Chapter 24: Baroque Art by tennislove (POPES, PEASANTS, MONARCHS, AND MERCHANTS)

Dutch Baroque Basics

simplicity, sincerity, Rise of middle class, subtleties of light, protestant

Figure 24-3/4; Piazza; by Bernini; welcoming arms 1656- 1667; Italian Sculpture and Architecture, Vatican City, Rome, Italy

*17th century clergy rejected the central plan b/c of its association with pagan buildings, such as the Pantheon; the longitudinal plan reinforced the symbolic distinction between clergy and laity and provided a space for processions *Unfortunately, the longer nave pushed back the dome—now not readily visible from the front *Design and piazza finally completed by Bernini, most important artist of the Italian Baroque—created a vast oval embraced by two colonnades made up of four rows of huge Tuscan columns, which terminate in Classical temple fronts *Dramatic embracing gesture symbolizes the welcoming arms of the Catholic Church *Trapezoidal shape/diverging wings emphasize height of cathedral and brings façade closer to viewers *Tuscan (Etruscan) columns: resembles Greek Doric column but is made of travertine, is unfluted, and has a base -welcoming arms= "we welcome Protestants back to the church as well as new members"

Poussin

*After 1640, classicism was supreme in France *Poussin was the first French painter in history to win international fame, but he spent most of his career in Rome, where he was most influenced by Raphael *He embraced a style of severe discipline in response to what he called the excesses of the Baroque *He wrote that the highest aim of painting is to represent noble and serious human actions; he appealed to the mind rather than the senses and stressed form and composition above color *His "ideal landscapes" have an austere beauty and somber calm, also called HEROIC landscapes

Figure 24-18; Conversion of St. Paul; by Caravaggio Baroque drama; 1601; oil on canvas; tenebrism (stark light/ dark contrast); low horizon line; Italian Painting; Rome, Italy

*Although sculpture and architecture easily showed manipulation of space, ptg cont'd to be important *Named Caravaggio after the Northern Italian town he came from *Had outspoken disdain for the classical masters; a critic said he threatened the whole classical tradition of Italian art—also had a troubled life reconstructed from police records *Received many commissions and had immense influence on other artists: injected a naturalism into both religion and the classics, reducing them to human dramas played out in the dingy, harsh settings of his time and place; used unidealized, recognizable figures from the fields and streets *This painting illustrates the conversion of the Pharisee Saul to the disciple Paul—depicted midconversion, flat on his back with arms thrown up; old hostler in background seems preoccupied with caring for the horse *Little suggests the spiritual significance of the momentous event; viewer seems to witness a mere stable accident—Caravaggio used a perspective and chiaroscuro intended to bring viewer as close as possible; sense of inclusion augmented by low horizon line; positioned at viewer's line of sight at entrance to chapel *Sharply lit figures seem to appear from the background; actual light from chapel windows creates a stage lighting—stark light/dark contrast (tenebrism) inspired & shocked contemporaries—it symbolizes the light of divine revelation converting Saul—stark light/dark contrast (tenebrism) inspired & shocked contemporaries—it symbolizes the light of divine revelation converting Saul -oil on canvas, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, Italy; old man caring for horse looks on, perspective and chiaroscuro, low horizon line, dramatic lighting, tenebrism, models are ordinary people, foreshortening

Figure 24-9; Ecstasy of St. Teresa; by Bernini; Baroque drama; 1645-1652; marble; Italian Sculpture and Architecture; mystical drama

*Bernini utilized the full capabilities of architecture, sculpture, and painting to charge the entire area with palpable tension—did this by drawing on his knowledge of the theater as a playwright and stage designer *Saint Theresa was a nun of the Carmelite order and one of the great mystical saints of the Counter Reformation—her conversion occurred after the death of her father, when she fell into trances, saw visions, and heard voices; she felt a persistent pain she attributed to the fire-tipped arrow of Divine Love that an angel had thrust repeatedly into her heart; she described the experience in her writings as a swoon of delightful anguish, unmistakably both physical and spiritual; the drapery folds convey the sensuous body underneath *She swoons on a cloud while the smiling angel aims an arrow—entirely made of marble, with extremely skillful differentiation in texture among the clouds, monk's cloth, skin, feathery wings, and gauzy material *Painted bronze rays suggest the radiance of Heaven—inspires devotion in Counter-Reformation *Supported by hidden metal bars sunk deep into the chapel wall *Teresa of Avila is one of the great saints of the Coutner-Reformation *This church is Santa Maria della Vittoria, and this sculpture is in the CORNARO CHAPEL, whose marble figures are placed in seats on the side balconies, resembling theater boxes next to the "stage" where the St. Theresa sculpture is *Above it is an illusionistic fresco by Abbatinin on the vault of the chapel, which reveals the glory of the heavens as a dazzling burst of light and clouds of jubilant angels *The total effect includes 3 spaces: 1) ours/real/human/balconies; 2) ecstasy—real but beyond our reach; 3)ceiling—infinite, unfathomable space of heaven *St. Theresa wrote that this moment was "the sweetest caressing of the soul by God" *In a different context, the angel would be indistinguishable from Cupid -marble, turns stone into flesh, no contained energy but released energy, added element of time, variety of textures, lots of color in different types of marble, the Cornarrow family looking into it

Figure 24-72; Dome of the Invalides; by Mansart; French classical; 1676-1706

*French "Classical-Baroque" embraced polished dignity compared with the more daring and fanciful styles in Italy, but this makes reference to Italian Baroque architecture in grouping of orders and framed bays *Intricately composed dome of great scale; attached to the veterans' hospital Louis XIV set up for the disabled soldiers of his many wars *Two firmly separated levels, the upper one pedimented, create the frontispiece *The compact façade is low and narrow in relation to the vast drum and dome, seeming to serve simply as a base for them; the overpowering dome shows Italian Baroque love for dramatic magnitude/theatrical effect *The dome is built of three shells, the lowest cut off so that a visitor to the interior looks up through it to the one above, which is painted illusionistically with the apotheosis (deification) of Saint Louis, patron of France; the second dome is filled with light from hidden windows in the third, outermost dome, giving an impression of the space and brightness of the heavens *Below, the building's interior is dimly illuminated *Plan consists of a Greek cross with 4 corner chapels *Ultimately based on Michelangelo's plan for St. Peter's Cathedral *Façade uses crescendo effect introduced by Michelangelo *On the first drum rests a surprisingly narrow second drum

Figure 24-52; The Letter; by Vermeer; light and culture; 1666; oil on canvas; Holland; camera obscura

*GENRE SCENES were everyday life pictures that range from tavern brawls to refined domestic interiors *Vermeer had hardly any narrative—instead he showed single figures, usually women, engaging in simple, everyday tasks *He was enchanted by the poetic possibilities of natural daylight—world shines with jewel-like freshness *The sense of peace, familiarity, and comfort that Dutch landscape paintings seem to exude also emerges in interior scenes, offering the viewer glimpses into the lives of prosperous, responsible, and cultured citizens *Best known and most highly regarded artist is Vermeer, who derived most of his income as an innkeeper and art dealer; painted no more than 35 pieces that can be definitively attributed to him *His works are small and luminous; Flemish artists of 15th century had painted domestic interiors, but mostly subjects were sacred, such as Merode Altarpiece *In contrast, Vermeer painted daily tasks or recreation of men, women, and children of middle class—showing a simple beauty in domesticity *This painting is of a well-appointed house; drawn curtain and open doorway reinforce the viewers' status as outsiders and affirm the scene's "unplanned, normal" reality *Women usually in charge of domestic sphere; here the woman is not involved in chores, suggesting a woman of considerable means; rather, her lute playing has been interrupted by a maid who has delivered a love letter, apparent because the lute was a traditional symbol of the music of love, and the calm seascape on the back wall served as a symbol of love requited (sea = love's changeableness)—he typically used low-key color and asymmetrical but strongly geometric organization, and brushwork is so controlled that it becomes invisible *Used mirrors and camera obscura (early camera) to help him with subtle modulation—far ahead of his time in color science: showed that colors made up shadows and reflections modified other surfaces nearby; understood "circles of confusion"—blurriness up close that comes into focus away *Achieved his effects through a consistent architectonic composition of space in which every object adds to balance; master of light—pic surface becomes pane of glass -lady of the house playing the lute-> wealthy society; receives a love letter from servant; camera obscura- ancestor of the modern camera based on passing light through a tiny pinhole or lens to project an image on a screen or the wall of a room

