Combo with "Chemical Bonding" and 15 others
Unstable isotopes:
- Undergo spontaneous disintegration in order to become a stable nucleus. - Disintegration results in emission of small particles and/or radiation. - Also called as radioactive isotopes. - Both forms can be used as diagnostic tools and tracers in scientific research.
Intensive Properties
-Do not depend on the amount of matter present. -Can be used to identify substances -Examples: density, colour, and boiling point
Nitrile
-nitrile cyano
Ester
-oate alkoxycarbonyl
Alcohol
-ol hydroxy
Al(OH)3 + H2SO4 -> Al2(SO4)3 + H2O
...
Al2O3 + C + N2 -> AlN + CO
...
Au2S3 + H2 -> Au + H2S
...
Bi(NO3)3 + H2S -> Bi2S3 + HNO3
...
C + SiO2 + Cl2 -> SiCl4 + CO
...
C2H2 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
...
C6H6 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
...
CO2 + H2O -> C6H12O6 + O2
...
Ca + AlCl3 -> CaCl2 + Al
...
Ca(NO3)2 -> CaO + NO2 + O2
...
Ca3(PO4)2 + C -> Ca3P2 + CO
...
Ca5F(PO4)3 + H2SO4 -> Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4 + HF
...
CaCN2 + H2O -> CaCO3 + NH3
...
CaS + H2O -> Ca(HS)2 + Ca(OH)2
...
CaS2 + O2 -> CaS2O3
...
Cr(OH)3 + H2SO4 -> Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
...
Cu + CO2 + O2 + H2O -> CuCO3⋅Cu(OH)2
...
CuSO4 + KCN -> CuCN + K2SO4 + C2N2
...
Fe + H2O + O2 -> Fe2O3.H2O
...
Fe + H2O -> Fe3O4 + H2
...
HClO4 + P4O10 -> H3PO4 + Cl2O7
...
Hg(OH)2 + H3PO4 -> Hg3(PO4)2 + H2O
...
Hg2CrO4 -> Cr2O3 + Hg + O2
...
I2 + HNO3 -> HIO3 + NO2 + H2
...
K2CO3 + C + N2 -> KCN + CO
...
K3[Fe(SCN)6] + Na2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 -> Fe(NO3)3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + CO2 + H2O + Na2SO4 + KNO3
...
K4Fe(CN)6 + KMnO4 + H2SO4 -> KHSO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 + MnSO4 + HNO3 + CO2 + H2O
...
K4[Fe(SCN)6] + K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 -> Fe2(SO4)3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + CO2 + H2O + K2SO4 + KNO3
...
KBr + Al(ClO4)3 -> AlBr3 + KClO4
...
KClO3 -> KCl + O2
...
Mg3N2 + H2O -> Mg(OH)2 + NH3
...
[Ag(NH3)2]Cl + HNO3 -> NH4NO3 + AgCl
...
(NH₄)₂SO₄ + CaCO₃ → (NH₄)₂CO₃ + CaSO₄
1 (NH₄)₂SO₄ + 1 CaCO₃ → 1 (NH₄)₂CO₃ + 1 CaSO₄
BaO + H₂O → Ba(OH)₂
1 BaO + 1 H₂O → 1 Ba(OH)₂
BeSO₄ + NH₄OH → Be(OH)₂ + (NH₄)₂SO₄
1 BeSO₄ + 2 NH₄OH → 1 Be(OH)₂ + 1 (NH₄)₂SO₄
C + H₂O → CO + H₂
1 C + 1 H₂O → 1 CO + 1 H₂
CO₂ + NH₃ + H₂O → NH₄HCO₃
1 CO₂ + 1 NH₃ + H₂O → 1 NH₄HCO₃
CO₂ + NH₃ → OC(NH₂)₂ + H₂O
1 CO₂ + 2 NH₃ → 1 OC(NH₂)₂ + 1 H₂O
CaCO₃ + HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂
1 CaCO₃ + 2 HCl → 1 CaCl₂ + 1 H₂O + 1 CO₂
H₃PO₄ + Ca(OH)₂ → CaHPO₄⋅2H₂O
1 H₃PO₄ + 1 Ca(OH)₂ → 1 CaHPO₄⋅2H₂O
H₄As₂O₇ → As₂O₅ + H₂O
1 H₄As₂O₇ → 1 As₂O₅ + 2 H₂O
K₂O + H₂O → KOH
1 K₂O + 1 H₂O → 2 KOH
Li₂O + H₂O → LiOH
1 Li₂O + 1 H₂O → 2 LiOH
Na₂O + H₂O → NaOH
1 Na₂O + 1 H₂O → 2 NaOH
N₂O₃ + H₂O → HNO₂
1 N₂O₃ + 1 H₂O → 2 HNO₂
N₂O₅ + H₂O → HNO₃
1 N₂O₅ + 1 H₂O → 2 HNO₃
PCl₅ + H₂O → POCl₃ + HCl
1 PCl₅ + 1 H₂O → 1 POCl₃ + 2 HCl
PCl₅ + KNO₂ → NOCl + POCl₃ + KCl
1 PCl₅ + 1 KNO₂ → 1 NOCl + 1 POCl₃ + 1 KCl
3 Qualities to remember when considering ionisation energies
1. Proton Charge. 2. Shielding. 3. Atomic Radius (Distance from nucleus).
[Cr(N₂H₄CO)₆]₄[Cr(CN)₆]₃ + KMnO₄ + H₂SO₄ → K₂Cr₂O₇ + MnSO₄ + CO₂ + KNO₃ + K₂SO₄ + H₂O ***This is the mother of all chemical equations***
10 [Cr(N₂H₄CO)₆]₄[Cr(CN)₆]₃ + 1176 KMnO₄ + 1399 H₂SO₄ → 35K₂Cr₂O₇ + 1176 MnSO₄ + 420 CO₂ + 660 KNO₃ + 223 K₂SO₄ + 1879 H₂O
What's the mass of a 12c carbon ?
12
how many elements do periods 4 and 5 contain
18 each
CO + O₂ → CO₂
2 CO + 1 O₂ → 2 CO₂
ClO₂ + H₂O → HClO₂ + HClO₃
2 ClO₂ + 1 H₂O → 1 HClO₂ + 1 HClO₃
Cu(CN)₂ → CuCN + C₂N₂
2 Cu(CN)₂ → 2 CuCN + 1 C₂N₂
HAsO₃ → As₂O₅ + H₂O
2 HAsO₃ → 1 As₂O₅ + 1 H₂O
HIO₃ → I₂O₅ + H₂O
2 HIO₃ → 1 I₂O₅ + 1 H₂O
HNO₂ + O₂ → HNO₃
2 HNO₂ + 1 O₂ → 2 HNO₃
N₂ + O₂ → N₂O
2 N₂ + 1 O₂ → 2 N₂O
how many elements do groups 6 and 7 contain ?
32 and 17
How many groups and periods are there ?
7 periods and 8 groups
RACEMIC MIXTURES
A 1:1 mixture of the two enantiomers of a compound is known as racemic mixture -Equal quantities of d- and l- enantiomers. Notation: (d,l) or () No optical activity. The mixture may have different b.p. and m.p. from the enantiomers
Sigma bond
A bond formed when two atomic orbitals combine for form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis connectiong the two atomic nuclei.
Single covalent bond
A bond formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons
Double covalent bond
A bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons.
Tertiary Carbon
A carbon bonded to three carbons, this is more stable and likely to undergo bonding under Markacovs rule
Secondary Carbon
A carbon bonded to two carbons.
Carbonyl group
A carbon double bonded to oxygen C=O, not considered a functional group but a component in some of the most important functional groups including aldehydes, ketones, esters, amides and carboxylic acid. Most of the reactions in the body concern these groups.
Primary Carbon
A carbon which is only bonded to one other carbon.
Molecular formula
A chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of a compound
Alkyl Group
A functional group of an organic chemical that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, which are arranged in a chain. They have general formula CnH2n+1 Examples include methyl CH3 (derived from methane) and butyl C2H5 (derived from butane). They are not found on their own but are found attached to other hydrocarbons.
Diatomic molecule
A molecule consisiting of two atoms.
Alkene
A molecule containing a carbon to carbon double bond. They can be arranged in rings although they generally like to be in big rings and can be transformed in to many different functional groups. Vitamin A (retinol) belongs to this group of molecules.
Polar molecule
A molecule in which one side of the molecule is slightly negative and the opposite side is lsightly positive.
Dipole
A molecule that has two poles, or regions with opposite charges. Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule. Dipole-dipole forces have strengths that range from 5 kJ to 20 kJ per mole. They are much weaker than ionic or covalent bonds and have a significant effect only when the molecules involved are close together (touching or almost touching).
Nucleophile
A molecule which is attracted to nucleases of other atoms, also known as a Lewis Base
Chiral Centre
A molecule with four non equivalent groups that is not superimpossible on it's own mirror image.
Network solids
A solid in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each other
Polyatomic ion
A tightly bound group of atoms that behaves as a unit and has a positive or negative charge
Hydrohalic Acids (Hydrogen Halide)
Acids resulting from the chemical reaction of hydrogen with one of the halogen elements (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine), which are found in Group 7 (VII, VIIA) of the periodic table. Astatine is not included in the list because it is very rare, unstable and not found as the acid in substantial quantities. Hydrogen halides can be abbreviated as HX where H represents a hydrogen atom and X represents a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine).
How is RMM
Adding all masses of atoms in a molecule
SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Alkanes are saturated; they contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms per carbon atom. All the C-C bonds are single covalent bonds Alkanes: linear molecules - general formula is CnH2n+2 Cycloalkanes: cyclic molecules - general formula is CnH2n (n is a positive whole number for all HCs)
UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated contain at least one double or triple bond, respectively. Fewer hydrogen atoms per carbon atom than alkanes. Mono-Alkenes: contain a C=C bond - general formula is CnH2n Mono-Alkynes: contain a CC bonds - general formula is CnH2n-2 Aromatics: usually contain one or more rings of six C atoms called benzene rings
sp3 HYBRIDISATION
All four atomic orbitals combine to give the same number of new hybrid atomic orbitals. All four sp3 orbitals are equivalent with the same energy (degenerate). Orbitals point towards the corners of a tetrahedron. Overlap produces sigma bonds. Used for bonding in saturated compounds
Lewis Acid
An electron pair acceptor, also known as an electrophile and a bronstead acid. An example of which would be Bromine.
Lewis Base
An electron pair donator, a molecule more likely to want to give away electrons, also known as a nucleophile and bronstead base. An example of which would be hydronium.
Molecular orbital
An orbital that applies to the entire molecule
The number of electrons is equal to the...
Atomic number
Amide
Close relatives of Esters, but with a nitrogen rather than an oxygen next to the carbonyl group. Often found in nature, amide bonds hold all of our proteins together (the protein amide bond is known as a peptide bond). Penicillin contains two amide groups.
Organic chemistry is composed of
Composed of C, H and few other elements
Alkene
Double bonded carbons
anions
Elements which gain electrons become ______. (anions or cations)
Molecular mass
For any molecule molecular mass (amu) = molar me
Naturally derived compounds:
Fuels - wood, coal, oil, alcohol Textiles - wool, cotton, silk, leather Building blocks - lipids, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins Drugs - penicillin, quinine, morphine, erythromycin, vincristine, thyroxine Flavours and fragrances - vanillin Dyes - indigo, woad Paper
Dative bonding in biology
Function of some biological molecules depends on binding a metal ion-containing cofactor - porphyrins,corrins. Haemoglobin Myoglobin Cytochromes P450 Vitamin B12 Chlorophyll Photodynamic therapy
Organic compounds are...
Generally, low solubility in water; high solubility in non-polar solvents Flammable Isomerism common Chemical reactions occur between molecules - can be slower Classified into families based on functional groups; homologous series based on chain length
CHARACTERISTICS OF METALLIC BONDING
Great strength; depends on -Number of electrons -Packing of cations Good conductors of heat and electricity in solid and liquid state Malleable and Ductile Lustrous
Noble gases
Group 18 Chemically inert Non-metallic, gaseous
PROPERTIES OF HYBRID ORBITALS
Hold electrons closer to nucleus The bond becomes shorter therefore stronger. More directional, so they have more effective bonding interactions. The more s-character in an orbital, the lower the energy. - increased stability of an electron in that orbital.
SHAPES OF MOLECULES
If a molecule, or ion, has lone pairs on the central atom, the molecule's shape is slightly distorted, due to extra repulsion between the lone pair(s) and other pairs of electrons
Covalent or Ionic compound property ?: High melting and boiling points
Ionic
what is molarity
Molarity = Solution concentration expressed as moles of solute dissolved in one (1) litre of solution. Example: What mass of glucose is required to prepare 1 L of a 1 M solution? 1 M Glucose = 1 mole Glucose 1 L of solution Glucose (C6H12O6 ) Molecular weight = (6 × 12.01) + (12 × 1.008) + (6 × 16) = 180.16 amu Therefore 180.16 g = 1 mole of glucose 180.16 g/L gives a 1 M glucose solution
Ethers
Molecules containing an oxygen sandwiched between two carbons, widely used as solvents in organic reactions. Historically it was used as an anaesthetic before theinvention of modern anaesthetics.
Structural Isomer
Molecules made up of the same components but with differnt connections.
Stereo Isomer
Molecules made up of the same components with the same connections but with different three dimensional configuration.
Enantiomers
Molecules that ARE mirror images of each other, but are not superimpossible upon each other.
Isomerism
Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures.
non-metals
Most of these compounds are GASES at room temperature: (metals or non-metals?)
metals
Most of these compounds are SOLIDS at room temperature: (metals or non-metals)
right
Non-metals are found on the LEFT or RIGHT side of the periodic chart of elements?
work out molarity
Number of moles/ volume in L
Halides
Organic compounds that contain one or more halogens (such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine). They are commonly used for teflon coating as propellants and refrigerants. Seldom found in natural products. When they do occur naturally they tend to be toxins. Popular with organic chemists as they are thruways to other molecules.
BONDING
Overlap of orbitals forms two types of bonds depending on the geometry of overlap σ bonds are formed by "direct" overlap Electron density is along the line of the bond Symmetric wrt rotation about the bond Bond may be formed between s-s, p-p, s-p, or hybridized orbitals. The bonding molecular orbital is lower in energy than the original atomic orbitals.
Inorganic carbon compounds
Oxides of carbon (CO2, CO) Carbonates (Na2CO3) Bicarbonates (NaHCO3) Metal carbides (CaC2) Metal cyanides (KCN)
Formula
PV=nRT n= # of moles R= a constant STP: T=237K P=100Kpa V=22.4L Unit:mol/L
DRAWING OPTICAL ISOMERS
Perspective view shows a tetrahedral carbon. Normal lines are in plane of page Wedges come out of page Dashed lines go into page R and S - systematic nomenclature for chiral centres. Assigned by looking at arrangement of groups around the chiral centre. Chirality of amino acids and sugars is often described by d and l. Assigned by relating their configuration to glyceraldehyde. Can be assigned by studying structure Complicated to apply generally Neither system is related to (+) and (-).
Alkyl halides
R = usually alkane (methonal, ethanol, butane, pentane, etc.)
What is defined as the mass of one atom of an element divided by the mass of 1/12 of an atom of carbon ?
Relative atomic mass
Ionic Bond
Result of electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. The +ve ions from metals and -ve ions from non-metals Consists of electrostatic force between cations (+ve) and anions (-ve) Strong bond, since the electrostatic force cannot be overcome easily Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature
GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM
Results from restricted rotation around a bond Requires different groups at each end of the bond Different physical and chemical properties
Aromatics (arenes)
Rings containing double bonds, they are significantly more stable and less reactive than other rings. Often used as a cheap solvent or starting material by organic chemists..These rings are found in morphine, auto exhausts, soot, and tobacco smoke.
chromatograohy
Selecting components by affinity to stationariory phase
Syn Addition
Syn addition is the addition of two substituents to the same side (or face) of a double bond or triple bond, resulting in a decrease in bond order but an increase in number of substituents. Generally the substrate will be an alkene or alkyne.
Synthetic compounds:
Textiles - nylon, rayon, Materials - rubbers, plastics artificial body parts, such as hip and knee prostheses, heart valves, and dentures Drugs - paracetamol, salbutamol, statins, anti-depressants Ingredients in soaps, detergents, polishes, cosmetics, deodorants, and shampoos etc.
Increasing Atomic Numbers
The "Periodic Table" we use today has the elements arranged according to their _______
Conjugate Base
The base that results from the deprotonation (removal of H+ Ions) of an acid.
Conformation
The different ways atoms can stretch or bend.
Transition Metals
The elements found in group 3-12 that form or make compounds with distinctive colors. are called the
Transition Metals
The elements found in group 3-12 that form or make compounds with distinctive colors. are called the ______________ ___________
valence electrons
The number of ______________ will determine what properties an element has (such melting point, reactivity, metallic, or conductivity)
Stereochemistry
The orientation of atoms in three dimensional space.
Top number= smaller number is... Bottom number ( bigger number) is...
The proton number- atomic number The mass number
sp HYBRIDISATION
The s and one p orbital combine to give the two new hybrid atomic orbitals. The other two p orbitals are unchanged. sp orbitals are at 180o to one another (linear molecule). Used for sigma bonding The p orbitals are perpendicular to them. Used for pi bonding sp hybridisation is used for bonding in alkynes and nitriles.
sp2 HYBRIDISATION
The s and two p orbitals combine to give the three new hybrid atomic orbitals. The 3rd p orbital is unchanged. sp2 orbitals point towards the corners of a triangle. Used for sigma bonding The p orbital is perpendicular to them. Used for pi bonding sp2 hybridisation is used for bonding in alkenes, carbonyls and aromatic rings
Ethylene
The simplest alkene, a gaseous hormone released when plants reach maturity signalling that it's time for fruit to start ripening. Polymerizes of this are used to produce polyethylene for making milk bottles and carrier bags.
Aldehydes
The simplest form of carbonyl compound, an double bonded oxygen flanked by one hydrogen and one R group, often written as R-CHO. It can be thought of as a carbonyl group at the end of organic molecule. The simplest form of this compound is formaldehyde an example of alarge member is Retinal. Retinal is one of the pigments responsible for trapping light in the eyes of humans.
energy level
The specific amount of energy an electron has.
Optically active
The term which describes a compound (such as a pure solution of a single enantiomer) which has the ability to rotate plane polarised light.
Why are the Noble Gases unreactive?
Their outer energy level of electrons is full. They do not react with any other elements because they dont need any electrons and don't want to give any away either.
Staggered Conformation
This conformation results when the bonds from the front carbon and the bonds from the back carbon have a dihedral angle of 60. In this conformation the bonds are as far apart from each other as possible and this is the conformation with the lowest energy.
Heteroatoms
This group of atoms includes important atoms such as halogen, oxygen and sulfur and are the components of the halide, alcohol, ether and thiol groups.
Racemic mixtures
This is a 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers which does not rotate plane-polarized light. These mixtures are very difficult to seperate.
R
This letter is used as an abbreviation for Rest of the molecule and is commonly used as shorthand to imply a hydrogen atom or a hydrocarbon group. It is used when a generality is being demonstrated, or when the rest of the molecule is not very important in understanding what is being discussed.
Eclipsed Conformation
This results when the bonds from the front carbon and the bonds from the back carbon align (in a Newmans projection) and the angle between the bonds (known as a dihedral angle) is zero degrees. This conformation is the higher energy conformation.
SHAPES OF MOLECULES
To predict shape, consider the central atom 1.Find the number of valence electrons -For ions, add 1 valence electron for anions, remove one for cations 2.Work out the number of bonding pairs by drawing the Lewis structure of the molecule. 3.Pair up the remaining electrons as lone pairs.
BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES
Uses linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO): Orbitals combine to form hybrid atomic orbitals (sp, sp2, sp3) and molecular orbitals (σ, σ*, π, π*) Hybrid atomic orbital: Combination of atomic orbitals from the same atom Molecular orbital: Combination of atomic, or hybrid atomic, orbitals from different atoms Second row elements (such as C, O, N) hybridize using their 2s- and 2p-orbitals to form sp, sp2, sp3 HAOs.
VSEPR theory
Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory; because electron pairs repel, molecules adjust their shapes so that valence electron pairs are as far apart as possible.
Alkali metals - they really want to give away the one valence electron that they have.
What METAL family is the most reactive and WHY?
Halogens -because they only need only one more electron to reach 8 valence electrons.
What NON-METAL family is the most reactive and WHY?
Elements that have properties of BOTH metals and non-metals and are found along the zig-zag line on the periodic chart.
What are metalloids?
Periods
What are the rows called?
Groups
What are the vertical columns called?
Drawn into thin wires
What does ductile mean?
That something can be hammered into thin sheets if struck, rather than having it shatter.
What does malleable mean?
Increasing Atomic Mass
When Mendeleev created the first periodic table the elements were put in a specific order based on what?
Trans
When functional groups are on different sides of a molecule, can also be described as Entgeggen.
Entgeggen (E)
When functional groups are on opposite sides of a molecule, can also be described as Trans.
Zusammen (Z)
When functional groups are on the same side of a molecule, can also be described as Cis.
Cis
When functional groups are on the same side of a molecule, can also be described as Zusammen.
• HUND'S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
When in orbitals of equal energy, electrons will try to remain unpaired. Minimises repulsion between like charges, so the system is more stable.
Distance of valence electrons from nucleus.
When the distance increases the attraction of the positive nucleus to the negative electron decreases, reducing the ionisation energy.
Proton Charge.
When the positive nuclear charge increases the attraction for the valence electrons increases, increasing the ionisation energy.
Anit addition
When two groups add to opposite faces of a double bond
Hydrogen
Which element is a "One-of-a-Kind"?
noble gases
Which family contains the non reactive gases?
alkali metals (group 1)
Which family of METALS is the most chemically reactive?
They could use it to predict properties of unknown elements.
Why was Mendeleev's "Periodic Table" useful to scientists?
could not explain chemical properties or light from heated substances
Why was the Rutherford model of the atom modified?
Calculation of Percentage from a formula
Work out RMM multiply the RMM of element for which you want % by 100 and devide by overall RMM of compound
are chemical properties of isotopes identical ?
Yes- Isotopes have the same outer electrons and chemical identity so their chemical properties are identical.
