Chapter 11

-Cohesive teams with performance-oriented norms act as a substitute for most leader interventions. -High team cohesion substitutes for supportive leadership, whereas performance-oriented team norms substitute for directive and possibly achievement-oriented leadership. -Thus, when team cohesion is low, leaders should use a supportive style. -Leaders should apply a directive style to counteract team norms that oppose the team's formal objectives. -For example, the team leader may need to exert authority if team members have developed a norm to "take it easy" rather than get a project completed on time.

Describe a contingency of path goal leadership: team dynamics

-Servant leaders have a deep commitment to help others in their personal growth for that purpose alone. -This commitment is not merely an instrument to achieve company objectives. It is a selfless desire to support others that goes beyond the leader's role obligation.

Describe the characteristic of servant leadership: Natural desire or "calling" to serve others

-Directive leadership is the same as task-oriented leadership, described earlier. -This leadership style consists of clarifying behaviors that provide a psychological structure for subordinates. -It includes clarifying performance goals, the means to reach those goals, and the standards against which performance will be judged. Directive leadership also includes judicious use of rewards and disciplinary actions.

Describe the leader behavior of path goal leadership: directive

Effective leaders possess tacit and explicit knowledge of the business environment in which they operate, including subtle indications of emerging trends. Knowledge of the business also includes a good understanding of how their organization works effectively.

Describe this leadership attribute :knowledge of the business

People want to trust their leader before they are willing to serve as followers, yet the leader's actual effectiveness usually isn't known for several months or possibly years. The prototype comparison process is a quick (although faulty) way of estimating the leader's effectiveness.

Why does this prototype comparison process occur?

influencing, motivating, and enabling others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members -First, leaders motivate others through persuasion and other influence tactics. They use their communication skills, rewards, and other resources to energize the collective toward the achievement of challenging objectives. -Second, leaders are enablers. They allocate resources, alter work relationships, minimize external disruptions, and establish other work environment changes that make it easier for employees to achieve organizational objectives.

leadership

meaning that they want power to lead others in accomplishing organizational objectives and similar good deeds.

socialized power

exists because people in most cultures want to believe that leaders make a difference.

"romance of leadership" effect

Effective leaders have a high level of emotional intelligence. They are able to recognize and regulate emotions in themselves and in other people (see Chapter 4).85 For example, effective leaders can tell when their conversations are having the intended emotional effect on employees. They also are able to recognize and change their own emotional state to suit the situation, such as feeling optimistic and determined in spite of recent business setbacks.

Describe this leadership attribute: emotional intelligence

true

True or false? Personality, experience, self-concept, and other personal characteristics potentially contribute to a leader's effectiveness.

(1) employee characteristics and (2) characteristics of the employee's work environment

What are the 2 situational variable presented by path goal leadership?

-Skill and experience -Locus of control -Task structure -Team dynamics

What are the 4 main contingencies of path goal leadership?

-First, they develop their own style and, where appropriate, move into positions where that style is most effective. Although effective leaders adapt their behavior to the situation to some extent, they invariably understand and rely on decision methods and interpersonal styles that feel most comfortable to them. -Second, effective leaders continually think about and consistently apply their stable hierarchy of personal values to those decisions and behaviors. Leaders face many pressures and temptations, such as achieving short-term stock price targets at the cost of long-term profitability. Experts note that authentic leaders demonstrate self-discipline by remaining anchored to their values. -Third, leaders maintain consistency around their self-concept by having a strong, positive core self-evaluation. They have high self- esteem and self-efficacy as well as an internal locus of control

What are the ways in which leaders regulate their decisions and behaviors?

is a personal trait or relational quality that provides referent power over followers, -transformational leadership, on the other hand, is a set of behaviors that engage followers toward a better future.

charisma

a theory stating that people evaluate a leader's effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviors of effective leaders (leadership prototypes) and that people tend to inflate the influence of leaders on organizational events -perspective has two components: leader prototypes and the romance of leadership -perspective provides valuable advice to improve leadership acceptance. It highlights the fact that leadership is a perception of followers as much as the actual behaviors and formal roles of people calling themselves leaders. Potential leaders must be sensitive to this fact, understand what followers expect, and act accordingly. Individuals who do not naturally fit leadership prototypes need to provide more direct evidence of their effectiveness as leaders.

implicit leadership

preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviors of effective leaders -develop through socialization within the family and society, shape the follower's expectations and acceptance of someone as a leader -These expectations and affirmations influence the employee's willingness to be a follower. -Leadership prototypes not only support a person's role as leader; they also influence follower perceptions of the leader's effectiveness. -In other words, a leader is often perceived as more effective when he or she looks like and acts consistently with the prototype of a leader.

leadership prototypes

a leadership perspective stating that effective leaders help employees improve their performance and well-being toward current objectives and practices

managerial leadership

theory a leadership theory stating that effective leaders choose the most appropriate leadership style(s), depending on the employee and situation, to influence employee expectations about desired results and their positive outcomes -Leaders clarify the link between employee behaviors and outcomes, influence the valence of those outcomes, provide a work environment to facilitate goal accomplishment, and so forth

path-goal leadership

includes behaviors such as listening to employees' ideas, creating a pleasant physical work environment, showing interest in staff, appreciating employees for their contributions, and showing consideration of employee needs. -When leaders apply high levels of people-oriented leadership behavior, their employees tend to have more positive attitudes as well as lower absenteeism, grievances, stress, and turnover.

people oriented leadership

the desire to have power for personal gain or for the thrill one might experience from wielding power over others

personalized power

a positive image or model of the future that energizes and unifies employees -Sometimes this vision is created by the leader; at other times, it is formed by employees or other stakeholders and then adopted and championed by the formal leader

vision

-People with an internal locus of control believe that they have control over their work environment -Consequently, these employees prefer participative and achievement-oriented leadership styles and may become frustrated with a directive style. In contrast, people with an external locus of control believe that their performance is due more to luck and fate, so they tend to be more satisfied with directive and supportive leadership.

Describe a contingency of path goal leadership: locus of control

-A combination of directive and supportive leadership is best for employees who are (or perceive themselves to be) inexperienced and unskilled. -Directive leadership involves providing information about how to accomplish the task, whereas supportive leadership offers support to cope with the uncertainties of unfamiliar work situations. -This style is detrimental when employees are skilled and experienced because it introduces too much supervisory control.

Describe a contingency of path goal leadership: skill and experience

-Leaders should adopt the directive style when the task is nonroutine because this style minimizes the role ambiguity that tends to occur in complex work situations (particularly for inexperienced employees).56 -The directive style is ineffective when employees have routine and simple tasks because the manager's guidance serves no purpose and may be viewed as unnecessarily micromanaging. -Employees in highly routine and simple jobs may require supportive leadership to help them cope with the tedious nature of the work and lack of control over the pace of work. -Participative leadership is preferred for employees performing nonroutine tasks because the lack of rules and procedures gives them more discretion to achieve challenging goals. The participative style is ineffective for employees in routine tasks because they lack discretion over their work.

Describe a contingency of path goal leadership: task structure

-culture shapes the leader's values and norms, which influence his or her decisions and actions. -Cultural values also shape the expectations that followers have of their leaders. An executive who acts inconsistently with cultural expectations is more likely to be perceived as an ineffective leader. -Furthermore, leaders who deviate from those values may experience various forms of influence to get them to conform to the leadership norms and expectations of the society. -Thus, differences in leadership practices across cultures are partly explained by implicit leadership theory, which was described earlier in this chapter. -A major global research project over the past two decades has found that some features of leadership are universal and some differ across cultures.90 -One leadership category, called "charismatic visionary," is a universally recognized concept and middle managers around the world believe it is characteristic of effective leaders. -Charismatic visionary represents a cluster of concepts including visionary, inspirational, performance orientation, integrity, and decisiveness.91 In contrast, participative leadership is perceived as characteristic of effective leadership in low power distance cultures but less so in high power distance cultures. In summary, some features of leadership are universal and some differ across cultures.

Describe cross cultural issues in leadership:

found that male and female leaders do not differ in their levels of task-oriented or people-oriented leadership. -The main explanation is that real-world jobs require similar behavior from male and female job incumbents.92 -However, women do adopt a participative leadership style more readily than their male counterparts. -One possible reason is that, compared to boys, girls are often raised to be more egalitarian and less status-oriented, which is consistent with being participative. -There is also some evidence that, compared to men, women have somewhat better interpersonal skills, and this translates into their relatively greater use of the participative leadership style. -A third explanation is that employees, on the basis of their own gender stereotypes, expect female leaders to be more participative, so female leaders comply with follower expectations to some extent women are rated higher than men on the emerging leadership qualities of coaching, teamwork, and empowering employees.93 Yet research also suggests that -women are evaluated negatively when they try to apply the full range of leadership styles, particularly more directive and autocratic approaches. Thus, ironically, women may be well suited to contemporary leadership roles, yet they often continue to face limitations of leadership due to followers' gender stereotypes and prototypes of leaders.94 Overall, both male and female leaders must be sensitive to the fact that followers have expectations about how leaders should act. Leaders who deviate from those expectations may discover that followers evaluate them more harshly.

Describe gender and leadership issues

-Servant leaders display sensitivity to and enactment of moral values. They are not swayed by deviant social pressures or expectations. Servant leaders maintain moral integrity by relying on personal values to anchor their decisions and behavior. -Relies heavily on authentic leadership

Describe the characteristic of servant leadership: Ethical decisions and behavior

Servant leaders do not view leadership as a position of power. Rather, they serve without drawing attention to themselves, without evoking superior status, and without being judgmental about others or defensive of criticisms received.

Describe the characteristic of servant leadership: Humble, egalitarian, accepting relationship with followers

-Transformational leadership identifies, communicates, and builds commitment to a better future for the organization or work unit. But these transformational leadership behaviors are not enough for organizational success. -That success also requires managerial leadership to translate the abstract vision into more specific operational behaviors and practices, and to continuously improve employee performance and well-being in the pursuit of that future ideal. -Managerial leadership also depends on transformational leadership to set the right direction. Otherwise, managers might produce operational excellence toward goals that are misaligned with the organization's long-term survival. -However, managerial and transformational leadership are not embodied in different people or positions in the organization. Every manager needs to apply both transformational and managerial leadership behaviors to varying degrees. Indeed, even frontline nonmanagement employees who engage in shared leadership may be managerial (helping coworkers through a difficult project) or transformational (championing more customer-friendly norms in the work unit).

Describe the interdependent relationship of managerial and transformational leadership:

-This leadership style emphasizes behaviors that encourage employees to reach their peak performance. -The leader sets challenging goals, expects employees to perform at their highest level, continuously seeks improvement in employee performance, and shows a high degree of confidence that employees will assume responsibility and accomplish challenging goals. -Achievement-oriented leadership applies goal-setting theory as well as positive expectations in self-fulfilling prophecy.

Describe the leader behavior of path goal leadership: achievement oriented

-Participative leadership behaviors encourage and facilitate employee involvement in decisions beyond their normal work activities. -The leader consults with his or her staff, asks for their suggestions, and carefully reflects on employee views before making a decision. -Participative leadership relates to involving employees in decisions

Describe the leader behavior of path goal leadership: participative

-Supportive leadership is the same as people-oriented leadership, described earlier. -This style provides psychological support for subordinates. -The leader is friendly and approachable; makes the work more pleasant; treats employees with respect; and shows concern for the status, needs, and well-being of employees.

Describe the leader behavior of path goal leadership: supportive

-Their words, symbols, and stories build a contagious enthusiasm that energizes people to adopt the vision as their own. -Leaders demonstrate a can-do attitude by enacting and behaving consistently with their vision. -This persistence and consistency reflect an image of honesty, trust, and integrity. -By encouraging experimentation, leaders involve employees in the change process so it is a collective activity. -Leaders also build commitment through rewards, recognition, and celebrations as employees pass milestones along the road to the desired vision.

Describe this element of transformational leadership: build commitment toward the vision

Sometimes this vision is created by the leader; at other times, it is formed by employees or other stakeholders and then adopted and championed by the formal leader An effective strategic vision has several identifiable features.15 -It refers to an idealized future with a higher purpose. This purpose is associated with personal values that directly or indirectly fulfill the needs of multiple stakeholders. A values-based vision is particularly meaningful and appealing to employees, which energizes them to strive for that ideal. Another reason why a strategic vision motivates employees is because it is a distant goal that is both challenging and abstract. A vision is challenging because it requires substantial transformation, such as new work practices and belief systems. -Its abstract: -----One reason is that the vision hasn't yet been experienced (at least, not in this company or industry), so it isn't possible to detail exactly what the vision looks like. -----The other reason is that an abstract description enables the vision to remain stable over time, yet is sufficiently flexible to accommodate operational adjustments in a shifting external environment. -it is unifying. It is a superordinate objective that bonds employees together and aligns their personal values with the organization's values. In fact, a successful vision is really a shared vision because employees collectively define themselves by this aspirational image of the future as part of their identification with the organization.

Describe this element of transformational leadership: develop and communicate a strategic vision

-Transformational leadership is about change, and central to any change is discovering new behaviors and practices that are better aligned with the desired vision. -Transformational leaders support this journey by encouraging employees to question current practices and to experiment with new ways that are potentially more consistent with the vision's future state.26 -They support a learning orientation. -They want employees to continuously question current practices, actively experiment with new ideas and work processes, and view reasonable mistakes as a natural part of the learning process.

Describe this element of transformational leadership: encourage experimentation

-Transformational leaders enact the vision; they "walk the talk" model the vision through significant events such as visiting customers, moving their offices closer to (or further from) employees, and holding ceremonies to symbolize significant change. -However, they also enact the vision by ensuring that routine daily activities—meeting agendas, dress codes, executive schedules—are consistent with the vision and its underlying values. -Modeling the vision legitimizes and demonstrates what the vision looks like in practice. It also builds employee trust in the leader. The greater the consistency between the leader's words and actions, the more employees will believe in and be willing to follow the leader.

Describe this element of transformational leadership: model the vision

Related to their high conscientiousness, extraversion, and self-evaluation, successful leaders have a moderately high need for achievement (see Chapter 5). This drive represents the inner motivation that leaders possess to pursue their goals and encourage others to move forward with theirs. Drive inspires inquisitiveness, an action orientation, and measured boldness to take the organization or team into uncharted waters.

Describe this leadership attribute: drive

Integrity involves having strong moral principles, which supports the tendency to be truthful and to be consistent in words and deeds. Leaders have a high moral capacity to judge dilemmas using sound values and to act accordingly. Notice that integrity is ultimately based on the leader's values, which provide an anchor for consistency. Several large-scale studies have reported that employees identify integrity and honesty as the most important characteristics of effective leaders

Describe this leadership attribute: integrity

Effective leaders don't just view themselves as leaders. They also are motivated to lead others. They have a strong need for socialized power, meaning that they want power to lead others in accomplishing organizational objectives and similar good deeds. This contrasts with a need for personalized power, which is the desire to have power for personal gain or for the thrill one might experience from wielding power over others (see Chapter 5).80 Leadership motivation is also necessary because, even in organizations where coworkers support each other, leaders are in contests for positions further up the hierarchy. Effective leaders thrive rather than wither in the face of this competition

Describe this leadership attribute: leadership motivation

five personality dimensions (see Chapter 2) are associated with effective leadership.77 However, the strongest predictors are high levels of extraversion (outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive) and conscientiousness (careful, dependable, and self-disciplined). With high extraversion, effective leaders are comfortable having an influential role in social settings. With higher conscientiousness, effective leaders set higher goals for themselves (and others), are organized, and have a strong sense of duty to fulfill work obligations.

Describe this leadership attribute: personality

Leaders have above-average cognitive ability to process enormous amounts of information. Leaders aren't necessarily geniuses; rather, they have a superior ability to analyze a variety of complex alternatives and opportunities. Furthermore, leaders have practical intelligence. This means that they can think through the relevance and application of ideas in real-world settings. Practical intelligence is particularly evident where problems are poorly defined, information is missing, and more than one solution may be plausible.

Describe this leadership attribute:cognitive and practical intelligence

Successful leaders have a complex, internally consistent, and clear self-concept as a leader (see Chapter 3). This "leader identity" also includes a positive self-evaluation, including high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and internal locus of control.78 Many people in leadership positions default to daily managerial leadership and define themselves as managers. Effective leaders, on the other hand, view themselves as both transformational and managerial, and are confident with both of these self-views.

Describe this leadership attribute:self concept

-evidence suggests that charisma is distinctly different from transformational leadership -Charisma is a personal trait or relational quality that provides referent power over followers, whereas transformational leadership is a set of behaviors that engage followers toward a better future -motivates followers through behaviors that persuade and earn trust, whereas charismatic leadership motivates followers directly through the leader's inherent referent power -For instance, communicating an inspiring vision is a transformational leadership behavior that motivates followers to strive for that vision. This motivational effect exists separate from the leader's charismatic appeal. If the leader is highly charismatic, however, his or her charisma will amplify follower motivation. -Being charismatic is not inherently good or bad, but several research studies have concluded that charismatic leadership can produce negative consequences.31 -One concern is that charismatic leadership tends to produce dependent followers. -Transformational leadership has the opposite effect—it builds follower empowerment, which tends to reduce dependence on the leader. -Another concern is that leaders who possess the gift of charisma may become intoxicated by this power, which leads to a greater focus on self-interest than on the common good.32 -The main point here is that transformational leaders are not necessarily charismatic, and charismatic leaders are not necessarily transformational.

Describe transformational leadership and charisma:

benefits -one study reported that path-goal theory explains more about effective leadership than does the transformational leadership model.57 This stronger effect is likely because most managers spend more of their time engaging in managerial rather than transformational leadership contingencies -A few contingencies (e.g., task structure) have limited research support. Other contingencies and leadership styles in the path-goal leadership model haven't been investigated at all. -Another concern is that as path-goal theory expands, the model may become too complex for practical use. Few people would be able to remember all the contingencies and the appropriate leadership styles for those contingencies. -Another limitation of path-goal theory is its assumption that effective leaders can fluidly adapt their behavior and managerial styles to the immediate situation. In reality, it takes considerable effort to choose and enact different styles to match the situation. Leaders typically prefer one style that is most consistent with their personality and values. -They seem to be less flexible as path-goal theory assumes shifting to the other styles. Some experts even suggest that leadership styles are hardwired. -Leaders with high agreeableness personality and benevolence values tend to prefer supportive leadership, for example, whereas leaders with high conscientiousness personality and achievement values feel more comfortable with the directive style of leadership.62 If managerial styles are anchored in personal characteristics, then it may be better to move managers to situations that fit their preferred leadership style than to expect managers to fluidly change style with the situation.

Evaluate path goal theory (benefits/limitations)

benefits -Subordinates are more satisfied and have higher affective organizational commitment under transformational leaders. They also perform their jobs better, engage in more organizational citizenship behaviors, and make better or more creative decisions concerns -some transformational leadership models and measures suffer from circular logic. They define and measure transformational leadership by its effects on employees and then measure that effect as an outcome of transformational leadership. For example, they measure transformational leadership by how much employees are inspired by the leader, then they report (not surprisingly) that transformational leadership is effective because it inspires employees. -second concern is that some transformational leadership theories combine leader behaviors with the personal characteristics of leaders. For instance, transformational leaders are described as visionary, imaginative, sensitive, and thoughtful, yet these personal characteristics are really predictors of transformational leadership behaviors -A third concern is that transformational leadership is usually described as a universal concept; the theory implies that it should be applied in all situations. Only a few studies have investigated whether this transformational leadership is more valuable in some situations than others.36 Preliminary evidence suggests that the transformational leadership perspective is relevant across cultures. However, there may be specific elements of transformational leadership, such as the way visions are communicated and modeled, that are more appropriate in North America than in other cultures.

Evaluate the transformational leadership perspective

-Effective transformational leaders generate meaning and motivation in followers by relying on symbols, metaphors, stories, and other vehicles that transcend plain language.18 Metaphors and related communication tools "frame" the vision, meaning that they guide or construct the listener's mental model of the situation. -Borrowing images from other experiences creates a richer understanding of the abstract vision. These communication tools also generate desired emotions, which motivate people to pursue the vision. -Transformational leaders also communicate the vision with humility, sincerity, and a level of passion that reflects their personal belief in the vision and optimism that employees can succeed. They strengthen team orientation and employee self-efficacy by referring to the team's strengths and potential. By focusing on shared experiences and the central role of employees in achievement of the vision, transformational leaders suppress leader-follower differences, deflect attention from themselves, and avoid any image of superiority over the team

How do you communicate the vision?