Velazquez Information

*Painted in a Caraveggesque vein during his early years in Seville, but was more interested in genre and stilllifes than religious scenes *Late 1620's, Velazquez was appointed court painter to Philip IV, whose reign represents the great age of painting in Spain *Credit goes to Duke of Olivares, who largely restored Spain's fortunes and supported ambitious artistic patronage to proclaim the monarchy's greatness *Velazquez moved to Madrid from Seville—lived in court and mostly did portraits of the royal family *Rubens visited him there and helped him discover the King's collection of Titians, which influenced Velazquez's fluency and richness*In Las Meninas, he challenges us to find the varieties of direct and reflected light—he focused on the optical qualities of light more completely than any artist of his time *Like Vermeer in Holland, light creates the visible world

Rembrandt from Holland

*The greatest genius of Dutch art! *Inspired at the beginning of his career by indirect contact with Caravaggio *Many paintings deal with Old Testament subjects, a lifelong preference *Paintings show both greater realism AND a new emotional attitude *He had a "lay Christian" spirit similar to Caravaggio—showed direct accounts of God's ways with his human creations; he sought to rival the work of Rubens *He was Amsterdam's most sought-after portraitist: he was anxious to avoid mechanical, regular designs in earlier group portraits. (Only Hals had overcome these problems successfully.)

Figure 24-56; Still Life; by Kalf; color and allegory; 1669; Holland

*The popularity of still lifes was due to the pride of Dutch in their material goods and wealth—pics are both scientific in their optical accuracy and poetic in their beauty and lyricism *Kalf was enamored by the lustrous sheen of fabric and highlights glinting off reflective surfaces; his works present an array of ornamental objects, such as the Venetian and Dutch glassware and the silver dish *Also functioned as a vanitas painting: a reminder of death and life's transience; each feature is called a memento mori: here, the watch, Mediterranean peach, and peeled lemon *Kalf also highlighted the expansiveness of Dutch maritime trade through his depiction of the Indian floral carpet and the Chinese jar used to store ginger (a luxury item)

Important Counter-Reformation Belief

The mysteries of faith are revealed not by intellectual speculation but spontaneously, through an inward experience open to all people

BAROQUE: CHARGING OF SPACE WITH ACTIVE ENERGY--BERNINI VS. BORROMINI:

Bernini was a self-assured, expansive person of the world *His rival Borromini was the opposite: a secretive and emotionally unstable genius who died by suicide *BERNINI'S design for St. Peter's colonnade is dramatically simple and unified; BORROMINI'S structures are extravagantly complex *Bernini denounced Borromini for his flagrant disregard of the classical tradition, important in Renaissance theory and practice, that architecture must reflect the proportions of the human body; BOTH THE BAROQUE AND HIGH RENAISSANCE ARTISTS ACKNOWLEDGED THE AUTHORITY OF ANCIENT ART, BUT EACH PERIOD DREW INSPIRATION FROM A DIFFERENT ASPECT OF ANTIQUITY (Ex: Bernini's David is closely related to Hellenistic sculpture, such as the Pergamon frieze)

Figure 24-5; Baldacchino; by Bernini; extravagance; 1624-1633; gilded bronze; Italian Sculpture and Architecture; interior of St. Peter's (Vatican City)

*Bernini worked on this interior decoration long before the planning of the piazza *The gigantic bronze canopy under the great dome stands almost 100 feet high (the height of an average eight-story building) *Serves both functional and symbolic purposes: marks the high altar and the tomb of St. Peter, it visually bridges human scale to the lofty vaults and dome above and it provides a dramatic presence at the crossing; its columns create a visual frame for the elaborate sculpture representing the throne of St. Peter at the far end *Partially fluted and wreathed with vines, it recalls the ancient baldacchino over the same spot in Old St. Peter's; four colossal angels stand guard at the upper corners of the canopy *The apex is made up of four serpentine brackets that elevate the orb and the cross, symbols of the Church's triumph since the time of Constantine *Baldacchino also features numerous bees, symbols of the Barberini family (Pope Urban VIII =Maffeo Barberini) *Each of the bronze columns was cast in five sections using the lost-wax method from wooden models; the bronze was acquired on Urban VIII's orders by dismantling the portico of the Pantheon (ideologically appropriate, given Church's rejection of paganism) *Shows Baroque artists' desire to combine architecture and sculpture so that works no longer fit a single category; sides hung with tasseled panels in imitation of a cloth canopy *Twisted columns symbolize union of Old and New Testaments -gilded bronze, combination of architecture and sculpture, very expensive

Figure 24-7; David; by Bernini; Baroque Dynamic; 1623; marble; Italian Sculpture and Architecture; element of time

*Bernini's fame rests primarily on sculpture, which is expansive and theatrical and generally includes the element of time playing an important role in it—this marble sculpture aims at catching the figure's split second action, very different from the restful David figures of Donatello, Verrocchio, Michelangelo *With his muscular legs widely and firmly planted, he begins the violent, pivoting motion that will launch the stone from his sling; viewers have to think simultaneously of the continuum of movement and of this tiny fraction of it—the figure moves through time and space, releasing the energy that is confined in the Michelangelo—the sculpture cannot be confined in a cylinder or niche space *Also not self-contained in the Renaissance sense; the viewer's attention is directed beyond it to an unseen Goliath somewhere behind the viewer; this is a new type of 3D composition that intrudes forcefully on the viewer's space *Inclusion of viewer marks a new direction in art! Conceived of as half a pair *The expression of intense concentration augments its dramatic impact—clenched mouth, straining muscles *Commissioned by nephew of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Borghese *The space between David and the invisible opponent is charged with energy; the space "belongs" to this statue -theatrical, 5.5 feet tall (life sized), marble, looks more mature like a man rather than a boy

Figure 24-10; Façade of San Carlo; by Borromini; baroque complex; 1665-1676; cartouche; Italian Sculpture and Architecture

*Borromini took Italian Baroque architecture to even greater dramatic heights, a new dynamism to emphasize a building's sculptural qualities; he was Maderno's nephew; San Carlo was his 1st independent commission *Here the whole façade is in undulating motion, forward and back, making a counterpoint of concave and convex elements on 2 levels—emphasized the 3D effect with deeply recessed niches, a pulsating, engaging component inserted between interior and exterior space, designed not to separate but to provide a fluid transition between the two; the site is a narrow piece of land; WIDELY IMITATED IN N. EUROPE *Ceaseless play of convex and concave produces an elastic quality of pressures and counter-pressures *The functional interrelation between building and environment is underlined by the two facades: the second one is a narrow bay crowned with its own tower, turns away from the main façade, and faces an intersection *The interior (hybrid of a Greek cross and an oval) has side walls that undulate in reverse of the façade, topped by a deeply coffered oval dome that seems to float on light from windows hidden in its base; the coffers decrease in size sharply as they approach the apex of the dome/a honeycomb of crosses, hexagons, octagons *Doorway has a strong vertical thrust: first a statue-filled niche over tall door, then a windowed niche covered with a canopy, then a giant, forward-leaning cartouche held up by angels in high relief *Entire façade crowned with a balustrade broken by the sharply pointed cartouche *The head of the religious order for which it was built wrote: "Nothing similar can be found anywhere in the world. Foreigners try to procure copies of the plan. . . Germans, Flemings, Frenchmen, Italians, Spaniards, and even Indians." *In other buildings, Borromini worked to lean the façade forward so that it did not obscure the dome. -moving= baroque; concave, convex, dynamic oval, *cartouche (leaning oval); Rome, Italy; in front of four fountains; nothing like it before this and after this it was widely imitated

Thirty Years War

*Broke out in 1618, pitted German Protestants and allies such as Sweden against the Holy Roman Emperor, backed by Spain *The war was so devastating that it reduced German population by up to 60% *Ended in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia, which agreed to the territorial tolerance concept where princely states and cities could choose a religion *Spain, which was briefly ascendant, fell back—Catholic France is now on the upswing! *The visual arts of France had the task of glorifying the King

Caravaggio

*Caravaaggio's "lay Christianity" appealed to Protestants AND Catholics *BUT, conservatives thought his paintings lacked propriety and reverence *AND ordinary people resented seeing their own kind in these paintings!

Figure 24-60; Landscape with Cattle and Peasants; by Lorrain; French classical; 1629; idyllic landscape; oil on canvas; France and England

*Claude Lorrain modulated in a softer style the disciplined rational art of Poussin *Unlike Poussin, his figures tell no dramatic story, no moral, no praise of a hero; instead they often appear to be added as mere excuses for the radiant landscape *His sole theme: the beauty of a broad sky suffused with golden light of dawn or sunset glowing through hazy atmosphere and reflecting off rippling water *Subject remains grounded in classical antiquity in this Landscape with Cattle and Peasants; figs in right foreground chat animatedly, left foreground cattle relax, middle ground cattle amble slowly; well-defined foreground, middle ground and background recede in serene orderliness until all dissolves in a luminous mist with both atmospheric and linear perspective creating an ideal classical world bathed in sunlight and infinite space *Follows tradition of Venetians, Carracci, and Poussin, but Lorrain's unique contribution is his STUDY OF THE ACTUAL LIGHT AND ATMOSPHERIC NUANCES OF NATURE—recorded hundreds of sketches of Roman countryside *Achieved marvelous effects of light with tiny value gradations, which imitated on a small scale the actual range of values of outdoor light and shade—he preferred morning and evening, not midday sun *IDYLLIC LANDSCAPES *He matched the moods of nature with those of human subjects; his infusion of nature with human feeling and the calm equilibrium in his scenes of nature influenced landscape painters in 18th and 19th centuries -Lorrain one theme: beauty of the broad sky suffused with the golden light of dawn or sunset glowing through a hazy atmosphere and reflecting brilliantly off rippling water; grounded in classical antiquity; idealized classical world; formalized nature; foreground, middle and background; atmospheric perspective; studied actual light and atmospheric nuances of nature; matched mood of nature with those of the human subjects

Figure 24-28; Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew; by Ribera; Spanish drama; 1639; oil on canvas; Madrid- Spain and Flanders

*During 16th century, Habsburgs in Spain established a dynastic state that encompassed Portugal, parts of Italy, Netherlands, & New World—but other European countries challenged this dominance; Habsburgs' power shrank in 17th century, due in part to economic woes of Thirty Years War, and increasing tax burden led to revolts and civil war *Kings Philip III and Philip IV were avid art patrons during this period, which also had Counter-Reformation issues in Catholic Spain; esp. popular: scenes of death and martyrdom *Ribera emigrated to Naples and was influenced by Caravaggio and his combination of naturalism and compelling drama, which added shock value to harsh themes, which represented the Catholic-Reformation's harsh times as well as the Spanish taste for courage and devotion depicted in art *In this picture, executioners are hoisting into position St. Bartholomew, who is about to be skinned alive; the saint's rough, heavy body and plebeian features create a kinship with the tormentors; Ribera scorned idealization of any kind *Ribera became the link from Caravaggio in Italy to Spanish masters Zurbaran and Velazquez -Spain is Catholic, confronted same Counter-Reformation issues as Italy did; inspired by Caravaggio- tenebrism and the use of everyday people; Saint is about to be skinned alive- shows drama, sacrifice, high drama, courage in the face of persecution

Figure 24-19; Calling of Matthew; by Caravaggio; Baroque; 1597-1601; oil on canvas; Italian Painting; Rome, Italy (Contarelli Chapel)

*Early masterpiece, one of two large canvases honoring St. Matthew painted for side walls of a Roman chapel; like the previous slide, this painting contains a piercing ray of light illuminating a darkness and bearing a spiritual message; his first public commission *Commonplace setting: bland street scene with a plain building wall serving as a backdrop *Into this mundane scene Christ appears, identifiable only by his indistinct halo *His commanding gesture recalls Michelangelo's Creation of Adam on Sistine Ceiling as he summons Levi the tax collector to a higher calling; the astonished tax collector point to himself, illuminated by a beam of light emanating from an unspecified source above Christ's head and outside the picture; Christ's hand gesture is more like Adam's in the Sistine painting, making theological sense: Adam was responsible for the Fall of Man, and Christ is responsible for human redemption—this depiction of conversion is one of the tasks of the Church *Clothes of the others are fancy velvet doublets, plumed hats, and satin shirts *Caravaggio was called to Rome from his hometown near Milan *His first commission was 3 monumental canvases devoted to St. Matthew *The Calling of St. Matthew is remote from both Mannerism and the High Renaissance *Caravaggio's realism is of a new and radical kind; NEVER has a sacred subject been depicted in such entirely contemporary, low-life terms *Matthew is the Tax Gatherer with armed men (his agents) *Caravaggio painted directly on the canvas from live models *The two arrivals at right are poor people, with bare feet and simple garments *The sharply highlighted forms are like a relief; NATURAL LIGHT IS CHARGED WITH SYMBOLIC MEANING -Sistine Chapel hand referenced in Christ's hand gesture (God passes power to Adam then Jesus then to Matthew, his disciple); light= supernatural; barefoot and in ancient biblical clothes, St. Matthew at first was tax collector and Christ comes and points at him; Matthew points at himself are you talking to me???

Figure 24-59; Burial of Phocion; by Poussin; French classicism; 1648; oil on canvas; France and England

*France became largest and most powerful country of the 17th century; consolidation of power was embodied in King Louis XIV, whose obsessive control determined the direction of French Baroque society and culture *The appeal of ancient Roman and Italian Renaissance cultures enticed many French artists to study there; Poussin was born in Normandy but spent most of his life in Rome, modeled his work on Raphael and Titian, worked out a theoretical explanation of his method; established "grand manner" of classicism in French Baroque art: choose grandiose subjects (no "low" subjects), use early Renaissance good judgment based on sure knowledge, employ a certain evenness and moderation in all things. *For this ptg he carefully chose a subject from antiquity, Plutarch's Life of Phocion, a biography of the Athenian general whom his compatriots put to death unjustly for treason (eventually state gave him a public funeral) *Here his body is carried away, initially forbidden on Athenian soil; great landscape throws figures into solitary relief, expressing the hero abandoned in death *Landscape's interlocking planes slope upward to the lighted sky at left; terraces bear streams, shepherds, flocks; in distance are solid geometric structures (temples, towers, walls, villas, central sarcophagus); untroubled sky; even light; trees carefully arranged to make a noble frame for a noble subject, NOT INTENDED TO REPRESENT A PARTICULAR PLACE AND TIME *Poussin and Claude Lorrain were classicists in that they organized natural elements into idealized compositions *Most commissions were French, though when Poussin lived in Rome Bernini considered him one of the greatest painters there: his sophisticated geometry of landscape *Influenced by Carracci and Venetian painting but evolved an unmistakable personal style -Subject from the literature of antiquity (Plutarch's Life of Phocion- Athenian general whom his compatriots unjustly put to death for treason, eventually state gave him funeral and memorialized him); does not represent a particular place or time- Poussin constructed an idea of a noble landscape to frame a noble theme (like Carracci's classical landscape); carefully arranged (rational plan)

Figure 24-49; Self-Portrait; by Leyster; woman artist; 1630; oil on canvas; Holland

*Hals' virtuosity could not be imitated readily, so he had few followers; Leyster was the most important *Judith Leyster studied with Hals and this portrait shows her strong training: detailed, precise, and accurate but also imbued with the spontaneity found in the work of Hals *Communicates a great deal about herself in this portrait: as an artist, with her tools and a painting of her creation, which allows the viewer to evaluate her skills *She painted still lifes and floral pieces, but her specialty was genre scenes such as the comic image of the fiddler on the easel; her self-assurance is reflected in her quick smile and her relaxed pose as she stops to meet the viewer's gaze *Unlike Rembrandt, she is not depicted in artist's garb; her elegant attire shows she is a member of a well-to-do family, another important aspect of her identity *This painting was thought to be by Hals, but a cleaning revealed her signature: JL in a star because her name means "pole-star"; became competitive with Hals: lodged a complaint against him for luring away one of her apprentices (as a member of Haarlem's Guild of St. Luke she was allowed to take pupils into her studio) *Shows remarkable understanding of light and texture: her face and ruff have finer brushwork than the broad strokes on her skirt—has narrow range of colors sensitively dispersed in the composition *She further emphasized the difference between her portrait and her painting by making the easel image in lighter tones/softer brushwork -she appears wealthy, uplifting mood, brushwork variety; she joined St. Luke's guild

Figure 24-44; Anatomy Lesson; by Rembrandt; baroque diagonal; 1632; oil on canvas; Holland

*Hals' younger contemporary was recognized as the leading Dutch painter of his time *In his portraits, Rembrandt delved deeply into the psyche and personality of his sitters *Here he deviated even further than Hals from the traditional staid group portrait *While Hals placed subjects evenly across the canvas, Rembrandt chose to show the group clustered on the left side; Dr. Tulp (noted physician) dissects corpse in foreground *Rembrandt diagonally placed and foreshortened the corpse, activating the space by disrupting the strict horizontal, planar orientation found in most traditional portraiture *He depicted each of the "students" specifically, despite identical dress *He painted this at age 26 when he was beginning his career—remarkable innovation here *Learned naturalism, drama, and tenebrism from Carracci and Caravaggio *Radiant light comes from an unknown sour;ce; ruffs illuminate faces *Dr. Tulp flexes his own hand to demonstrate the action of the cadaver's arm muscles *Unseen by the viewers are the illustrations of the large book *The painting has been seen as an homage to both science and art/humanistic interests -Caravaggio's tenebrism influence; book in bottom right; real people in a medical school; plays with diagonals- corpse is a diagonal

Figure 24-16; Inner dome; by Guarini; Baroque dynamic; 1667-1694; Italian Sculpture and Architecture

*His mathematical talents guided him when he designed this extraordinarily complex dome of the Chapel of the Holiest Shroud, a small central-plan building *A bewildering display of geometric elements appearing to move in kaleidoscopic fashion around a circular focus containing a painting of the bright dove of the Holy Spirit, turning the traditional dome into a series of segmented intersecting arches *The static "dome of Heaven" of Renaissance architecture is now a dramatic spiritual presence in the Baroque—inspired artists in Austria, Germany, and Catholic regions of Europe and the New World (esp. Brazil) *Guarini was Borromini's most brilliant successor, a monk whose architectural genius was grounded in philosophy and mathematics -intersecting circles, known as "dome of heaven," fractal designs, center= bright dove of holy spirit

Flanders and Holland Information

*In 1581, 7 northern provinces of the Netherlands declared independence from Spain, capping a 15-year rebellion against Catholicism and Philip II's attempt to curtail local power. *Southern Netherlands = FLANDERS—soon recovered by Spain; its artistic center continued to be Antwerp; continued to be ruled by staunchly Catholic Spanish monarchy—artists relied heavily on church and state commissions; also aristocracy and wealthy merchants were important patrons *Northern Netherlands = HOLLAND—gained autonomy in a 1609 truce after it was sacked in 1576 and lost half its population; the main harbor closed permanently to shipping and crippled trade for 2 centuries; proud of its hard-won freedom, had several flourishing local towns: Amsterdam, Haarlem, Utrecht, Leyden, Delft and other towns; Holland produced a wide variety of outstanding artists and styles *HOLLAND had lots of merchants, farmers, and seafarers; religion was Reformed Protestant, which was ICONOCLASTIC—no large-scale religious commissions! Municipal and civic authorities provided some patronage, but private collectors became painters' main source of support, leading to no shrinkage of output but instead a collector's mania, an outpouring of talent like Florence in the early Renaissance. Many Dutch artists also ran inns on the side and tried to sell their paintings; artists now less secure but freer than when under Spanish rule

Figure 24-34; Elevation of the Cross; by Rubens; Flanders Baroque; 1610; oil on panel; Flanders- Spain and Flanders; pan-European

*In 16th century, Netherlands were under crown of Habsburg Spain, but later repressive measures against Protestants led northern provinces to break away and set up Dutch Republic (Holland); south remained Catholic (Flanders) *Flemish master Peter Paul Rubens drew together main contributions of Ren. Masters (Titian and Michelangelo) and Italian Baroque (Carracci and Caravaggio) to create first truly panEuropean manner, a powerful synthesis with international influence *Well-mannered with aristocratic education, one of the most learned people of his time—made him an associate to princes and scholars, entrusted with diplomatic missions *Some of his patrons: dukes of Mantua, king of Spain, Charles I of England, Marie de Medici (Queen of France), Spanish governors of Flanders, archdukes Isabella and Albert *Scores of associates and apprentices assisted him, turning out numerous paintings for an international clientele; he also worked as an art dealer; became a very wealthy man but retained amiable, self-disciplined character *This work painted shortly after his return from Italy; shows interest in Michelangelo, Tintoretto, and Caravaggio—foreshortened anatomy and contortions of violent action, bringing together straining forces and counterforces as heavily muscled men strain to lift the cross *Rubens placed body of Christ on the cross as a diagonal that cuts dynamically across the picture while declining back into it; ptg exudes a power that comes from genuine exertion *On left, followers of Jesus mourn; on right, indifferent soldiers supervise the execution *Sources include: Italian muscular figures, Caravaggio's lighting, Northern details in foliage, armor and dog *Baroque feature is that it bursts the limits of the frame *Tension is emotional as well as physical, reflected in faces of Christ and his followers *Strong modeling in light and dark show his work of this period; later works have a much subtler coloristic style *Continued tradition of uniting the triptych by extending central action and landscape to all 3 panels (surface detail = Flemish) -muscularity of Michelangelo, the light/diagonals of Caravaggio, soft light of Titian, the surface detail of the Flemish, plump people- not chubby but "Rubenesque"

Figure 24-74; new St. Paul's Cathedral; by Wren; English classical; 1675-1710; London, England

*In England, common law and Parliament kept the royal power in check. The one area of cultural production that made great strides was architecture, much of it incorporating classical elements, primarily by the work of Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren *Wren was England's most renowned architect, a mathematical genius and engineer whose work won the praise of Isaac Newton; Wren appointed professor of astronomy in London at age 25; mathematics led to architecture, and Charles II asked him to make a plan for restoring the old gothic church of St. Paul; Wren proposed to remodel based on Roman structures *He had his opportunity when the Great Fire of London (1666) destroyed the old structure and many churches in the city; he built this one and more than 50 other churches as well *Wren was influenced by Jones and also French and Italian Baroque *Despite its size, it was built in a relatively quick 30 years, and Wren lived to see it completed *The building's form was constantly refined as it went up, and the final appearance of the towers was not determined until after 1700 *Two foreground towers act as foils to the great dome—prob. Influenced by St. Peter's in Rome; eclectic combination of work by Borromini, Palladio (Ch. 23), and the Louvre façade *Shows triumphant verticality, complexity of form, and chiaroscuro effects; on marble slab that marks his tomb in the crypt, he had engraved: "If you want to see his memorial, look around you." *Wren might have remained an amateur if not for the fire -Great Fire of London in 1666 destroyed the old Gothic church of St. Paul- Wren build new church as well as many others; Wren's influences: he traveled to France, studied prints of Baroque architecture in Italy- he harmonized Palladian, French, and Italian Baroque features (eclectic style) in the new St. Paul's Cathedral; great dome and two foreground towers (St. Peter's in Rome)/ lower levels are Palladian; for Wren, towers are always present in his structures

Figure 24-22; Flight into Egypt; by Carracci; classical ideal; 1603-1604; oil on canvas; Italian Painting

*In contrast to Caravaggio, Carracci studied and imitated the Renaissance masters carefully; trained at Bologna art academy (THE FIRST SIGNIFICANT INSTITUTION OF ITS KIND IN THE HISTORY OF WESTERN ART)—based on belief that art could be taught and must include the classical and Renaissance traditions as well as study of anatomy and life drawing; embraced classical order in style *This painting, based on Matthew 2:13-14, depicts an "ideal" or "classical" landscape, representing nature ordered by divine law and human reason *Roots of style are in landscape backgrounds of Venetian Renaissance: tranquil hills and fields, streams, serene skies, still foliage, shepherds with their flocks—expand in such paintings to fill the picture space *Carracci regularly included screens of trees in the foreground—dark against sky's even light; zigzag streams and terraces lead viewer's eye back to the middle ground, where many Venetian Renaissance artists placed architectural structures such as walled towns, citadels, towers, temples, tombs, villas—captured idealized antiquity and idyllic life *Here, Mary with Christ Child and St. Joseph are greatly diminished in size, simply becoming part of the landscape as they head to Egypt after being ferried across a stream. *Commissioned for lunettes of private chapel by nephew of Pope Clement VIII—none of the picture is accidental, but all appears unforced and entirely natural -setting is completely ideal, entirely made up, people are smaller compared to the nature- minimizes humans, looks calm, trees frame the seen, the river winds back into the arcitecture

Figure 24-47; Self- Portrait (1659); by Rembrandt; Psychological; oil on canvas; Holland

*In the 1640's, he fell into financial trouble because of poor management and his own stubbornness, which alienated his patrons—in this period of inner uncertainty, his paintings became more lyrical and subtle *The change can be traced in his many self-portraits. Here, he scrutinizes himself with the same Northern candor found in Jan Van Eyck's Man in a Red Turban *His pictorial method involved refining light and shade into finer and finer nuances until they blended with one another; earlier painters' use of abrupt lights and darks gave way to gradation; although it sacrifices dramatic effects, it gains a greater fidelity to actual appearances since the eye perceives light and dark not as static but as always subtly changing *In general, Renaissance artists represented forms and faces in a flat, neutral modeling light (even Leonardo used standard shading)—they represented the idea of light rather than the actual look of it *Rembrandt and others discovered degrees of light and dark, differences in pose, in movements of facial features, and in psychic states, arriving at these differences optically, not by using some ideal *Rembrandt found that by manipulating direction, intensity, distance, and surface texture of light and shadow, he could render the most subtle nuances of character and mood *He discovered for the modern world that subtle modulation of light and shade could be read as emotional differences—the theater and photography have used these discoveries to great effect *CREATED THE "PSYCHOLOGY OF LIGHT": Light/Dark are not in conflict but create a mood of tranquil meditation, philosophical resignation, musing recollection—emotions all in silence *This self-portrait was created late in his life, shows his assertive brushwork and as a working artist *Circles on wall behind him (much debated) may be a legendary sign of artistic virtuosity: the ability to draw a perfect circle freehand *Sadness in later self-portraits = weariness, declared bankruptcy *X-rays of the painting have revealed that he originally showed himself in the act of painting; here is man&artist -unidealized, uses light with subtleties (typical of Dutch) light is in degrees- we see different shade- "psychology of light" uses light to create mood; he has a look of resignation (recollection of the past because in his late life he lost his fortune); the circles in the back are proof that he is a master of art

Spain Information

*In the 16th century, at the height of its political and economic power, Spain had produced great saints and writers but no first-rate painters or artists *El Greco was not influential, did not prove a stimulus to native talent *THE REASON WAS: the Catholic Church was conservative and preferred to employ foreign painters (both the Church and the aristocracy agreed) *Biggest influence was Caravaggio, who fled to Spanish-ruled Naples from Rome after slaying a man

Figure 24-20; Entombment; by Caravaggio; composition; 1603; oil on canvas; Italian Painting; Rome, Italy

*Includes all the hallmarks of Caravaggio's distinctive style: plebeian figure types (particularly the scruffy, worn face of Nicodemus, a Pharisee whom Christ taught and who holds Christ's legs in the foreground), stark use of darks and lights, and invitation for the viewer to participate in the scene *Like Conversion of St. Paul, the action occurs in the foreground; artist positioned figures on a stone slab whose corner projects into the viewer's space, suggesting that the body of Christ will be laid directly in front of the viewer, onto the altar, giving visual form to the doctrine of transubstantiation (transformation of blood and wine into blood and body of Christ)—a doctrine central to Catholicism but rejected by Protestants *By depicting Christ's body as though it were physically present during the Mass, Caravaggio visually articulated an abstract theological concept; no longer possible because painting has been moved to one of the Vatican Museums *The figures form a large, off-center triangle; within it are repeated angular elements: projecting edge of stone slab, Jesus' bent legs, akimbo arm, bunched coat, knock-kneed stance of man on right, and even the spread fingers of the raised hands. The Virgin and Mary Magdalene barely intrude on the scene; young John the Baptist is at apex of triangle *Caravaggio's violent temper often got him into trouble, arrested frequently during last decade of his life, usually for street brawling; in 1606, however, he killed a man in a fight over a tennis match and had to flee Rome; went to Malta and earned Knights of Malta's cross of their religious and military order, but 3 months later he insulted another member and was imprisoned; he escaped and fled; knights' agents tracked him and wounded him severely, but he recovered and moved north; died of a fever just before 39th birthday *His intense realism and tenebrist lighting influenced nearly every important European artist of the 17th century -oil on canvas, dingy, common, Virgin in blue but looks like an average old lady, weird angles portrayed, underlying triangle formed, John the baptist raises his hands, low horizon line, tenebrism, used to be above an altar which would make the bread become the body of Christ (known as transubstantiation); many people did not appreciate this in the time it was made because they wanted holy people to look holy- they (commoners) did not want to see themselves portrayed; work is greatly appreciated after his death

Rubens from Flanders

*Known for breaking down the barriers between North and South *His father was a prominent Antwerp Protestant who fled to escape Spanish persecution *The family returned to Antwerp after the father's death; Rubens was reared a devout Catholic and went to study in Italy for 8 years—eagerly studied ancient sculpture, High Renaissance, Caravaggio, Carracci *He was so good he could have made his career in Italy *He returned to Antwerp in 1608 with his mother's illness; there he was appointed court painter AND earned commissions from the church *His style epitomizes the extroverted virtuoso of the Baroque era—the entire universe is a stage—he was devoutly religious AND a character of the world *His enormous intellect and vitality expressed life at its fullest—full of Baroque theatricality and drama

Figure 24-51; View of Haarlem; by Van Ruisdael; Dutch landscape; 1670; oil on canvas; Holland

*LANDSCAPE AND STILL LIFE: most Dutch collectors preferred these types, which originated around 1650, to the religious scenes of Rembrandt *Landsape painting became a fully defined, unheard-of specialization! The trend was found throughout Europe, but the most volume and variety was found in Holland—far more subtypes; Van Ruisdael was the greatest Dutch landscape painter *Popularity of landscapes, still lifes, and interior scenes was due to its direct connection to the daily lives of the mercantile public; topography and terrain of the Dutch differed from that of other European countries; improvements such as dikes and drainage systems meant Dutch had a close connection to the land; also, most Dutch owned and worked their own farms b/c marshy, swampy nature of much of the land made it less-desirable for large-scale exploitation/ feudal system; painters specialized in sea, countryside, city, buildings *Van Ruisdael depicted the Dutch landscape with precision and sensitivity; here is an overarching view of this major city—primarily a landscape of clear and detailed manner, but inhabitants and dwellings are so small they blend into the land itself *Specificity gives it honesty and integrity: Saint Bravo church in bkgrd, windmills that refer to land reclamation efforts, figures in foreground stretching linen to be bleached (major industry in Haarlem) *The horizon line is so low that the sky fills almost ¾ of the picture space, and landscape is only illuminated in patches where the sun has broken through the clouds above *Captures a specific and historical view of Haarlem and also a quiet, spiritual serenity *Dutch painters' continuing motif was a vast cloud-filled sky dominating a small horizontal band of land -Dutch Landscape is 3/4 sky; never before was there just a landscape; rise of middle class allowed it; physical place; humble look; low horizon; spiritual and quiet

Lorrain

*Like Poussin, he spent most of his career in Rome, where he painted the countryside *Countless drawings made on the spot bear witness to the extraordinary powers of observation *Also documented as the first artist known to have sketched in oils from nature *Most of his landscapes are suffused with a hazy, luminous atmosphere of early morning or late afternoon, with an air of nostalgia or memory—appealed to the English and French who had never seen Italy

Figure 24-62; Family of Country People; by LeNain; French Realism; 1640; oil on canvas; France and England

*Not all artists pursued classicism; some can be compared with the Dutch but French treatments include somber stillness *Family of Country People expresses the grave dignity of a family close to the soil, made stoic and resigned by hardship; the peasant's lot was miserable in LeNain's time due to the Thirty Years' War—peasants suffered from unruly armies living off the country and breaking out in violent revolts; but this family is pious, docile, and calm *Some scholars think LeNain intended to please wealthy urban patrons with these paintings because he depicted peasants with dignity and subservience despite their living conditions -expresses grave dignity of a family close to the soil- stoic and resigned by hardship; peasants life was miserable during the time Le Nain painted- 30 years war took its toll on France; LeNain worked cooperatively with family members; established a communal workshop and collaborated on some paintings- focused on genre scenes; intended to please wealthy urban patrons with these paintings

Figure 24-37; Allegory of War; by Rubens; Baroque allegory; 1638; oil on canvas; Flanders- Spain and Flanders

*One theme that remained a focus of his art was the human body, draped or undraped, male or female, and freely acting in an environment of physical forces and other interacting bodies—copied the works of classical antiquity and the Italian masters— wrote, "I am convinced that in order to achieve the highest perfection one needs a full understanding of the [ancient] statues, nay a complete absorption in them." *The scene: Mars (in red) has left temple open, which in times of peace is supposed to remain closed, struts with his shield and blood-stained sword and threatening all with disaster; his lady Venus, surrounded by little love-gods, tries in vain to stop him with caresses and embraces; on the opposite side he is pulled forward by the Fury Alecto with a torch in her hand; also monsters signifying plague and famine, the companions of war; on the ground is a woman with a broken lute, a symbol of harmony that cannot exist in the discord of war; mother with child in arms shows that fertility, procreation, and tenderness are opposed by war; also an architect with tools in hand falls backward to show that what is built in peace will lay in ruin in war; book and paper under Mars' feet shows that he tramples on literature and the arts; sorrowing woman in black with torn veil and no jewels is unhappy Europe *Creates an enchanted realm where myth and reality become one *Derived great insight into European politics from his diplomatic missions, and he never ceased to promote peace in almost constant times of war in his career *Here he took opportunity to express allegorically his attitude toward war, finished during the Thirty Years' War— fluid articulation of bodies & chaotic scene are typical of his works -temple doors are open= chaos; Mars= God of war; Venus, his lover, tries to hold him back; women, children, architecture, music, literature are destroyed by war; left women symbolizes Europe and she is wailing

Figure 24-67; Versailles; by Perrault/ Le Brun; Royal architecture; beg. 1669; aerial view; France and England

*Perrault was architect and LeBrun was interior designer *Louis XIV was less interested in architectural theory and monumental exteriors than in lavish interiors *The garden extends for several miles—so strictly correlated with the plan of the palace that it becomes a continuation of the architectural space *Louis eventually moved to the palace in 1682 and required his court to live there: 5,000 aristocrats in the palace itself along with 14,000 servants and military staff members; town had another 30,000 residents, most of whom were employed by the palace *For political and sentimental reasons, the old Versailles chalet was left standing and the new building went up around it *Planned on a gigantic scale, included not only the large palace flanking a vast park but also a satellite city to house court and government officials, military, courtiers, and servants—town laid out to the east of the palace along 3 radial avenues which converged on the king's bedroom/meeting room, a symbolic assertion of his absolute power over his domain; palace itself extended over a quarter mile long *Original furniture included gold and silver chairs and bejeweled trees *Overall design is a balance of horizontals and verticals *Careful attention was paid to every detail of extremely rich interior of hundreds of rooms, incl. most famous Hall of Mirrors (favorite of Baroque period, the ultimate source of illusion); mirrors at that time were very expensive; these are made of 18-inch panels that are the same size and shape as the windows across—the effect with sun or candles was brilliant reflection saluting the SUN GOD *The enormous palace might appear unbearably ostentatious if not for the extraordinary setting in the vast park which dwarfs it where an entire forest was transformed into a park *At same time he had the Louvre redone, Louis XIV decided to convert a royal hunting lodge at Versailles into a great palace, with Charles Le Brun (student of Poussin) as general manager of an army of architects, decorators, sculptors, painters, and landscape architects— became the greatest architectural project of the age -army of workers assembled under the general management of Charles Le Brun= greatest architectural project of the age; defining statement of French Baroque style- symbol of Louis XIV's power and ambition; palace is more than a quarter of a mile long

Figure 24-2; St. Peter's façade; by Maderno; completion; 1606-1612; Italian Sculpture and Architecture; Vatican City, Rome, Italy

