principles about homeostatic mechanisms to remember are that (1) many disease states result from the failure of negative-feedback mechanism to maintain homeostasis and (2) some positive-feedback mechanism can be detrimental instead of helpful.

What is a normal range?

Values around a set point that are considered safe for homeostasis.

How do variables, set points, and normal ranges relate to homeostasis?

Variables are what are effected by stimuli, they can alter the set point. Body temperature. Set point is the equilibrium that must be maintained to pursue homeostasis. 98.6 Normal ranges are ranges close to the set point but not exactly, because we constantly change temperature, we stay in a range near the set point. 97.6 or 99.6

Give an example of how negative-feedback mechanism maintains homeostasis.

When running a race the body loses oxygen causing us to breath harder to return our normal respiratory rate to homeostasis.

How did Molly's fainting and falling to the floor help establish homeostasis (assuming she was not injured)?

When she fell she was able to achieve homeostasis because her body did not have much work to do.

Growth

When you grow taller because of age or you become stronger because of training. For instance, bone grows because of an increase in cell number and the deposition of mineralized materials around the cells.

Give an example of positive-feedback mechanism that may be harmful to the body and an example of one that is not harmful.

When your body forms a blood clot, the body will send more blood and chemicals to help the clot grow until the bleeding stops. Blood clots are bad because they could cause you to die. During brith the uterus may stretch in order for the baby to be born, the body will release a chemical known as oxytocin to help the uterus stretch more than it is suppose in order for the baby to come out.

What effect would swimming in cool water have on body temperature regulation? What would happen if a negative-feedback mechanisms did not return the value of a variable, such as body temperature, to its normal range?

You would run out of breath quicker because your body has to work hard to pump blood to your muscles especially when the water is cold. You would tire out because swimming and shivering at the same time.

What does control center do?

a control center, such as part of the brain, which determines the set point for the variable and receives input from the receptor about the variable.

Transverse (cross) section.

a cut at a right angle to the length of an organ

What does a receptor do?

a receptor, which monitors the value of a variable such as body temperature by detecting stimuli.

Embryology

a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes from conception to the end of the eighth week of development.

What does an effector do?

an effector, such as sweat glands, which can adjust the value of the variable when directed by the control center, usually back toward the set point.

Parietal membranes

are found against the outer wall of a body cavity.

Visceral membranes

are found covering the organs in a body cavity.

Where is the peritoneal cavity located?

between the visceral peritoneum and the parietal peritoneum and contains peritoneal fluid.

Systemic physiology

considers the functions of organ systems.

Visceral peritoneum

covers many of the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity

Visceral pericardium

covers the heart, which is contained within a connective tissue sac lined with the parietal pericardium.

Cardiovascular physiology

deals with the heart and blood vessels.

Computed Tomography (CT)

developed in 1972 first called CAT computerized axial tomographic scans. Tubes rotates around the body, the image comes back as a slice through the body at the point where the x-ray beam was focused. Some computers are able to take several scans short distances apart and stack the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body part.

Cell physiology

examines the processes occurring in cells.

Cytology

examines the structural features of cells.

Histology

examines tissues, which are composed of cells and the materials surrounding them.

Exercise physiology

focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise.

Neurophysiology

focuses on the nervous system.

Chemical level

interactions between atoms, which are tiny building blocks of matter. Atoms coming to form molecules, such as water, sugar, lipids, and proteins. The function of a molecule is intimately related to its structure. Example - collagen molecules are ropelike protein fibers that give skin structural strength and flexibility. With old age, the structure of collagen changes, and the skin becomes fragile and more easily torn.

Surface anatomy

involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body. For example, the sternum (breastbone) and parts of the ribs can be seen and palpated (felt) on the front of the chest.

System

is a group of structures that have one or more common functions, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular systems.

Median plane

is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves.

Morphogenesis

is the change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism.

Reproduction

is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Without reproduction of cells, growth and development are not possible. Without reproduction of organisms, species become extinct.

Pathology

is the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions, as well as the structural and functional changes resulting from diseases..

Anatomy

is the scientific discipline that investigates the body's structures-for example, the shape and size of bones.

Parietal peritoneum

lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diagphragm

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

radio waves inside the body the magnetic field causes the protons of various atoms to align. Because of the water in the body, when the radio waves shut off the atoms and protons remained aligned. The time it takes the hydrogen atoms to realign is different for various body tissues. These differences can be analyzed by computers to produce very clear sections through the body. The technique is also very sensitive in detecting some forms of cancer far more readily than a CT scan.

Anatomical position

refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.

Metabolism

refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place in the cells and internal environment of an organism. Metabolism is necessary for other vital functions, such as responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction.

Transverse plane

runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.

Sagittal plane

runs vertically through the body, separating it into right and left portions.

Frontal (coronal) plane

runs vertically to divide the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Pericardial cavity

space between parietal and visceral cavities where the serous fluid is located

Developmental anatomy

studies the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood.

Pericardial cavity

the cavity between visceral and parietal pericardium containing serous fluid.

What separates the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity?

the muscular diaphragm.

Ultrasound

the second oldest imaging technique, first developed in 1950's high frequency sound waves, which are emitted from a transmitter placed on the skin. The waves strike organs and bounce back to show a picture.

Gross anatomy

the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope, can be approached systemically or regionally.

Caudal (inferior)

toward the tail

How many layers do mesenteries contain?

two layers of peritoneum fused together. They connect the visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the body wall.

What does the pelvic cavity contain?

urinary bladder part of the large intestine the internal reproductive organs.

Anatomical imaging

uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures.

Anatomical anomalies

when organs aren't structured like they are suppose too. Example - Kidney is normally supplied by one blood vessel, but in some individuals a kidney is supplied by two blood vessels.

Pericardial cavity

which contains pericardial fluid, is located between the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium