Chapter 3: Key Concepts and Steps in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Key terms (person contributing info, person undertaking the study, that which is being investigated, info fathered, connections between concepts, logical reasoning processes)
"snowballing", looking for commonalities and themes,
What is the best description of a dependent variable? a. Outcome being measured b. A person's gender c. Presumed cause d. Measurements performed
a.Outcome being measured Rationale: The dependent variable is the presumed effect or outcome of an independent variable (the presumed cause). Gender typically is a categorical variable. The operations (measurements) to be performed for data collection refer to the operational definition of a variable.
What is an example of a question that researchers ask when using phenomenology during qualitative research? a.What is the meaning of the phenomenon experienced by the people? b.What are the psychological phases that characterize a particular event? c.What are the patterns and lifeways of a defined cultural group? d.What is the core variable that explains what is happening in the social scene?
a.What is the meaning of the phenomenon experienced by the people? Rationale: The phenomenological researcher asks the questions What is the essence of this phenomenon as experienced by these people? or What is the meaning of the phenomenon to those who experience it? The focus of most grounded theory studies is on a developing social experience—the social and psychological phases that characterize a particular event or episode. Ethnography provides a framework for studying the patterns and lifeways of a defined cultural group in a holistic fashion.
Tell whether the following statement is True or False. Clinical trials are an example of observational research in medicine. a.True b.False
b.False Rationale: Clinical trials are a form of experimental research in medicine. Observational research is nonexperimental research in medicine.
Tell whether the following statement is True or False. Researchers involved in quantitative research commonly engage in fieldwork. a.True b.False
b.False Rationale: Researchers engage in fieldwork when performing qualitative studies.
A nurse researcher is conducting a quantitative study to determine protocols for triaging patients in the emergency department. Which term is generally associated with this type of research? a.Phenomena b.Subject c.Pattern of association d.Inductive reasoning
b.Subject Rationale. The person contributing information in a quantitative study is called the subject. In the qualitative study, this person is called the study participant, informant, or key informant. That which is investigated is called a concept in quantitative studies and concept or phenomena in qualitative studies. Pattern of association and inductive reasoning are qualitative terms. Relationships and deductive reasoning are quantitative terms.
Which action would be performed first when designing and planning a quantitative study? a.Developing intervention protocols b.Identifying the population c.Designing the sampling plan d.Formulating a research design
d.Formulating a research design Rationale: The first step in designing and planning a quantitative study is formulating a research design. This is followed by developing intervention protocols, identifying the population, and designing the sampling plan.
Variable
•A characteristic or quality that takes on different values, that is, that varies from one person to the next •Examples •Blood type •Weight •Length of stay in hospital •The term "variable" is used almost exclusively in quantitative research.
Relationships: cause and effect, associative, qualitative
•A relationship is a bond or connection between variables. •Cause-and-effect (causal) relationship (e.g., cigarette smoking and lung cancer) •Associative (functional) relationship (e.g., gender and life expectancy) •Qualitative study of pattern: Qualitative researchers may seek patterns of association as a way of illuminating the underlying meaning and dimensionality of phenomena of interest.
Concepts, constructs, theories
•Concepts: abstractions of particular aspects of human behavior or characteristics (e.g., pain, weight) •Constructs: slightly more complex abstractions (e.g., self-care) •For example, self-care in Orem's model of health maintenance is a construct. •Theories: knit concepts into a coherent system that purports to explain phenomena
Conceptual and operational definition
•Conceptual: the abstract or theoretical meaning of a concept being studied •Operational: the operations (measurements) a researcher must perform to measure the concept and collect the desired information
Activities in a qualitative study
•Conceptualizing and planning the study •Conducting the study •Conceptualizing and planning the study •Identifying the research problem •Doing a literature review •Selecting sites and gaining entrée •Developing an overall approach •Addressing ethical issues •Conducting the study: undertaking iterative activities through emergent design -Making sampling decisions -Deciding what questions to ask -Collecting data -Evaluating integrity and quality -Analyzing and interpreting data -Making new decisions
Data
•Data (singular = datum): the pieces of information researchers collect in a study •Quantitative researchers collect numeric (quantitative) data. •Qualitative researchers collect narrative (verbal) data.
Major classes of quantitative research: experimental and nonexperimental
•Experimental research •Researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment most often to address therapy questions. •Called clinical trials in medical research •Nonexperimental research •Researchers collect data without intervening or introducing treatments. •Called observational studies in medical research
Qualitative research disciplinary traditions: grounded theory research, phenomenological research, ethnographic research
•Grounded theory research •Seeks to understand key social psychological processes. It is the type of qualitative research used to develop a theory •Phenomenological research -Focuses on the lived experiences of humans •Ethnographic research -Focuses on the patterns and lifeways of a cultural group
Independent vs dependent variable
•Independent variable—the presumed cause (of a dependent variable) •Dependent variable—the presumed effect (of an independent variable) •Often referred to as the outcome variable or outcome: Example: smoking (IV) à lung cancer (DV) •IV and DV terms can be used to indicate direction of influence rather than cause and effect.
Phases in a quantitative study
•Phase 1: Conceptual Phase •Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase •Phase 3: Empirical Phase •Phase 4: Analytic Phase •Phase 5: Dissemination Phase
Examples of qualitative data
•Question: Tell me about how you've been feeling lately—have you felt sad or depressed at all, or have you generally been in good spirits? • •Data: Well, actually, I've been pretty depressed lately. I wake up each morning and I can't seem to think of anything to look forward to. I just can't seem to shake the blues.
Example of quantitative data
•Question: Thinking about the past week, how depressed would you say you have been on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 means "not at all" and 10 means "the most possible"? • •Data: 9 (subject 1) 0 (subject 2) 4 (subject 3)
Major steps in a quantitative study: Phase 3 empirical
•Step 13: Collecting the data •Step 14: Preparing data for analysis (e.g., coding the data)
Major steps in a quantitative study: Phase 4 analytic
•Step 15: Analyzing the data (through statistical analysis) •Step 16: Interpreting results
Major steps in a quantitative study: Phase 5: dissemination
•Step 17: Communicating the findings in a research report (e.g., in a journal article) •Step 18: Putting the evidence into practice
Major steps in a quantitative study: Phase 1 Conceptual
•Step 1: Formulating/delimiting the problem •Step 2: Reviewing related literature •Step 3: Undertaking clinical fieldwork •Step 4: Defining the framework and developing conceptual definitions •Step 5: Formulating hypotheses
Major steps in a quantitative study: Phase 2 design and planning
•Step 6: Selecting a research design •Step 7: Developing intervention protocols •Step 8: Identifying the population •Step 9: Designing the sampling plan •Step 10: Specifying methods to measure variables and collect data •Step 11: Developing methods to protect human/animal rights •Step 12: Reviewing and finalizing the research plan
Faces and Places of Research
•Study subject or participant: people being studied or cooperating in study •Study site: the overall location for a study (e.g., Portland) -Multisite studies: tend to yield more diverse group of study participants, potentially enhancing generalizability of findings