*Protestantism now validated in the German states; popes and clergy worked to restore Catholicism's predominance through Baroque art: dramatic theatricality, grandiose scale, elaborate ornateness—a COLOSSAL order with the emphasis on portals *Council of Trent from Counter-Reformation firmly resisted Protestant rejection of religious images, so art was both decorative and didactic *Pope Paul V commissioned Maderno to establish symbolic presence of St. Peter's *He had to work with a preexisting core; his original plan was for greater verticality and visual coherence—did not include the two outside bell-tower bays *The façade "steps out" in three progressively projecting planes: from the corner to the doorways flanking the central entrance area, then the entrance area, then the central doorway itself; the effect: a CRESCENDO, a quickening pace *Also, the colossal orders connecting 1st and 2nd stories are flat pilasters at the corners but fully round columns where they flank the doorways; they support a continuous entablature that also steps out as it moves toward the central door *Michelangelo's plan is Fig. 22-28 *The Pope decided to add a nave to Michelangelo's building in order to convert it to a basilica enabled the cathedral to link to the Vatican palace *A triangular pediment adds vertical movement, as does the superimposition of pilasters on the relatively narrow attic story above the entablature -from outside, in= flat pilasters, engaged columns, then fully round columns- crescendo (acceleration)- they also get closer together as you near the entrance

Figure 24-48; Christ with the Sick; by Rembrandt; etching; 1649; "Hundred Guilder Print"; Holland

*Rembrandt's prints show a plain dignity of this self-analytical approach *His importance as a graphic artist is second only to Durer's; he preferred etching to woodcut engraving *Etching perfected in early 17th century; allowed greater freedom than engraving *For etching, copper plate is covered with wax, artist incises design with pointed tool to expose metal below but not cut into it, plate then immersed in acid which etches the exposed parts of the metal like a burin does; softer medium than wood or metal—easier than engraving and makes a smoother line *If Rembrandt never painted, he would still be renowned for his prints, a major source of income for him; often reworked the plates for later editions—unusual in his time *Deeply religious from study of Bible; like his other religious works this has a deep and abiding piety: Christ preaches compassionately to the blind, the lame, and the young *On left, a group of Jews heatedly discusses issues; central themes of work are humility and mercy *His undisputed genius has made his works widely copied and hard to authenticate *The scene is full of his great compassion for the poor and outcast *The magic of light bestows a spiritual significance -sensitively rendered, subtlety of line, tender, humility, religious commission (but not grand like the Catholic), light has spiritual significance

Figure 24-21; Judith Slaying Holofernes; by Gentileschi; women artist; 1614-1620; oil on canvas; Italian Painting

*Significant artist often discussed as a "Caravaggista" (close follower of Caravaggio); her successful career helped disseminate Caravaggio's manner beyond Rome *Here she used the tenebrism and the "dark" subject matter favored by Caravaggio *She liked to choose heroic females as subjects; this is from the Apocryphal work of the Old Testament (Book of Judith), which relates the delivery of Israel from its enemy Holofernes, the Assyrian general. He has succumbed to Judith's charms and invited her to his tent for the night; when he falls asleep, she cuts off his head, done here by Judith and her maidservant *Very dramatic; blood spurts everywhere, and the two women struggle with the sword to complete the task; the tension and strain are palpable *Artemesia Gentileschi first studied in Rome with her father, an early follower of Caravaggio; then she moved to Florence and was elected at age 23 to the Florentine Academy of Design *She was well aware of the city's identification with the Jewish hero David and heroine Judith, and she painted several versions of Judith triumphant over Holofernes -oil on canvas; tenebrism; foreshortening; made by a women who became a member of the Florence Art Academy; she was recently raped and many believe this painting is her showing her angry emotions; cutting off Assyrian general's head; Judith became the female equivalent of David

Figure 24-42; Archers; by Frans Hals; Dutch life; 1633; oil on canvas; Haarlem

*The Baroque style came to Holland through the work of Rubens and from some followers of Caravaggio, who were Dutch *Hals is the great portrait painter of Haarlem, combining Rubens' robustness with a dramatic moment concentration from Caravaggio *His paintings convey spontaneity: unposed, with a quick way of setting down the forms—works in dashing brushstrokes *His completed paintings have the immediacy of a sketch by Rubens, but that appearance is deceptive: he spent hours, not minutes, on each canvas but maintains an illusion of having done it quickly *The Dutch succeeded in securing their independence from Spain in late 16th century, but not until 1648 were the northern provinces of the Netherlands officially declared the Dutch Republic—its ascendance was largely due to economic prosperity: Amsterdam had the highest per capita income in Europe, and it was the financial center with the Bank of Amsterdam est. 1609 *With the absence of a monarch, power passed into hands of urban patrician class of merchants and manufacturers, esp. in the cities of Haarlem, Delft, and Amsterdam—all located in Holland *Protestant (Calvinist) country had little religious art created in comparison to efforts of Counter-Reformation, but tolerant Dutch did allow Catholic art *Golden Age of Dutch Art centered on genre scenes, landscapes, portraits, and still lifes—all of which appealed to prosperous middle class *Frans Hals was the leading painter in Haarlem, specialized in portraits *Portrait artists relied heavily on convention: specific poses, settings, attire, and accoutrements to convey a sense of the sitter—usually someone of note, so painter tried to convey his status +BUT, for middle class patrons, these conventions were unusable, and Calvinists shunned ostentation—Hals managed to create lively portraits with an engaging spontaneity that conveyed personalities of sitters *His technique supported this spontaneity: light brush strokes make highlights seem instantaneously created; he also excelled at group portraits *The Archers of Saint Hadrian were one of many Dutch civic militia groups who claimed credit for liberating the Dutch from Spain *Here they meet on their saint's feast day in dress uniform for a grand banquet— celebrations sometimes lasted an entire week=>Hals had opportunity to retain action and variety while also creating individuality *Here, each man is both a troop member and an individual with a distinct personality *Some engage viewers directly, while others look away or at a companion; some stern, some animated; each is equally visible and clearly recognizable *Uniformity of attire does not detract from spontaneity—Hals used it to create an energizing rhythm in portrait; less imaginative artists put subjects in straight rows *The careful details and fleeting facial expressions are due to careful planning, but it looks unplanned and instinctive -Holland was Calvanist protestant- no monarchs- more prosperity for the middle class; Holland was wealthy from trade and banking; people met for a party that lasted a week; not royals or religious but secular: archer's guild; looks accidental like it was spontaneously painted but he worked forever on it to perfect it; golden and blue sashes and collars unite them

Important Information

*The CONSERVATIVE wishes of everyday people in ITALY were met by artists less radical and less talented than Caravaggio *Instead they took their lead from CARRACCI, who came from Bologna, where since the 1850's he and two other members of his family had evolved an Anti-Mannerist style based on Northern Italian realism and Venetian art *Carracci's experience of Roman classicism transformed his art—he believed art must return to nature balanced with a revival of the Classics, including antiquity, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, and Correggio—his goal was to fuse those diverse elements *His most ambitious work: the ceiling fresco in the Gallery of Palazzo Farnese; shows the influence of the Sistine Chapel ceiling and the loves of the classical gods influenced by Raphael's late work *The overall effect is an exuberance which sets the ceiling apart from both Mannerism and High Renaissance art

Figure 24-65; Louis XIV; by Rigaud; Royal portraiture; 1701; oil on canvasl France and England