-Yes -The theory contends that effective leaders are capable of selecting the most appropriate behavioral style (or styles) for each situation. Leaders often use two or more styles at the same time, if these styles are appropriate for the circumstances. -The model specifies two sets of situational variables: (1) employee characteristics and (2) characteristics of the employee's work environment

Is path goal leadership a contingency theory?

-First, it assumes that all effective leaders have the same personal characteristics that are equally important in all situations. This is probably a false assumption; leadership is far too complex to have a universal list of traits that apply to every condition. Some attributes might not be important all the time. -Second, alternative combinations of attributes may be equally successful; two people with different sets of personal characteristics might be equally good leaders. -Third, the personal attributes perspective views leadership as something within a person, yet experts emphasize that leadership is relational. People are effective leaders because of their favorable relationships with followers, not just because they possess specific personal characteristics. -Also remember from our discussion earlier in this chapter that, in the short term, followers tend to define others as effective or ineffective leaders based on their personal characteristics rather than whether the leader actually makes a difference to the organization's success. People who exhibit self-confidence, extraversion, and other traits are called leaders because they fit the widely held prototype of an effective leader. Alternatively, if someone is successful, observers might assign several nonobservable personal characteristics to him or her, such as intelligence, confidence, and drive. In short, the link between personal characteristics and effective leadership is muddied by several perceptual distortions. -The personal attributes perspective of leadership does not necessarily imply that leadership is a talent acquired at birth. On the contrary, attributes indicate only leadership potential, not leadership performance. People with these characteristics become effective leaders only after they have developed and mastered the necessary leadership behaviors. However, even those with fewer leadership attributes may become very effective leaders by more fully developing their potential.

What are some of the leadership attributes that have limitations?

-Build commitment to the vision -develop/communicate a strategic vision -Model the vision -Encourage experimentation

What are the 4 elements of transformational leadership?

One distinction is that managerial leadership assumes the organization's (or department's) objectives are stable and aligned with the external environment, whereas transformational leadership assumes the organization (or department) is misaligned with its environment and therefore needs to change its direction -managers "do things right," which means that managerial leadership behaviors focus on making employees and work units more effective at established objectives and practices. In contrast, leaders "do the right thing," which means that transformational leadership behaviors change the organization or work unit so its objectives are aligned more closely with the external environment. A second distinction is that managerial leadership is more micro-focused and concrete because it relates to the specific performance and well-being objectives of individual employees and the immediate work unit. Transformational leadership is more macro-focused and abstract. It is directed toward an imprecise strategic vision for an entire organization, department, or team.

What are the distinctions between managerial and transformational leadership?

-Personality -Self concept -Leadership motivation -Drive -Integrity -Knowledge of the business -Cognitive and practical intelligence -Emotional intelligence

What are the main leadership attributes?

-Directive -Supportive -Participative -Achievement oriented

What are the path goal leadership leader behaviors?

-Natural desire or "calling" to serve others -Humble, egalitarian, accepting relationship with followers -Ethical decisions and behavior

What are the three characteristics of servant leadership?

-First, leadership is a useful way for us to simplify life events. It is easier to explain organizational successes and failures in terms of the leader's ability than by analyzing a complex array of other forces. -Second, there is a strong tendency in the United States and other Western cultures to believe that life events are generated more by people than by uncontrollable natural forces -One way that followers inflate their perceptions that leaders make a difference is through fundamental attribution error (see Chapter 3). Research has found that (at least in Western cultures) leaders are given credit or blame for the company's success or failure because employees do not readily see the external forces that also influence these events. Leaders reinforce this belief by taking credit for organizational successes.

What are the two basic reasons people overestimate the leader's influence on organizational outcomes?