• HEISENBERG'S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
You cannot determine the position and momentum of an electron at the same time
metallic bond
a bond formed by the attraction between positively charged metal ions and the electrons around them
covalent bond
a bond that results from the sharing of a pair of electrons
tertiary carbon is...
a carbon bonded to 3 other carbons
Primary carbon is
a carbon bonded to another carbon
ionic bond
a chemical bond in which one atom loses one or more electrons to form a positive ion and the other atom gains one or more electrons to form a negative ion
mixture
a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined
molecular compound
a compound formed by a covalent bond
Atomic size increas going down...
a group
what's a molecule ?
a group of two or more atoms that are joined together. contain molecules in defined proportion. eg. water has 2 H and 1O
colloid
a mixture consisting of tiny particles that are intermediate in size between those in solutions and those in suspensions and that are suspended in a liquid, solid, or gas
suspension
a mixture in which particles of a material are more or less evenly dispersed throughout a liquid or gas
dot and cross notation
a model that uses electron-dot structures to show how electrons are arranged in atoms, ions and molecules
Molecule
a neutral group of atoms joined together by covalent bonds
element
a substance that cannot be separated or broken down into simpler substances by chemical means
characteristic properties
a unique set of properties that an element can be identified by
soluble
able to dissolve
what are some examples of compounds in industry
aluminum, ammonia
What is matter
anything that has mass everything is made from mater
physical properties
boiling point, melting point, density, color, hardness, texture
quaternary carbon
bonded to 4 other carbons
4C alkane
butane
# of electron shells increases
by each step
How are geometrical isomers distinguished
by terms cis and trans Cis and trans refer to the carbon chain: *Cis isomer - two alkyl groups are on the same side of the double bond *Trans isomer - two alkyl groups are on the opposite side of the double bond
hyrocarbons contain
carbon and hydrogen only
secondary carbon is a
carbon bonded to two other carbons
Organi ccompounds can be classified accordig to....
carbon chain/ring or functional group
Elements share...
certain characteristics and atomic structure
What does rearranging the ratios of chemical combination do ?
change the substances
what does the strength of ion-dipole forces depend on ?
charge on ion and magnitude of the dipole
What crystilisaion
components by solubility
Alicyclic
compounds contaig a ring of saturated carbon atoms
Covalent or Ionic compound property ?: gas, liquids or solids.
covalent
Covalent or Ionic compound property ?: poor electrical conductors
covalent
Covalent or Ionic compound property ?:Many soluble in non-polar liquids but not in water
covalent
chemical changes
crushing, melting, passing electric current
what are the three ways or making solids dissolve faster
crushing, mixing, heating
10C alkane
decane
Diethyl ether
diethyl ether
First electron affinity becomes less negative going...
down the periodic table
Delocalised means
electrons are not associated with a particular atom.
valence electrons
electrons on the outermost energy level of an atom
what surrounds the nucleus
electrons- negatively charged
What is the unit of molar mass?
g/mol
EM waves in order of increasing wavelength
gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet(UV), visible(ROYGBIV), infrared(IR), microwaves, radar, radio
astemp goes up solubility goes down
gas
Halogens
group 17 highly reactive and toxic gases with low boiling/melting points e.g F, Cl, Br, I
Groups 1-4 the valency is equal to
group number
Erwin Schroedinger
he gave rise to the Quantum Mechanical Model with his calculation of the probability of where an electron can be found around the atom
what are the two ways to break down compunds
heat and electric current
a substance always keeps it......
identity
solvent
in a solution, the substance in which the solute dissolves
solute
in a solution, the substance that dissolves in the solvent
Elements are arranged in order of....
increasing atomic number from left to right(Z)
example of solution
lemonade
helium filled balloon
less dense than air, will float
Principle Energy Level
main energy level or distance of an electron from the nucleus; (n); correspond to the rows 1-7 on the Periodic Table
How do you calculate the number of moles ?
mass/ molar mass
2n²
maximum number of electrons per energy level
Pauli Exclusion Principle
maximum of two electrons may occupy an atomic orbital, but only if they have opposite spins
krypton
more dense than air, will sink
Nitrogen
name the element 1s²2s²2p³
Aluminum
name the element 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p¹
Titanium
name the element [Ar]4s²3d²
Tungsten
name the element [Xe]6s²4f¹⁴5d⁴
What is in the nucleus ?
neutrons protons electrons
9C alkane
nonane
Define agravado's number (NA)
number Defined as the number of atoms found in 12 g of 12C
what are some examples of compounds in nature
proteins and CO2
EM waves in order of increasing frequency
radio, radar, microwaves, infrared(IR), visible(ROYGBIV), ultraviolet(UV), x-rays, gamma
Radiation
rays and/or particles that are emitted spontaneously by radioactive materials
chemical properties
reactivity with acid, reactivity with air, flammability
orbitals
regions within electron cloud where electrons orbit the nucleus; number of orbitals differs with sublevel type (s,p,d,f)
sublevels
regions within the energy levels; (l); corresponds to the block grouping s,p,d,f on the Periodic Table
inversely proportional
relationship between wavelength and frequency
• The mass of one mole of any substance is
relative atomic mass (elements) or the relative molecular mass (compound) expressed in grams
What is distillation
select components by boiling point
what is extraction
select components by solubility
Double covalent bonding
sharing 2 pairs of electrons e.g 2 oxygen molecules
as temp goes up solubility goes up
solid
alloys
solid solutions of metals or nonmetals dissolved in metals
s orbitals
spherical orbitals; first to fill for any energy level; can only hold 2 electrons
excited state
state in which an atom has a higher potential energy than it has in its ground state
Aufbau Principle
states that each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and momentum of an electron
concentration
the amount of a particular substance in a given quantity of a mixture, solution, or ore
electron configuration
the arrangement of electrons in an atom
-Chemical equations show....
the conversion of reactants (molecules on the left of the arrow) into products (molecules shown on the right of the arrow)
chemical bond
the force that holds two atoms together
bright-line spectrum
the lines of visible light emitted by elements as electrons fall to lower energy levels,each element's "fingerprint", aka emission spectrum; light of only certain wavelengths is present
ground state
the lowest allowable energy state of an atom
Relative atomic mass is defined as...
the mass of one atom of an element divided by the mass of 1/12 of an atom of carbon-12
Molar mass is
the mass of one mole of a substance.
frequency (definition)
the number of cycles or vibrations per unit of time; also the number of waves produced in a given amount of time
Metallic character Increases from..
top to bottom in a group
insoluble
unable to dissolve
shorthand notation
uses noble gas configuration from the preceding full level (stable core), along with electrons on current level
energy levels
what do the coefficients stand for?
sublevels (or orbitals)
what do the letter symbols stand for?
light (visible, IR or UV) or some other form of EM wave
what form of energy does the excited electron give off?
it jumps to the excited state
what happens to an electron when it absorbs energy?
excited electrons
where does "light" (or other EM waves) come from?
do particles settle out in suspendion
yes
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
|Strongest(polar) |Ion-Dipole Forces (polar) |Hydrogen Bonds (polar) |Dipole-Dipole Forces |Dispersion Forces - Van der Waals |forces/London forces (non-polar) |Weakest
IONISATION ENERGIES
• An ionisation energy is a measure of the amount of energy needed to remove electrons from atoms (or ions).
COVALENT BONDS - IMPORTANCE
• Bonding in organic compounds - building blocks of life • Determine shape of molecules - interactions between proteins and receptors or drugs • Polarity - determine intermolecular forces - Properties - Solubility - Receptor interactions
FEATURES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
• Gases, liquids (made of molecules) or solids • Molecular compounds have low melting and boiling points • Poor electrical conductors in all phases • Many soluble in non-polar liquids but not in water - Solubility in water depends on polar/polar and polar/non-polar interactions.
Transition metals
• Metals have high densities, melting and boiling points • Form coloured compounds and complex ions • Valencies are variable and ions readily undergo oxidation or reduction e.g. Fe2+ - e- <-> Fe3+ • Can use electrons from two outer orbitals for combination with other elements • Definition "an element with at least one oxidation state has a partially filled d-subshell"
Atomic Mass
• The mass of a single atom; the total mass of the protons, neutrons and electrons.
BOND POLARITY: POLAR BOND
•A polar bond is a covalent bond in which there is a separation of charge between one end and the other, with greater electron density around one of the two atoms. •Occurs in bonds between atoms of different electronegativities - many covalent bonds are polar.
Subshells
•Each shell contains a unique group of orbitals •A group of equivalent (same energy) orbitals is called a subshell •Subshells are described by the azimuthal or subsidiary quantum number l •The value 'l' depends upon the value n. 'l' can have value from 0 to (n-1). i.e l = 0,1,2,3.........(n-2),(n-1) •These correspond to different subshells which are designated by small letters s, p, d, f.... (These stand for sharp, principal, diffuse and fundamental)
What is the RRM?
•Gives the mass of a molecule relative to that of the 12C atom, which is taken to have a mass of 12 Relative molecular mass= Mass of 1 molecule of substance / 1/12 × mass of 1 atom of carbon-12
Relative atomic mass
•Relates to the number of electrons and spaces in the atom's electron shells. •Ar of a chemical element gives the mass of an atom (the force it makes when gravity pulls on it).
ELECTRON AFFINITY
•The amount of energy needed to add electrons to atoms/ions
Hund's Rule
- electrons occupy equal energy orbitals so as to maximize the number of unpaired e-s
FORMATION OF PI BONDS
. π bonds are formed by "parallel" overlap of p orbitals. Electron density is above and below the plane of the bond Form after sigma bonds. Higher in energy than sigma bonds, therefore weaker and more easily broken.
(NH4)2BeF4 -> BeF2 + NH3 + HF
...
Al + O2 -> Al2O3
...
HAsO₂ → As₂O₃ + H₂O
2 HAsO₂ → 1 As₂O₃ + 1 H₂O
Molecular compound
A compound that is composed of molecules.
Hybridization
The mixing of several atomic orbitals to form the same total number of equivalent hybrid orbitals.
Thiol (general)
Thiol
How do you work out the RMM
adding up atomic masses of atoms in a molecule
Atom that lost an electron cation
cation
Halide
chloro, bromo, etc -
electron dot diagram
element symbol with dots to represent the valence electrons
magnesium oxide is formed when
magnesium reacts with oxygen
3C alkane
propane
the amount of element present doesn't affect the element's
properties
Industrial- Applications of unstable isotopes
• Energy generation. • Sterilisation of food and medical supplies usually uses 60Co. • Smoke detectors using 241Am. • Imaging and gauging.
What is the periodic law ?
"Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers". •When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic pattern in their physical and chemical properties.
Extensive Properties
-Depend on the amount of matter present. -Examples: mass, volume, weight
UO₃ + H₂ → UO₂ + H₂O
1 UO₃ + 1 H₂ → 1 UO₂ + 1 H₂O
Xe + F₂ → XeF₆
1 Xe + 3 F₂ → 1 XeF₆
Mg + N₂ → Mg₃N₂
3 Mg + 1 N₂ → 1 Mg₃N₂
O₂ → O₃
3 O₂ → 2 O₃
Covalent bond
A bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.
electromagnetic spectrum
All of the frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
WHAT IS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY?
Chemistry of carbon-based molecules Molecules containing C-H bonds Structure and synthesis
The atom that supplies the shared pair of electrons is known as the ....
Donor
Metalloids
Has 6 elements properties of metals and non-metals e.g B, Si, As
What is in period 1
Hydrogen and helium
Dipole interactions
Intermolecular forces resulting from attraction of oppositely charged regions of polar molecules.
s orbital
Lower in energy than the other orbitals in the same shell.
What is a mole
One mole of any element contains the same number of atoms (this is Avogadro constant) 1 mole = NA = 6.0221367 × 10 23
Hybrid Orbitals
Orbitals formed from mixing together atomic orbitals, like the spx, which result from mixing s and p orbitals.
Alcohols (general)
R-----OH
Quality: Ionisation energy is always positive.
Reason: Energy is always required to remove an electron - endothermic - as it is attracted to the nucleus.
Modern Periodic table
Seaborg 1940
Alkyne
Triple bonded carbons
PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN BONDS
Weak bond, easily broken Additive Stronger than other dipole-dipole interactions
solution
a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances uniformly dispersed throughout a single phase
alloy
a material made of elements that has metallic properties
Unsaturated hydrocarbons tend to be...
alkenes alkynes aromatics
Ether
alkoxy-
what type of molecules do VDW forces appear in
all types of molecules.
What is the combining power? Other name
also called valency atom's ability to form chemical bonds. -Ability of an atom of one element to combine with other atoms is controlled by the number of electrons which an atom will give, take, or share to form a chemical compound.
what are the four ways to seperate particles
centrifuge, distillation, multi-step, and magnet
can be removed by filtering
suspension
scatter light
suspension and colloids
Anti conformation
A type of staggered conformation in which the two big groups are opposite each other (180 degrees apart) in a newman projection.
Alcohol
A very common and important group of organic compounds consisting of the general formula R-OH. commonly found in natural products, for example table sugar.
metals
"Luster" is a physical property of : metals or non-metals?
metals
"Malleable" is a physical property of: metals or non-metals?
metals
"being a GOOD conductor of heat" is a physical property of metals or non-metals?
metals
"being a good conductor of electricity" is a physical property of metals or non-metals?
non-metals
"brittle" is a physical property of metals or non-metals?
metals
"ductile" is a physical property of metals or non-metals?
non-metals
"dull or waxy appearance, not shiny" is a physical property of metals or non-metals?
Rutherford's Model (of the atom)
"planetary model"; nuclear atom model; negative electrons orbit dense positive nucleus at relatively great distance (with empty space in between)
Thomson's Model (of the atom)
"plum pudding" model; the atom is a lump of positively charged material with negatively charged electrons scattered in it
Working out empirical formulae
%mass/ Ar divide all by smallest number multiply answer of each element by the element's Ar E.g Na=32.4 S=22.5 O=45.1 Na= 32.4/2=1.41 S=22.5/35= 0.70 O= 45.1/ 16= 2.82 Na=1.41/0.70= 2 S=0.70/0.70=1 O=2.82/0.70=4 2x23+32+4x16= 142 RMM/142=1
frequency (units)
(f) # of waves/time,1cycle/sec, hertz (Hz)
Sulfide (general)
(two lone pairs on S)
wavelength (units)
(λ) m, cm, or nm
Lanthanides
- 15 elements with atomic numbers 57-71 - Also known as rare earth metal - Shiny and silvery-white, and stain easily when exposed to air - Have high melting and boiling points e.g Lanthanum, Cerium
Actinides
- 15 elements with atomic numbers 89-103 - Radioactive - Very dense metals with distinctive structures - Numerous allotropes may be formed (plutonium has at least 6 allotropes) - Combine directly with most non-metals E.g. Uranium
Valency
- Combining capacity of an atom, i.e. the number of electrons an element gives up or accepts when reacting to form a compound.
Beta rays
- Emission of a beta particle - Electrons turns into proton becomes next element - Negatively charged Positron emission = b plus
gamma rays
- Emission of a gamma photon - High frequency EM radiation - Neutral - No effect on atomic or mass number - Often produced along with a or b particles - a or bdecay leaves nucleus in an excited state; it then loses energy by y emission
Alpha
- Emission of an alpha particle - Helium nuclei. - Positively charged (+2)
Non-metals
- Groups 14-16 - Groups 14-16 of the periodic table - Not able to conduct electricity or heat very well. - Opposed to metals, non-metals are very brittle, and cannot be rolled into wires or pounded into sheets - Exist in two of the three states of matter at room temperature: gases (oxygen) and solids (carbon) - Have no metallic luster and do not reflect light.
• The valency of a monatomic ion is equal to its charge
- Hydrogen (H+): Valency 1; Oxygen (O2-): Valency 2 - Potassium (K +): Valency 1; Aluminium (Al 3+): Valency 3;
When are Chemical properties observed ?
- Observed in the course of a chemical reaction - Arise from the distribution of electrons around the atom's nucleus, particularly the outer (valence) electrons
Medical
- Provide diagnostic information - Treat some medical conditions by weakening or destroying particular targeted cells • Cancer • Overactive thyroid
What does quantum mechanics explain that classic mechanics cant ?
- Spectra of light emitted by atoms - quantisation of energy and energy levels - Electrons in an atom are stable and stay in their orbitals - Wave-particle duality - light can be described as made up of photons with energy depending on frequency
Important concepts
- Uncertainty principle. Can never know both the exact location and velocity of a subatomic particle at the same time. - Electrons can be described as waves by the Schrodinger equation - a mathematical wavefunction that describes an electron's properties in terms of quantum numbers.
DIASTEREOMERS
-A structure with n chiral centres has 2n possible isomers. -Stereoisomers that are not mirror image of each other are called diastereomers -Includes cis-trans isomers and other examples involving rotation -Most common example is molecules with 2 or more chiral carbons where at least one but not all differ. -Diastereomers which differ at only one carbon atom are called epimers. -Two diastereomers will have different physical properties eg. m.p., b.p., and stability. -They have different chemical reactivity with both achiral and chiral reagents. -Molecules with 2 or more chiral centres where at least one but not all differ. Example:Tartaric acid - 2 chiral centres
What is Dalton's atomic theory?
-All matter is composed of atoms -atoms cannot be made or destroyed -atoms of the same element are identical -different elements have different types of atoms characterised by atomic mass -Chemical reactions occur when atoms are re-arranged/ chemical reactions rearrange atoms -Compounds are formed from atoms of the constituent elements - combine in whole-number ratios -Compounds are composed of two or more atoms
...
-Combination of n and l used to identify a particular subshell and thus describe the location of an electron in the atomic energy levels Shell n l Subshell 'nl' K 1 0 1s L 2 1 2p 0 2s M 3 2 3d 1 3p 0 3s
Inorganic compounds are..
-Composed of all known elements -Often ionic bonding -High solubility in water; low solubility in non-polar solvent -Non-flammable -Isomers are less common (complexes of transition metals only) -Chemical reactions occur between ions - usually fast and quantitative -Classified as acid, base or salt.
OPTICAL ISOMERISM/CHIRALITY
-Compounds without chiral centers do not normally show optical activity. -Compounds with one chiral center will show optical activity. -Optical isomers of these compounds are chemically identical. -Compounds with more than one chiral center may or may not show optical activity depending on whether or not they are non-superimposable on their mirror image (chiral) or superimposable (achiral).
POLYFUNCTIONAL COMPOUNDS
-Contain more than one functional group Principal functional group determines the class -Secondary functional groups are treated as substituents -The order of preference for principal group is: Carboxylic acid > acid anhydrides > esters > acid halides > amides > nitriles > aldehydes > ketone > alcohols > amines > double bond > triple bond
p orbital
-Dumb-bell shape -Nodal plane passes through nucleus -Higher in energy than s orbital. -Three p orbitals in the same shell.
STRUCTURE OF ICE
-Each water molecule is hydrogen-bonded to 4 others in a 'tetrahedral' formation -Ice has a "diamond-like" structure -Molecules are further apart than in liquid water
• Some elements can have multiple valencies
-Eg Phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) : Valency 3/5 -Transition metals
METALLIC BONDING Requirements
-Electrostatic attraction between metal ions and mobile delocalised electrons. -The metal should have low ionisation energies - metals readily give up their electrons to form positive metal ions -The metal should have vacant valence orbitals - the electrons move freely between the overlapping orbitals
ION-DIPOLE FORCES
-Electrostatic interaction between an ion and a uncharged polar molecule -Strength depends on charge on ion and magnitude of the dipole
CONDITIONS FOR HYDROGEN BOND FORMATION
-Forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom. -Electron density in the atom is concentrated in the lone pairs - so the hydrogen atom is strongly attracted to them.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
-Intramolecular forces hold atoms together within a molecule. -Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules. -Intermolecular forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces.
Significance
-Large numbers of hydrogen bonds account for the physical state of water -Strong enough for stability of macromolecules -DNA double helix, base pairing -Protein secondary structure; alpha helices, beta sheets. -Enzyme-substrate and antibody-anti gen interactions -Transcription factor binding
Diastereomers
-May rotate the plane of polarised light but by different amounts -Different physical and chemical properties NMR spectra visibly different -Possible to separate by normal physical methods -Interact differently with both chiral and achiral molecules -Differ in taste and smell
When are Physical properties examined ?
-Observed by examining a sample of pure element - Arise from molecular structure and strength of intermolecular interactions
PROPERTIES OF CO-ORDINATE COMPOUNDS
-Physical state: gas, liquid or solid -Melting and boiling point higher than purely covalent compounds, but lower than ionic -Soluble in non-polar solvents; less soluble in polar solvents (can react with water) -Conductivity: Non-ionic - therefore nonconductors
VDW forces significance
-Present in all molecules -Boiling points of noble gases, halogens and alkanes -Hardness of certain solids -Behaviour of gases at low temperature -Stabilising lipid bilayers - cell membranes -Protein structure and protein-protein recognition
The 4 quantum numbers needed to specify the character of an electron are...
-Principal Quantum Numbers (n) -Azimuthal or subsidiary Quantum Numbers (l) -Magnetic Quantum Numbers (m) -Spin Quantum Numbers (s)
IMPORTANCE OF ENANTIOMERS
-Proteins/receptors/enzymes made up of L-amino acids = chiral environment - differentiates between isomers. -Component of bacterial cell wall not found in mammalian proteins. Protects bacteria from proteases
Enantiomers
-Rotate plane of polarised light by equal amounts in opposite directions -Identical physical and chemical properties Identical by NMR spectroscopy -Impossible to separate by normal physical methods -Interact differently with chiral molecules - this allows separation by chiral techniques -1:1 mixture = a racemate
AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBERS (l) indicates...
-Which subshell an electron is in Value of l 0 1 2 3 Sub-shell s p d f •Energy of the subshell - increases with increasing l •Shape of the orbitals in that subshell •Maximum number of electrons a given subshell can hold = 2(2l+1). Sub-shell s p d f l 0 1 2 3 No. of electrons 2 6 10 14 l Shape l = 0, s-orbital spherical l = 1, p-orbital dumbbell l = 2, d-orbital More complex l = 3, f-orbital Still more complex
Aldehyde
-al oxo (alkanoyl)
Amide
-amide carbamoyl
Amine
-amine amino
Alkane
-ane yl
Alkene
-ene enyl
A functional group in a molecule
-gives its characteristic chemical properties -acts as a site of chemical reactivity -serves as the basis for nomenclature classifies its family
Alkali metals
-group 1 -silver soft metals -highly reactive and rarely found naturally -e.g. K Li, Na
Kinetic isotope effect
-heavier isotopes react more slightly more slowly. •Physical properties such as density can differ
Carboxylic acid
-oic acid carboxy
Ketone
-one oxo
Alkyne
-yne ynyl
(NH4)2Cr2O7 -> Cr2O3 + N2 + H2O
...
(NH4)2Cr2O7 -> NH3 + H2O + Cr2O3 + O2
...
(NH4)3AsS4 + HCl -> As2S5 + H2S + NH4Cl
...
Ag2S + KCN -> KAg(CN)2 + K2S
...
AgNO3 + FeCl3 -> Fe(NO3)3 + AgCl
...
Al + FeO -> Al2O3 + Fe
...
Al + HCl -> AlCl3 + H2
...
Al + KOH + H2O -> KAlO2 + H2
...
Al + NH4ClO4 -> Al2O3 + AlCl3 + NO + H2O
...
Al + NaOH + H2O -> NaAl(OH)4 + H2
...
Al(NO3)3 + Na2CO3 -> Al2(CO3)3 + NaNO3
...
Al2(SO4)3 + Ca(OH)2 -> CaSO4 + Al(OH)3
...
Al4C3 + H2O -> CH4 + Al(OH)3
...
AlCl3 + AgNO3 -> AgCl + Al(NO3)3
...
As + NaOH -> Na3AsO3 + H2
...
As2O5 + H2O -> H3AsO4
...
Au + HCl + HNO3 -> AuCl3 + NO + H2O
...
Au + KCN + O2 + H2O -> K[Au(CN)2] + KOH
...