*The preeminent patron of the period was King Louis XIV, a master of political strategy and propaganda to consolidate and expand his power—ensured subservience by anchoring his rule in divine right (God's will), rendering his authority incontestable; he eagerly adopted the nickname "The Sun King," center of the universe--ABSOLUTISM *Carefully crafted his relationship with the nobility: allowed nobles sufficient benefits to keep them pacified but simultaneously maintained rigorous control to avoid insurrection or rebellion *Desire for control extended to all realms of French life, including art, which he was determined to organize in the service of the state, including symbols and monuments to the king's absolute power; also established the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in 1648 to regularize taste and establish the French classical style *The king was 63 when this portrait was painted; looks at viewer with directness; suggestion of haughtiness is due to the pose (left hand on hip, ermine-lined robes thrown over his shoulder) *Artist placed him so that he seems to look down on the viewer, even though he was short in stature (5'4") and he invented the red-heeled shoes he wears in the portrait *Carefully detailed environment contributes to the painting's stateliness and grandiosity *He maintained a workshop of artists, each with a specialization (faces, fabric, architecture, landscapes, armor, fur), so that many of his portraits were a group effort *Unseen hand pulls aside the billowing curtain; Louis shows off his legs he was very proud of *Requests for copies not unusual as royalty of different countries were linked through marriage and these were gifts; Rigaud's workshop made 30-40 portraits per year, charging less for portraits which merely needed a head added to a stock figure his workshop had executed *Ribaud was known for giving virtuoso rendering of textures and materials of the costumes and settings—appropriately placed king on a stage to elevate his status *Ordered this portrait for grandson but Louis liked it so much he kept it and ordered a copy 3 years later; Rigaud's talent was to capture likeness while minimizing less attractive features -he was short- 5'4"- wears red heeled shoes that were invented for him; he kept a workshop of artists, each with a specialization- faces, fabric, armor- etc.= many of king's portraits were a group effort

Background Information

*The term 'Baroque' refers to the period and also to the Italian style of drama, dynamism, and extravagance that contrasts with the rational order of classicism *Political and religious friction resulted in widespread unrest and warfare between 1562 and 1721, including the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) which led to the political restructuring of Europe, secular political systems, and freedom of religious choice (Treaty of Westphalia=end of war) *All major trade routes now established, worldwide market & banking now grew *Dutch founded Bank of Amsterdam in 1609; slave trade expanded in demand for sugar, tobacco, and rice *Growth of moneyed class led to Rococo *The papacy patronized art on a large scale with the aim of making Rome the most beautiful city of the Christian world "for the greater glory of God and the Church." *Pope Paul III started the campaign in 1585, but the artists on hand were late Mannerists of feeble distinction. Soon, however, it attracted ambitious young artists who created the new style *Thus the COUNTER-REFORMATION movement within Roman Catholicism began, intended to re-energize the Church and oppose Protestantism; the movement was marked by a rapid growth of teaching orders and new seminaries, canonization of many saints, genuine spirituality, and repressive diplomatic and military measures against groups of Protestants

Figure 24-23; Ceiling of Farnese- Love of the Gods; by Carracci; Quadro riportato; 1597-1601; frescoes; Italian Painting

*This is among Carracci's most notable works, commissioned by Cardinal Farnese in Rome, a wealthy descendant of Pope Paul III, to celebrate the wedding of the cardinal's brother *Appropriately, the title is Loves of the Gods, interpretations of the varieties of earthly and divine love in classical mythology. *Scenes arranged in a format resembling framed easel paintings, but painted on surfaces of a shallow vault—this type of simulation of easel painting for ceiling design is called quadro riportato (transferred framed painting), which Carracci made popular for more than a century *The framed pictures are flanked by polychrome seated nude youths who gaze at figures around them and by standing Atlas figures painted to look like marble statues—motifs derived from Sistine Chapel Ceiling by Michelangelo *Lighting is notable: figures inside quadric are evenly lit, while the outside figures seem to be lit from beneath, as if they were 3D beings or statues illuminated by torches below; this interest in illusion continued in the 17th century's grand ceiling compositions *In crown of vault is Triumph of Bacchus, an ingenious mixture of Titian and Raphael -Quadro riportato (transferred framed painting- simulation of a framed painting), uses grisalle as well; illusion- 3D illusion, typical of the Baroque; derives/ imitated from the Sistene Chapel

France

*Under Louis XIII and Louis XIV, France became the most powerful nation of Europe militarily and culturally *By the late 1600's, Paris vied with Rome as world capital of the arts, a position Rome had held for centuries!! *The French did not call art of this era Baroque but called it the style of Louis XIV, meaning the style of highest achievement, corresponding to the High Renaissance in Italy or the Age of Pericles in Ancient Greece

Figure 24-38; Charles I; by Van Dyck; pose and portrait; 1635; oil on canvas; Flanders

*Van Dyck was the only other Flemish Baroque artist to win international stature—a child prodigy—became Rubens' most valued assistant by age 19 *He lacked Rubens' vitality and inventiveness but was suited to PORTRAITS *This picture might be called a dismounted equestrian portrait *The setting has fluid Baroque movement; created a new artistic portrait tradition: Mannerism was brought up to date with the pictorial language of Titian and Rubens *Most of Rubens' successors were at one time his assistants; Anthony Van Dyck was the most famous of these; left to establish his own fame and became court painter to Charles I in London; developed portraits as his specialty, with a courtly manner of great elegance that was influential *Charles I Dismounted is one his finest: the ill-fated king stands in a landscape with the river Thames in the background; a page and an equerry attend him *King impersonates a nobleman out for a casual ride, but his regal poise and air of absolute authority was what his Parliament resented and soon rose against; here he turns his back on his attendants as he surveys his domain *Very artful composition: he stands off-center but balances the picture with a single keen glance at the viewer, even looking down at the observer; in reality, the monarch's short stature forced him to exert his power in ways other than the physical (looking over a cliff helps here); he is also shown as taller than both pages and even his horse, whose head is down and most of body not shown *As if in homage, tree branches bow toward him, echoing the circular line of the hat *Van Dyck's elegant style resonated in English portrait painting through the 19th century -everyone bows to him, makes him look taller, hat is cleverly placed so his face is not lost in the background, incredibly fashionable, prototype of the ideal aristocratic portrait, he is above posing as a king- instead we see him in hunt, not even acknowledging us, looks powerful by himself

Figure 24-33; Las Meninas; by Velazquez; Spanish royalty; 1656; oil on canvas; Madrid- Spain and Flanders

*Velazquez painted the royal portraits (inbred Habsburgs) and after a 4-year visit to Rome returned to Spain and painted his greatest masterpiece, aka The Maids of Honor, showing mastery of form&content *Represented himself in his studio standing before a large canvas; the young Infanta (Princess, age 5) Margarita appears in the foreground with her two maids-in-waiting, her favorite dwarfs, and a large dog *In the middle ground are a woman in widow's attire and a male escort; in the background, a chamberlain is framed in a brightly lit open doorway—all the figures have been identified in history *The setting is the artist's studio in the palace of Madrid *Notable visual and narrative complexity, still in debate: Velazquez could be painting the infanta and her entourage OR a portrait of King Philip IV and Queen Mariana, whose reflections appear in the mirror on the far wall, OR their images could even be reflections from the piece he is painting—if he is painting them live, they are in the viewer's space, extending beyond the picture *Painting can be read as an attempt by Velazquez to elevate himself and his profession; hoped to gain a royal appointment to the ancient and illustrious Order of Santiago but lacked required nobility and was appointed only late in life with help from pope—in the painting he wears the order's red cross on doublet (added later) *Figures in painting all appear to acknowledge royal presence and pic hung in personal office of Philip IV *Other paintings that hang on walls are faintly recognizable as works by Rubens that represent immortal gods as source of art; Velazquez sought ennoblement for himself and his art *Image is extraordinarily complex visually: shows mirrored spaces, "real spaces," picture spaces, and pictures within pictures—the open doorway and the ascending staircase lead the eye beyond the artist's studio; large canvas: 10' by 9' *Velazquez was the greatest painter to emerge from the Caraveggesque school of Seville *Instead of lights abruptly next to darks, like Caravaggio, he had many intermediate grays, later discovered in photography -playing with illusion, recognizable paintings in the background, tenebrism, dwarf as a pet, King and Queen in the mirror- we stand where King and Queen; painting comes out to us and receded deeper into the chamber