-task oriented -people oriented

What are the two clusters of leadership?

the view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality, and self-concept -Authenticity is mainly about knowing yourself and being yourself (see Exhibit 11.5). -Leaders learn more about their personality, values, thoughts, and habits by reflecting on various situations and personal experiences. They also improve this self-awareness by receiving feedback from trusted people inside and outside the organization. -Both self-reflection and receptivity to feedback require high levels of emotional intelligence. -As people learn more about themselves, they gain a greater understanding of their inner purpose, which, in turn, generates a long-term passion for achieving something worthwhile for the organization or society. Some leadership experts suggest that this inner purpose emerges from a life story, typically initiated by a transformative event or experience earlier in life -also involves behaving in ways that are consistent with that self- concept rather than pretending to be someone else. It is difficult enough to lead others as your natural self; to lead others while pretending to be someone else is nearly impossible.

authentic leadership

a theory identifying conditions that either limit a leader's ability to influence subordinates or make a particular leadership style unnecessary -Consistent with path-goal theory, task-oriented leadership is likely less valuable for employees as they gain skill and experience in the job.64 This leadership style also may be redundant or have less value when performance-based reward systems keep employees directed toward organizational goals, when the work is intrinsically motivating, and when the employee applies self-leadership practices (engages in self-set goals, self-reinforcement, positive self-talk, etc). Teams likely substitute for task-oriented leadership.65 Team norms that support organizational goals motivate team members to encourage (or pressure) coworkers to perform their tasks and possibly even to apply achievement-oriented performance expectations.66 Coworkers also engage in organizational citizenship behaviors by instructing less-experienced employees, thereby requiring less task-oriented leadership from the formal manager. -People-oriented leadership may be less valuable for employee well-being when other forms of social support are available (such as supportive team members) and when the employee applies other mechanisms to minimize his or her stress (such as using effective coping strategies and experiencing intrinsically satisfying work). Skilled and experienced employees also have higher self-efficacy, which results in less stressful work and therefore less need for people-oriented leadership interaction from the boss. -The leadership substitutes model has intuitive appeal, but the evidence so far is mixed. Some studies show that a few substitutes do replace the need for task- or people-oriented leadership, but others do not. The difficulties of statistically testing for leadership substitutes may account for some problems, but a few writers contend that the limited support is evidence that leadership plays a critical role regardless of the situation.67 At this point, we can conclude that leadership substitutes might reduce the need for leaders, but they do not completely replace leaders in these situations.

leadership substitutes theory

the view that leaders serve followers, rather than vice versa; leaders help employees fulfill their needs and are coaches, stewards, and facilitators of employee development -servant leaders assist others in their need fulfillment, personal development, and growth. -Servant leaders have been described as selfless, egalitarian, humble, nurturing, empathetic, and ethical coaches. The main objective of servant leadership is to help followers and other stakeholders fulfill their needs and potential, particularly "to become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants. -Has three key features: humble, natural desire to serve others -Ethical decisions and behaviors -One study also found that companies have higher performance (return on assets) when their chief executive officer exhibits servant leadership behaviors.

servant leadership

the view that leadership is a role, not a position assigned to one person; consequently, people within the team and organization lead each other -companies are far more effective when everyone assumes leadership responsibilities in various ways and at various times -Shared leadership typically supplements formal leadership; that is, employees lead along with the formal manager, rather than as a replacement for that manager flourishes in organizations where the formal leaders are willing to delegate power and encourage employees to take initiative and risks without fear of failure (i.e., a learning orientation culture). -calls for a collaborative rather than internally competitive culture because employees succeed in shared leadership roles only when their coworkers support them in these roles. -lacks formal authority, so it operates best when employees learn to influence others through their enthusiasm, logical analysis, and involvement of coworkers in their idea or vision.

shared leadersship

includes behaviors that define and structure work roles. -Task-oriented leaders assign employees to specific tasks, set goals and deadlines, clarify work duties and procedures, define work procedures, and plan work activities. -When leaders apply task-oriented leadership behaviors, their employees tend to have higher job performance. Not surprisingly, employees generally prefer people-oriented bosses and they form negative attitudes toward bosses who are mostly task-oriented. -However, task-oriented leadership also is appreciated to some degree. For example, college students value task-oriented instructors because those instructors provide clear expectations and well-prepared lectures that abide by the course objectives

task-oriented leadership

a leadership perspective that explains how leaders change teams or organizations by creating, communicating, and modeling a vision for the organization or work unit and inspiring employees to strive for that vision -View leaders as change agents --move the organization or work unit in a new direction that will provide better opportunities and alignment with the external environment. -Transformational leaders create, communicate, and model a shared vision for the team or organization. -They encourage experimentation so employees find a better path to the future.

transformational leadership