Au2O3 -> Au + O2
...
B2O3 + H2O -> H3BO3
...
BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 -> BaSO4 + AlCl3
...
Be(OH)2 + NH4HF2 -> (NH4)2BeF4 + H2O
...
C10H16 + Cl2 -> C + HCl
...
C2H3Cl + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + HCl
...
C2H5OH + O2 -> CO + H2O
...
C2H5OH + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
...
C3H8 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
...
C4H10 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
...
C7H10N + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + NO2
...
C7H16 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
...
C7H6O2 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
...
CH4 + O2 -> CO2 +H2O
...
Ca(OH)2 + P4O10 + H2O -> Ca(H2PO4)2
...
Ca10F2(PO4)6 + H2SO4 -> Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4 + HF
...
Ca3(PO4)2 + H2SO4 -> CaSO4 + H3PO4
...
Ca3(PO4)2 + H3PO4 -> Ca(H2PO4)2
...
Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 + C -> CaSiO3 + P4 + CO
...
Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 -> CaSiO3 + P2O5
...
Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 -> P4O10 + CaSiO3
...
Ca3P2 + H2O -> Ca(OH)2 + PH3
...
CaHPO4⋅2H2O + NaOH + H2O -> Na2HPO4⋅12H2O + Ca(OH)2
...
CaS + H2O + CO2 -> Ca(HCO3)2 + H2S
...
Fe + O2 -> Fe2O3
...
Fe(OH)3 -> Fe2O3 + H2O
...
Fe2(SO4)3 + Ba(NO3)2 -> BaSO4 + Fe(NO3)3
...
Fe2(SO4)3 + KOH -> K2SO4 + Fe(OH)3
...
Fe2O3 + C -> CO + Fe
...
Fe2O3 + CO -> Fe + CO2
...
Fe2O3 + H2 -> Fe + H2O
...
Fe3O4 + H2 -> Fe + H2O
...
FeC2O4⋅2H2O + H2C2O4 + H2O2 + K2C2O4 -> K3[Fe(C2O4)3]⋅3H2O
...
FeCl3 + Ca(OH)2 -> CaCl2 + Fe(OH)3
...
FeCl3 + NH4OH -> Fe(OH)3 + NH4Cl
...
FeO + H3PO4 -> Fe3(PO4)2 + H2O
...
FeS + O2 -> Fe2O3 + SO2
...
FeS2 + O2 -> Fe2O3 + SO2
...
FeSO4 + K3[Fe(CN)6] -> Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2 + K2SO4
...
H2S + Cl2 -> S8 + HCl
...
H2SO4 + Al(OH)3 -> Al2(SO4)3 + H2O
...
H2SO4 + HI -> H2S + I2 + H2O
...
H2SO4 + NaHCO3 -> Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
...
H3AsO3 -> As2O3 + H2O
...
H3BO3 + Na2CO3 -> Na2B4O7 + CO2 + H2O
...
H3BO3 -> H4B6O11 + H2O
...
H3PO3 -> H3PO4 + PH3
...
H3PO4 + (NH4)2MoO4 + HNO3 -> (NH4)3PO4⋅2MoO3 + NH4NO3 + H2O
...
H3PO4 + Ca(OH)2 -> Ca(H2PO4)2 + H2O
...
H3PO4 + HCl -> PCl5 + H2O
...
HCl + HNO3 -> NOCl + Cl2 + H2O
...
HCl + K2CO3 -> KCl + H2O + CO2
...
K2MnO4 + H2SO4 -> KMnO4 + MnO2 + K2SO4 + H2O
...
K3AsO4 + H2S -> As2S5 + KOH + H2O
...
KClO3 -> KClO4 + KCl
...
KNO3 + C12H22O11 -> N2 + CO2 + H2O + K2CO3
...
KO2 + CO2 -> K2CO3 + O2
...
KOH + AlCl3 -> KCl + Al(OH)3
...
MgNH4AsO4 + 6H2O -> Mg2As2O7 + NH3 + H2O
...
MgNH4PO4 -> Mg2P2O7 + NH3 + H2O
...
MnO2 + HCl -> MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
...
MnO2 + KOH + O2 -> K2MnO4 + H2O
...
NH3 + NO -> N2 + H2O
...
NH3 + O2 -> HNO2 + H2O
...
NH3 + O2 -> NO + H2O
...
NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 -> CaCl2 + NH3 + H2O
...
NH4VO3 -> V2O5 + NH3 + H2O
...
NO + NaOH -> NaNO2 + H2O + N2O
...
Na + H2O -> NaOH + H2
...
Na2B4O7 + HCl + H2O -> NaCl + H3BO3
...
Na2CO3 + HCl -> NaCl + H2O + CO2
...
Na2O2 + H2O -> NaOH + O2
...
Na2S2 + O2 -> Na2S2O3
...
Na2SnO3 + H2S -> SnS2 + NaOH + H2O
...
Na3AsO3 + H2S -> As2S3 + NaOH
...
NaCl + H2SO4 -> Na2SO4 + HCl
...
NaOH + Cl2 -> NaCl + NaClO + H2O
...
NaOH + Zn(NO3)2 -> NaNO3 + Zn(OH)2
...
NiS + O2 -> NiO + SO2
...
P4 + H2O -> H3PO4 + H2
...
P4 + O2 -> P2O5
...
P4O10 + H2O -> H3PO4
...
P4O10 + HCl -> POCl3 + HPO3
...
P4O6 + H2O -> H3PO3
...
P4O6 -> P4 + P2O4
...
PCl3 + H2O -> H3PO3 + HCl
...
PCl5 + H2O -> H3PO4 + HCl
...
PCl5 + P2O5 -> POCl3
...
POCl3 + H2O -> H3PO4 + HCl
...
Pb + Na + C2H5Cl -> Pb(C2H5)4 + NaCl
...
Pb(NO3)2 -> PbO + NO2 + O2
...
Pb(OH)2 + NaOH -> Na2PbO2 + H2O
...
Pb3(VO4)2⋅PbCl2 + HCl -> VO2Cl + PbCl2 + H2O
...
Pb3O4 + HNO3 -> Pb(NO3)2 + PbO2 + H2O
...
S8 + O2 -> SO3
...
Sb + O2 -> Sb4O6
...
Se + NaOH -> Na2Se + Na2SeO3 + H2O
...
Si + NaOH + H2O -> Na2SiO3 + H2
...
Si + S8 -> Si2S4
...
Si2H3 + O2 -> SiO2 + H2O
...
SiCl4 + H2O -> H4SiO4 + HCl
...
SiH4 + O2 -> SiO2 + H2O
...
SiO2 + HF -> SiF4 + H2O
...
Sn(OH)2 + NaOH -> Na2SnO2 + H2O
...
Sn(OH)4 + NaOH -> Na2SnO3 + H2O
...
TiCl4 + Mg -> MgCl2 + Ti
...
U3O8 + HNO3 -> UO2(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O
...
UO2 + HF -> UF4 + H2O
...
UO2(NO3)2⋅6H2O -> UO3 + NO2 + O2 + H2O
...
V2O5 + Al -> Al2O3 + V
...
V2O5 + Ca -> CaO + V
...
V2O5 + HCl -> VOCl3 + H2O
...
VO2Cl + NH4OH -> NH4VO3 + NH4Cl + H2O
...
Zn + NaOH + H2O -> Na2Zn(OH)4 + H2
...
(CN)₂ + NaOH → NaCN + NaOCN + H₂O
1 (CN)₂ + 2 NaOH → 1 NaCN + 1 NaOCN + 1 H₂O
(CuOH)₂CO₃ → CuO + CO₂ + H₂O
1 (CuOH)₂CO₃ → 2 CuO + 1 CO₂ + 1 H₂O
...
1 -- Alkaline metals, 2 -- Alkaline Earth metals, 3-12 -- Transition metals, 13 -- Boron family, 14 -- Carbon family, 15 -- Nitrogen family, 16 -- Oxygen family, 17 -- Halogens, 18 -- Noble gases.
AgBr + Na₂S₂O₃ → Na₃[Ag(S₂O₃)₂] + NaBr
1 AgBr + 2 Na₂S₂O₃ → 1 Na₃[Ag(S₂O₃)₂] + 1 NaBr
Al(OH)₃ + NaOH → NaAlO₂ + H₂O
1 Al(OH)₃ + 1 NaOH → 1 NaAlO₂ + 2 H₂O
AlN + H₂O → NH₃ + Al(OH)₃
1 AlN + 3 H₂O → 1 NH₃ + 1 Al(OH)₃
Al₂O₃ + Na₂CO₃ → NaAlO₂ + CO₂
1 Al₂O₃ + 1 Na₂CO₃ → 2 NaAlO₂ + 1 CO₂
As₂O₃ + H₂O → H₃AsO₃
1 As₂O₃ + 3 H₂O → 2 H₃AsO₃
BaCO₃ + HNO₃ → Ba(NO₃)₂ + CO₂ + H₂O
1 BaCO₃ + 2 HNO₃ → 1 Ba(NO₃)₂ + 1 CO₂ + 1 H₂O
BaO₂ + H₂SO₄ → BaSO₄ + H₂O₂
1 BaO₂ + 1 H₂SO₄ → 1 BaSO₄ + 1 H₂O₂
BaSO₂ + H₂SO₄ → Ba(HSO₄)₂
1 BaSO₂ + 1 H₂SO₄ → 1 Ba(HSO₄)₂
Be(OH)₂ → BeO + H₂O
1 Be(OH)₂ → 1 BeO + 1 H₂O
BeF₂ + Mg → MgF₂ + Be
1 BeF₂ + 1 Mg → 1 MgF₂ + 1 Be
BeO + C + Cl₂ → BeCl₂ + CO
1 BeO + 1 C + 1 Cl₂ → 1 BeCl₂ + 1 CO
Ca(ClO₃)₂ → CaCl₂ + O₂
1 Ca(ClO₃)₂ → 1 CaCl₂ + 3 O₂
Ca(HCO₃)₂ → CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
1 Ca(HCO₃)₂ → 1 CaCO₃ + 1 CO₂ + 1 H₂O
Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O
1 Ca(OH)₂ + 1 CO₂ → 1 CaCO₃ + 1 H₂O
Ca(OH)₂ + H₃PO₄ → CaHPO₄ + H₂O
1 Ca(OH)₂ + 1 H₃PO₄ → 1 CaHPO₄ + 2 H₂O
Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → Ca(HCO₃)₂
1 Ca(OH)₂ + 2 CO₂ → 1 Ca(HCO₃)₂
CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
1 CaCO₃ → 1 CaO + 1 CO₂
CaC₂ + N₂ → CaCN₂ + C
1 CaC₂ + 1 N₂ → 1 CaCN₂ + 1 C
CaC₂ + H₂O → C₂H₂ + Ca(OH)₂
1 CaC₂ + 2 H₂O → 1 C₂H₂ + 1 Ca(OH)₂
CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂
1 CaO + 1 H₂O → 1 Ca(OH)₂
CaO + C → CaC₂ + CO
1 CaO + 3 C → 1 CaC₂ + 1 CO
CaS + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂S
1 CaS + 2 H₂O → 1 Ca(OH)₂ + 1 H₂S
CaSO₄ → CaS + O₂
1 CaSO₄ → 1 CaS + 2 O₂
Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + H₂SO₄ → CaSO₄ + Ca(H₂PO₄)₂
1 Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + 2 H₂SO₄ → 2 CaSO₄ + 1 Ca(H₂PO₄)₂
CdSO₄ + H₂S → CdS + H₂SO₄
1 CdSO₄ + 1 H₂S → 1 CdS + 1 H₂SO₄
CuSO₄ + KCN → Cu(CN)₂ + K₂SO₄
1 CuSO₄ + 2 KCN → 1 Cu(CN)₂ + 1 K₂SO₄
FeS + H₂SO₄ → H₂S + FeSO₄
1 FeS + 1 H₂SO₄ → 1 H₂S + 1 FeSO₄
Fe₂O₃ + SiO₂ → Fe₂Si₂O₇
1 Fe₂O₃ + 2 SiO₂ → 1 Fe₂Si₂O₇
Hg₂CO₃ → Hg + HgO + CO₂
1 Hg₂CO₃ → 1 Hg + 1 HgO + 1 CO₂
H₂CO₃ → H₂O + CO₂
1 H₂CO₃ → 1 H₂O + 1 CO₂
H₂SO₃ → H₂O + SO₂
1 H₂SO₃ → 1 H₂O + 1 SO₂
MnO₂ + K₂CO₃ + KNO₃ → K₂MnO₄ + KNO₂ + CO₂
1 MnO₂ + 1 K₂CO₃ + 1 KNO₃ → 1 K₂MnO₄ + 1 KNO₂ + 1 CO₂
MnS + HCl → H₂S + MnCl₂
1 MnS + 2 HCl → 1 H₂S + 1 MnCl₂
Mn₂O₃ + Al → Al₂O₃ + Mn
1 Mn₂O₃ + 2 Al → 1 Al₂O₃ + 2 Mn
NH₃ + O₂ → HNO₃ + H₂O
1 NH₃ + 2 O₂ → 1 HNO₃ + 1 H₂O
NH₄NO₃ → N₂O + H₂O
1 NH₄NO₃ → 1 N₂O + 2 H₂O
NaCl + NH₄HCO₃ → NaHCO₃ + NH₄Cl
1 NaCl + 1 NH₄HCO₃ → 1 NaHCO₃ + 1 NH₄Cl
NaH₂PO₄ → NaPO₃ + H₂O
1 NaH₂PO₄ → 1 NaPO₃ + 1 H₂O
NaPO₃ + CuO → NaCuPO₄
1 NaPO₃ + 1 CuO → 1 NaCuPO₄
Na₂Cr₂O₇ + S → Cr₂O₃ + Na₂SO₄
1 Na₂Cr₂O₇ + 1 S → 1 Cr₂O₃ + 1 Na₂SO₄
Na₂SO₃ + S → Na₂S₂O₃
1 Na₂SO₃ + 1 S → 1 Na₂S₂O₃
N₂ + H₂ → NH₃
1 N₂ + 3 H₂ → 2 NH₃
PbCrO₄ + HNO₃ → Pb(NO₃)₂ + H₂CrO₄
1 PbCrO₄ + 2 HNO₃ → 1 Pb(NO₃)₂ + 1 H₂CrO₄
S + N₂O → SO₂ + N₂
1 S + 2 N₂O → 1 SO₂ + 2 N₂
SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃
1 SO₂ + 1 H₂O → 1 H₂SO₃
SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
1 SO₃ + 1 H₂O → 1 H₂SO₄
SiC + Cl₂ → SiCl₄ + C
1 SiC + 2 Cl₂ → 1 SiCl₄ + 1 C
SiO₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → CaSiO₃ + H₂O
1 SiO₂ + 1 Ca(OH)₂ → 1 CaSiO₃ + 1 H₂O
SiO₂ + Na₂CO₃ → Na₂SiO₃ + CO₂
1 SiO₂ + 1 Na₂CO₃ → 1 Na₂SiO₃ + 1 CO₂
SrBr₂ + (NH₄)₂CO₃ → SrCO₃ + NH₄Br
1 SrBr₂ + 1 (NH₄)₂CO₃ → 1 SrCO₃ + 2 NH₄Br
UF₄ + Mg → MgF₂ + U
1 UF₄ + 2 Mg → 2 MgF₂ + 1 U
Zn + HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
1 Zn + 2 HCl → 1 ZnCl₂ + 1 H₂
Zn + KOH → K₂ZnO₂ + H₂
1 Zn + 2 KOH → 1 K₂ZnO₂ + 1 H₂
Zn(OH)₂ + NaOH → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂O
1 Zn(OH)₂ + 2 NaOH → 1 Na₂ZnO₂ + 2 H₂O
Molar volume
1 mole of any gas occupies the same volume at standard temperature and pressure.
3 Factors increase Ionisation Energy:
1. Bigger proton charge. 2. Having a full sub shell - a more stable atom. 3. Having a half-full sub shell so charge is evenly distributed through the atom.
3 Factors decrease Ionisation Energy:
1. More shielding. 2. Valence electrons far from nucleus. 3. Electron removed is spin paired so has more repulsion.
Remember with Ionisation equations:
1. State symbols - ALWAYS GASEOUS. 2. Always + e-. 3. Always balance.
HNO₃ + P₂O₅ → N₂O₅ + HPO₃
2 HNO₃ + 1 P₂O₅ → 1 N₂O₅ + 2 HPO₃
HgO → Hg + O₂
2 HgO → 2 Hg + 1 O₂
H₂ + O₂ → H₂O
2 H₂ + 1 O₂ → 2 H₂O
H₂O₂ → H₂O + O₂
2 H₂O₂ → 2 H₂O + 1 O₂
H₃AsO₄ → As₂O₅ + H₂O
2 H₃AsO₄ → 1 As₂O₅ + 3 H₂O
H₃PO₄ → H₄P₂O₇ + H₂O
2 H₃PO₄ → 1 H₄P₂O₇ + 1 H₂O
K + Br₂ → KBr
2 K + 1 Br₂ → 2 KBr
KHSO₄ → K₂S₂O₇ + H₂O
2 KHSO₄ → 1 K₂S₂O₇ + 1 H₂O
Mg(OH)₂ → (MgOH)₂O + H₂O
2 Mg(OH)₂ → 1 (MgOH)₂O + 1 H₂O
NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
2 NaHCO₃ → 1 Na₂CO₃ + 1 CO₂ + 1 H₂O
NaOH + FeSO₄ → Na₂SO₄ + Fe(OH)₂
2 NaOH + 1 FeSO₄ → 1 Na₂SO₄ + 1 Fe(OH)₂
Na₂HPO₄ → Na₄P₂O₇ + H₂O
2 Na₂HPO₄ → 1 Na₄P₂O₇ + 1 H₂O
p orbitals
3 mutually perpendicular dumbbell shaped orbitals; second to fill from 2nd energy level on up; can hold max of 6 electrons
how many types or chains and rings are there ?
5 main types -Alipathic saturated and unsaturated alicyclic ^^^^^^^ Acyclic Aromatic Heterocyclic ^^^^ Cyclic
d orbitals
5 orbitals of cloverleaf shape; third to fill for any energy level; beginning in the third shell, contains a total of 10 electrons; higher in energy than s and p orbitals in the same shell
How many elements do periods 2 and 3 contain ?
8 each
groups 4-8 the valency is equal to
8-group number
Aromatic
: Contain a ring where all the carbon atoms are unsaturated (and conjugated)
Tetrahedral angle
A bond angle of 109.5 degrees that results when a central atom forms four bonds directed toward the center of a regular tetrahedron.
Covalent Bond
A bond between two atoms, in which the two atoms share a pair of electrons. Consists of two electrons that hold the atoms together Strong bond; electrostatic force between nuclei and the shared electron pair
Ketones
A carbonyl group sandwiched between two carbons, this can also be thought of as a carbonyl group somewhere in the middle of a molecule. An example of this is acetone (see diagram)
Esters
A carboxylic acid with the hydrogen sniped off and an R group glued in it's place. Generally sweet smelling, many are contained in the sweet smell of fruits.
Structural formula
A chemical formula that shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule or a polyatomic ion, each dash between a pair of atoms idicates a pair of shared electrons.
ionic compound
A compound formed when atoms transfer electrons to achieve a full outer shell.
Polar covalent bond
A covalent bond between atoms in which the electronsa are shared unequally
Coordinate covalent bond
A covalent bond in which one atom contributesboth bonding electrons.
Pi bond
A covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are most likely to be found in sausage-shaped regions above and below the bond axis of the bonded atoms
Nonpolar covalent bond
A covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms
Triple covalent bond
A covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.
DATIVE COVALENT BOND
A dative or co-ordinate covalent bond is formed by sharing of two electrons, when both the electrons are provided by one of the linked atoms (or ions) -Once a co-ordinate bond is formed it cannot be distinguished from a normal covalent bond. -Co-ordinate bonds are found in transition metal complex ions, the ammonium ion (and other nitrogen-containing complexes), the hydroxonium ion, carbon monoxide, nitric acid.
Substituent
A fragment that comes off the parent group.
Carboxylic acids
A functional group made up of a carbonyl group attached to an OH group. These are contained in every amino acid of the body as do all the fatty acids. Members of this groups generally end with -oic acid, like ethanoic acid, more commonly known as acetic acid.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A group of organic compounds with similar chemical properties in which members contain the same functional group but differ by the length of the carbon chain: adjacent members differ by a CH2 unit. Successive members of a homologous series are called homologues. Same general formula Prepared by similar methods Similar chemical properties Gradual variation in physical properties with increasing molecular weight
Bonding orbital
A molecular orbital that can be occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond.
Alkanes
A molecule containing only single bonded carbons and hydrogens. Also called hydrocarbons or saturated hydrocarbons as they contain the maximum possible number of hydrogens. Their molecular formula is CnH2n+2, so number of hydrogens equals number of carbons multiplied by two plus two.
Polar bond
A molecule in which one side of the molecule is slightly negative and the opposite side is slightly positive.
Achiral Molecule
A molecule that can be superimposed over it's mirror image.
Mesocompound
A molecule that contains a chiral centre but is achiral (not chiral) as that it has a plane of symmetry.
Unshared pair
A pair of valence electrons that is not shared between atoms.
Carbocation
A positive carbon
pKa value
A quantitative measure used to assess a molecule's acidity. It is dervied from the rate constant for the acids dissociation. Weak acids have values of between zero and nine, strong acids have values of less than zero. The values can be used to predict the directions of acid based reactions at equilibrium.
Functional Group
A reactivity centre, the naming of organic molecules is based on which of these groups is present.
Akylation
A refining process in which an alkyl group replaces a hydrogen atom in an organic compound. An alkylate is the product of an alkylation process. This process is used in petroleum refining to produce high-octane gasoline, a process using hydrofluoric acid (HF) as a catalyst.
HYDROGEN BONDING
A special type of permanent dipole-dipole interactions Requires An electronegative atom - O, N, or F δ- Small size, high charge density, lone pairs of electrons A hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond δ+ Result in higher boiling points
Actinides definition and location.
Actinides: 14 elements with atomic numbers from 90, Thorium, to 103, Lawrencium. Between Groups 3 and 4.
SPIN QUANTUM NUMBERS (s)
An electron moving around the nucleus rotates or spins about its own axis (self rotation) either in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction, • The directions are described by the spin quantum no. denoted as s (sometimes ms). • It can have 2 values: clockwise spinning of electron is indicated as +1/2 and anticlockwise is as -1/2 • The spinning directions produce opposite magnetic fields. • Magnetic field produced by one electron is opposed and cancelled by the other. • Two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins(+1/2 and -1/2) [also described as anti-parallel spins]. • Spinning of an electron on its own axis in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions. Clock wise and anti-clockwise spinning of the electron produces opposite magnetic fields • Clockwise and anticlockwise are also known as 'spin up' and 'spin down'
Dalton's Model (of the atom)
Atoms are tiny indestructible particles with no internal structure.
Dispersion forces
Attraction between molecules caused by the electrons motion on one molecule affecting the electron motion on the other through electrical forces; these are the weakest interactions between molecules.
Hydrogen bonds
Attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom is also weakly bonded to an unshared election pair of another electronegative atom.
Carbonyl
C==O
Benzylic Cations
Carbocations next to a benzene ring, these are the most stable form of carbocations due to the resonance structures (see image).
Allylic Cation
Carbocations next to a double bond, more almost as stable as benzylic cations due to resonance structures.
FISCHER RULES
Carbon chain is on the vertical line Rotation of 180 in plane doesn't change molecule. Do not rotate 90! Do not turn over out of plane.
Different types of structural isomers
Chain or skeletal isomerism - carbon skeleton Position isomerism - position of the FG Functional isomerism - identity of the FG Tautomerism - movement of bonds and a proton
Aliphatic ?
Compounds containing an open chain of carbon atoms Saturated eg. Ethane CH3 - CH3 Ethyl alcohol CH3 - CH2 - OH Unsaturated eg. Ethene CH2 = CH2 (Unsaturated) Ethyne CH CH (Unsaturated)
Nitriles
Compounds that contain a carbon triply bonded to a nitrogen, useful in organic synthesis. These can be converted in to carboxylic acids and amines by well known procedures.
STRUCTURAL ISOMERS
Compounds that have the same molecular formula, but different molecular structures. Structural isomers are usually different compounds with different physical and chemical properties. Different types
Heterocyclic
Contain a ring made up of carbon and at least one other element such as N, S or O.
Shielding of electrons.
Core electrons exert a repelling effect on valence electrons reducing the pull of the nucleus on the valence electrons, reducing the ionisation energy.
Bonding in Org Chem
Covalent bonding
Who came up with law of triads and what year ?
Dobereiner 1817 Each of Döbereiner's triads was a group of three elements. The appearance and reactions of the elements in a triad were similar to each other. Li, Na, K - weights 7, 23, 39
First ionization energy decreases going...
Down groups
FISCHER MIRROR IMAGES are...
Easy to draw Easy to identify enantiomers Easy to find internal mirror planes
Torsional Strain
Electron - electron repulsion causes this strain when the dihedral angles are close to that of the eclipsed conformation (and therefor less stable). Staggered conformations have larger gaps between the electrons and there for less repulsion making them more stable.
VAN der WAAL'S FORCES
Electrons are constantly moving in their orbitals. At any given moment, there might be more on one side of the atom/molecule than the other = an instantaneous (temporary) dipole. Dipole induces another in the neighbouring atoms/molecules. Attraction between these dipoles is a weak intermolecular force called Van der Waal's bonding.
• THE AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
Electrons enter the lowest available energy level first
Quantum Mechanical Model
Electrons exist in regions of probability called electron clounds. These electron clouds have specified energies.
THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
Electrons in an atom are in stable energy levels Absorption of a photon of light allows an electron to jump up to a higher level. Jumping down to a lower level emits a photon of light. Measuring the energy of the photon allows the energy differences between levels to be determined - showed energy levels are not equally spaced.
what determines an atom's physical properties ?
Electrons in the outermost orbitals
Bohr Model (of the atom)
Electrons move in circular orbits in fixed energy levels, around a nucleus-- electrons remain in orbits unless disturbed-- when an electron jumps from one orbit to another, energy is released or absorbed
lose electrons
Elements become cations (positive ions) when they ______ (gain or lose) electrons?
Define electron affinity
FIRST ELECTRON AFFINITY is The energy required to add ONE MOLE of electrons to ONE MOLE of gaseous atoms to form ONE MOLE of gaseous negative ions. Na(g) + e- -> Na-(g) -First electron affinities are negative, indicating energy is released on addition of the electron - The more negative the electron affinity, the more stable the negative ion that is formed
Define first Ionisation Energy
FIRST IONISATION ENERGY is The energy required to remove ONE MOLE of electrons (to infinity) from ONE MOLE of gaseous atoms to form ONE MOLE of gaseous positive ions. e.g. Na(g)→ Na+(g) + e- Al(g) → Al+(g) + e- •As electrons are negatively charged and protons in the nucleus are positively charged, there will be an attraction between them → Energy must be added to the system to pull the electron away. Ionisation energies are positive •The greater the pull of the nucleus, the harder it will be to pull an electron away from an atom → Higher nuclear charge has a higher ionization energy •Patterns in first ionisation energy across a period and in successive ionisation energies for an element give evidence for electrons being in subshells and shells.
Fe₂(C₂O₄)₃ → FeC₂O₄ + CO₂
Fe₂(C₂O₄)₃ → 2 FeC₂O₄ + 2 CO₂
Separation of mixtures techniques 6
Filtration: select components by particle size Crystallization: select components by solubility Extraction: select components by solubility Distillation: select components by boiling point Chromatography: select components by affinity for a 'stationary phase' Magnetisation: magnetic metal from other components
IUPAC RULES FOR ALKANE NOMENCLATURE
Find and name the longest continuous carbon chain. This is called the parent chain. (Examples: methane, propane, etc.) Number the chain consecutively, starting at the end nearest an attached group (substituent). Identify and name groups attached to this chain. (Examples: methyl-, bromo-, etc.) Designate the location of each substituent group with the number of the carbon parent chain on which the group is attached. Place a dash between numbers and letters. (Example: 3-chloropentane) Assemble the name, listing groups in alphabetical order. The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc., used to designate several groups of the same kind, are not considered when alphabetizing. Place a comma between multiple numbers. (Example: 2,3-dichloropropane)
FISCHER PROJECTIONS
Flat drawing that represents a 3D molecule Commonly used for sugars Carbon chain is vertical A carbon is at the intersection of horizontal and vertical lines. Horizontal lines are forward, out-of-plane. Vertical lines are behind the plane.
Thiols
Foul smelling compounds of the general formula R-SH, the sulfur analogue of alcohol.These are responsible for the odours omitted by flatulence, garlic, sewage and rotten eggs. The amino acid cysteine, important in keratin in the human body.
Alkaline earth metals
Group 2 Silver soft metals similar reactivity to group 1 e.g Be, Mg, Ca
GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES
Group IV elements can form up to 4 strong bonds between atoms - giant structures contain many atoms similar to an ionic lattice. Usually very strong, hard, non-conductive, insoluble in all solvents • Graphite can conduct in one direction due to its structure • Silicon is a semi-conductor
vertical columns
Groups are the two names for which of the following: horizontal rows or vertical columns?
What's the molecular mass of water
H2O (Hx2) + O= H2O 2x1 = 2 + 16= 18d
TYPES OF HYDROGEN BOND? How many
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding intramolecular hydrogen bonding
Isobutane
Isobutane
BONDING IN CELLULOSE
Major component of plant cell walls - found in wood and plant fibres; derivatives used in textiles, toiletries and food products -Polymer of glucose -Sugar chains are held rigidly together by multiple hydrogen bonds within and between chains -Flat sheets of hydrogen-bonded chains are held together by VdW forces.
HYDROGEN BONDING IN BIOLOGY
Matching number of hydrogen bond donors and acceptors allows 'correct' pairing of DNA bases. Alpha helix and beta sheet structures - interactions between amide N-H and C=O Less commonly, secondary structure can also involve: -covalent bonds - disulfide links R-S-S-R -ionic bonds - salt bridges -CO2----+NH3-
Who came up with modern periodic table
Mendeleev 1869
left
Metals are found on the LEFT or RIGHT side of the periodic chart of elements?
luster
Metals tend to be shiny. What is another word for "shiny"?
Alkyne
Molecules which contain a carbon to carbon triple bond. Many of their reactions and properties are similar to those of alkenes although they are less common than alkenes in nature. They prefer to bond at 180 degree angles with the triple bond and the two R groups on either side in a straight line.
ISOMERISM
Molecules which have the same molecular formula, but differ in the arrangement of their atoms, are called isomers. -Structural (aka constitutional) isomers differ in their bonding sequence/molecular skeleton. -Stereoisomers differ only in the arrangement of the atoms in space
Who came up with the law of octaves ? what year ?
Newlands 1864 He arranged all the elements known at the time into a table in order of relative atomic mass. When he did this, he found that each element was similar to the element eight places further on.
Amine
Nitrogen atoms that take the place of a carbon atom in an alkane. Not known for their pleasantness the smell of putrified flesh is caused by these. These compounds are often abused and substance such as cocaine, amphetamine and morphine contain them. In fact they are essential to the activity of most illegal drugs.
• PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers. Only two electrons can go in each orbital, providing they are of opposite spin.
OPTICAL ISOMERISM/CHIRALITY
Optical isomers have the ability to rotate plane-polarised light in opposite direction -The compound that rotates the plane of polarised light to the right (clockwise) known as dextrorotatory: d-isomer or (+)-isomer -The compound that rotates the plane of polarised light to the left (anticlockwise) known as laevorotatory: l-isomer or (-)-isomer -Do not use capitals for d- and l- when referring to optical rotation -(+) and (-) are more commonly used and straightforward -A molecule which has no plane of symmetry is described as chiral. -A carbon atom bonded to four different substituents lacks a plane of symmetry - it is called a CHIRAL CENTRE or ASYMMETRIC carbon atom.
Alkyl Halide
Organic compound in which halogen atoms (Br, Cl, Fl, I) have been substituted for hydrogen atoms in an alkane.
According to Dalton what do chemical reactions do ?
Rearrange the atoms
DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTIONS
Relate to permanent molecular dipoles -Found in bonds with an electronegativity difference -Molecular dipoles require a non-uniform charge distribution in 3-D Electrostatic attraction between permanent dipoles act in addition to VdW interactions Result in higher boiling points than expected from the mass of the molecule Significance -Carbonyls -Protein folding
STEREOISOMERS
Same structural formula but different 3-D arrangement of atoms in space 2 Types: Geometric (cis-trans; E/Z) Isomerism Optical Isomerism
What is filtration
Selecting componentsby particle size
quanta
Small specific amounts of energy; The amount of energy needed for an electron to jump from one energy level to the next
CARBON
Smallest member of Group 4 Non-metal Electronic structure 1s22s22p2 Two stable isotopes: 12C and 13C Forms strong bonds with itself, and other elements Chains and rings Forms single, double, and triple covalent bonds.
atom
Smallest particle of an element
three states of matter
Solids Liquids Gases
Diastereomers
Stereoisomers which contain more than one chiral centre and are not a mirror images of each other.
IUPAC RULES FOR ALKANE NOMENCLATURE
Straight chain alkanes are named with a base name depending on the number of atoms in the carbon chain and the suffix -ane.
NAMING ISOMERS
Structural isomers contain the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms connected in different ways. Structural isomers of organic compounds can be distinguished by prefixes indicating the type of branching present in the molecule. -Prefix n- : Alkane is unbranched -Prefix iso- : Alkane contains (CH3)2CH- and no other branches -Prefix neo- : Alkane contains (CH3)3C- and no other branches
SHAPES OF MOLECULES
Structures of simple covalently bonded molecules and ions can be predicted by Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory (VSEPR). The 3-D shape of a simple molecule/ion is that which keeps repulsive forces to a minimum - electron pairs stay as far apart as possible. Can predict the shape of a molecule by counting its electron pairs.
Conjugate acid
The acid thats results from the protonation (addition of H+ Ions) of a base.
e.g of dative covalent bond
The ammonium ion is formed when ammonia reacts with H+
REQUIREMENTS FOR DATIVE COVALENT BOND FORMATION
The atom acting as the donor must have a lone pair of electrons A lone pair is a pair of electrons in the valence shell of the atom that are not involved in bonding. The atom acting as the acceptor should have a vacant orbital to accept the electron pair donated by the donor
atomic structure
The atom consists of three component parts: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Dative Covalent
The bond formed when one atom provides both electrons in a shared pair Consists of two electrons that hold the atoms together Strong bond; indistinguishable from normal covalent once formed Often polar (old name "semi-polar" bond) A→B Co-ordinate compounds are solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
K, L, M, N Shells
The closest shell to the nucleus is called the "1 shell" (also called "K shell"), followed by the "2 shell" (or "L shell"), then the "3 shell" (or "M shell"), and so on farther and farther from the nucleus. K shell is full at 2; L shell is full at 8; M shell is full at 18; and the N shell is full at 32.
Halogens
The elements found in the 7A column of the periodic table, for example fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
column
The elements that are the MOST alike are the ones in the same row or the same column?
columns
The elements that have the MOST in common (that are the most alike) are the elements in the same: 1) row 2) column
What is the relative molecular mass?
The mass of a molecule relative to that of a 12c atom
What is the relative atomic mass?
The mass of an element
Markovnakovs Rule
The molecule/molecular branch that already has more hydrogens is more likely to attract more hydrogens and the molecule or molecular branch that has more groups is more likely to attract more groups, due to the stability of the carbocation (normally a secondary or tertiary carbon).
Metalloids
The name for the elements that are found between Metals and Non-Metals along the zig-zag line. They have characteristics of both metals and non-metals.
ENANTIOMERS
The non-superimposable mirror image forms of a chiral molecule are called enantiomers They represents two optical isomers: (+) and (-) Their opposite rotatory powers are due to the opposite arrangements of groups around each asymmetric carbon atom. Enantiomers have identical physical properties in all respects except in their interaction with plane of polarised light. Enantiomers interact differently with other chiral molecules Generally, enantiomers are not interconverted under ordinary conditions
Van der Waals Forces
The two weakest intermolecular attractions- dispersion interactions and dipole forces.
wavelength (definition)
The wavelength is the distance between two peaks or the distance between two troughs
Hyperconjugation
The weak overlap which occurs between the empty p orbital on a carbocation and the sigma bond of an adjacent alkyl C-H bond. The more alkly groups present on a carbocation centre the more the positive charge is shared and the more stable the carbocation is. This type of carbo cation is favoured in Markovnakovs rule.
subscript
a number written to the right and below an element to show its ratio in the compound
ion
a particle that is electrically charged (positive or negative)
photons
a quantum of light; a discrete bundle of electromagnetic energy that interacts with matter similarly to particles
electron cloud
a region around the nucleus of an atom where electrons are likely to be found (most probable location)
orbital, path, shell
a region of space around the nucleus where an electron is likely to be found
pure substance
a sample of matter, either a single element or a single compound, that has definite chemical and physical properties
electron
a subatomic particle that has a negative charge (-)
neutron
a subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom (0)
compound
a substance formed by a covalent bond between two or more elements in a fixed ratio
compound
a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
saturated carbons tend to be....
alkanes they dont have multiple c-c bonds
excited state
an electron in a temporarily higher energy level than in its ground state
valence electrons
an electron in the highest occupied energy level of an atom;available to be lost, gained, or shared in the formation of chemical compounds
what is the difference between an element and an compund
an element can not be seperated and a compund can be by chemical means
nonmetal
an element that conducts heat and electricity poorly
metalloid
an element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals
metal
an element that is shiny and that conducts heat and electricity well
isotopes
atoms with the same number of protons, but different number of neutrons and a different mass number.
what is needed for photosenthesis
co2
iron
conducts electric current and heat energy, combines slowly with oxygen in the air to form rust
nickel
conducts electric current and heat energy, unreactive with oxygen
cobalt
conducts heat energy and electric current, unreactive with oxygen
What does strength of VDW forces increase with ?
electrons in a molecule
compounds can be broken down to what two substances
elements or simpler compounds
2C alkane
ethane
Organic compounds obey the same
fundamental laws of chemistry
what are the units for concentration
g/mL or solute over solvent
7C alkane
heptane
6C alkane
hexane
Covalent or Ionic compound property ?: conduct electricity when melted
ionic
Covalent or Ionic compound property ?: crystalline solids
ionic
Covalent or Ionic compound property ?:Many soluble in water but not in non-polar liquid
ionic
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
is the weighted average of the individual isotopes
example of colloid
jello
why are compounds pure substances
made up of only one element and have definite chemical and physical properties
what are the three major catagories of elements
metals, nonmetals, metalloids
1C alkane
methane
Alkanes
methane ethane propane butane pentane hexane heptane octane
Methanol
methanol
Matter is made of...
molecules or mixtures of molecules
do particles settle out in a colloids
no
do particles settle out in a solution
no
...
number of bonds/pairs: 2 shape:Linear Bond angles:180 Number of bonds/pairs:3 Shape: Trigonal planar Angle:120 number of bonds:4 shape:tetrahedral angle: 90/120 bond pairs: 5 shape: trigonal bipyramidal bond pairs: 6 shape: Octahedral Bond angles: 90
8C alkane
octane
Resonance structure
one of the two or more equally valid electron dot structures of a molecule or polyatomic ion
5C alkane
pentane
proton
positively charged particle of an atom (+)
any element in group 6A; O, S, Se, Te or Po
possible element with 6 valence electrons
6s,4f,5d,6p,7s
put the following sublevels in the order that they will fill: 4f,5d,6p,6s,7s
chemical formula
shows the elements in the compound and the ratio of atoms
common properties of terriers
small size and short hair
example of suspemsion
snow globe
solubility
the ability of one substance to dissolve in another at a given temperature or pressure
The other atom involved in the dative covalent bond is known as ...
the acceptor.
electron configuration
the arrangement of electrons in the energy levels, sublevels and orbitals of atoms
What is the number of nucleons
the atom's mass number neutrons and protons
products
the elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction
reactants
the elements or compounds that enter into a chemical reaction
Bond dissociation energy
the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms
What is the number of shells equal to ?
the number of period which an element belongs to
atomic number
the order of an element in Mendeleev's table of the elements
nucleus
the positively charged dense center of an atom
- Shells are referred to by letters: K,L,M.... these correspond to
the principal quantum no. 'n' •n = a number greater than 0 •In complex atoms i.e. more than one electron, energy levels get closer together as n increases
dissolving
the process in which particles of substances separate and spread evenly throughout a mixture
Valencies of all elements in a group are...
the same
QUANTUM THEORY
the theoretical basis of modern physics that explains the nature and behavior of matter and energy on the atomic and subatomic level.
average atomic mass
the weighted average of the masses of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element
f orbitals
their shapes are even more complex than s, p, or d orbitals; can hold a total of 14 electrons in 7 sub-shells; in the fourth and fifth energy levels
What happens to stable isotopes
they remain uncharged indefinitely
it falls to the ground state.
what happens to an electron when it releases energy?
ground state
when all the electrons in an atom have the lowest possible energies
Complex ions - form ..
when transition metal ions and Al3+ are dissolved in water. Electronic configuration of Al3+: 1s22s22p6 All orbitals in the 3rd shell are vacant and available to accept electrons.
discovery of charged particles in atoms
why was the Dalton model of the atom discarded?
discovery of the nucleus
why was the Thomson model of the atom discarded?
COEFFICIENTS
• A number may be included in a reaction equation before a formula • If there is no number, then "1" is understood to be in front of the formula. - This number is called the coefficient. - The coefficient represents the number of molecules of that compound or atom needed in the reaction. - Coefficients can be changed to achieve mass balance but subscripts are never changed to balance an equation
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• A process in which one or more substances is changed into one or more new substances is a chemical reaction • Involve changes in matter, the making of new compounds with new properties, and energy changes. • Involve breaking and making chemical bonds; rearrangement of valence electrons • Described by chemical equations - Symbols represent elements - Formulae describe composition of compounds - Equations show changes in compounds
ORBITALS
• A region in space where there is a given (usually 95%) probability of finding a particular electron • Cannot specify the definite or exact position of an electron in an atom.
BOND POLARITY: NON-POLAR BOND
• An ideal or "pure" covalent bond - where the electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms. • Between two atoms with equal electronegativity (usually the same). • Both have the same tendency to attract the bonding pair of electrons. • So, on average , it will be found half way between the two atoms.
COVALENT BONDING IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Covalent bonds are formed between - Same or different kinds of atoms with high electronegativity • They don't ionize • Have equal attraction to electrons to complete octets - These elements are mostly located in the right hand of the periodic table i.e. groups V, VI and VII
What do Principle quantum numbers indicate ?
• Distance of electron from nucleus: Higher n, the further away the electron from the nucleus. • Energy of electron: Higher n, higher energy electrons - less tightly held so easier to remove • Number of electrons a shell can hold: n can have 2n² electrons, e.g. K-shell n =1 holds maximum 2×1² = 2 electrons L-shell n = 2 2×2² = 8 electrons M-shell n = 3 2×3² = 18 electrons N-shell n = 4 2×4² = 32 electrons
COVALENT BOND
• Electron pairs are shared by both the participating atoms • Both atoms aim to attain a stable configuration of the nearest inert gas by sharing one, two or three electron pairs between the combining atoms • The shared pair of electrons is localised in a definite space between the nuclei of the two atoms. • Directional bond. • Established between the atoms of same or different non-metallic elements
FACTORS FAVOURING COVALENT BONDING
• High ionization energies • Equal electron affinities • Equal electronegativity • High nuclear charge • Small atomic size • Number of valence electrons - Gaining or losing 4 valence electrons is very hard, so carbon forms covalent bonds
QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Identify the various energy levels available with the atom in which the electron can reside. • Identification numbers: "address" for each electron in an atom - specify the position (or location) of an electron in an atom - predict the direction of spin or rotation of the electron - determine the energy and angular momentum of electron
Detection of Isotopes: Mass Spectrometry
• Mass spectrometric methods measure the molecular weight of atoms or compounds by observing the mass to charge ratio (m/z) of ions • Works for both stable and unstable isotopes • Applications include determining isotopic abundances and the identity of small molecules and proteins. • Atoms and molecules are converted into ions, which can be separated on the basis of their masses and motions in magnetic or electrical fields.
AN ORBITAL PICTURE OF THE SINGLE COVALENT BOND IN HYDROGEN
• Molecular orbitals are linear combinations of atomic orbitals. • When atoms interact to form molecules the overall number of orbitals must remain the same. • 2 atomic orbitals (1s) 2 molecular orbitals. • Electrons fill the molecular orbitals in the same way they do atomic orbitals - into the lowest energy first.
MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBERS (m)
• Represents the orbitals of which a given sub-shell is composed. • Indicates the direction of a particular orbital relative to the magnetic field/axes •Does not indicate energy •'m' can have integral value ranging from -l through 0 to +l. Therefore, for a given value of l, total number of m value is (2l+1) •Sometimes denoted ml l m 0 (s) 0 Only 1 value One s orbital in each level 1 (p) 0, +/-1 Three values Three p orbitals; px, py, pz 2 (d) 0, -/+1, ⁺/⁻2 Five values Five d orbitals 3 (f) 0, ⁺/⁻1, ⁺/⁻2, ⁺/3 Seven values Seven f orbitals
valency
•The number of chemical bonds formed by an atom •IUPAC definition "The maximum number of univalent atoms (eg hydrogen) that may combine with an atom of the element under consideration, or with a fragment, or for which an atom of this element can be substituted"
ELECTRON SHARING IN COVALENT BOND
•The shared electron pair spends most of the time between the two nuclei. • Bond formed by electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged nuclei and shared electrons •Atomic orbitals overlap to form molecular orbitals
•In poly-electron atoms, principal energy levels are ....
•called shells.
On graph
•positions of peaks gives atomic mass •peak intensity gives relative abundance •Usually the highest abundance is scaled up to 100% - other values are adjusted accordingly.
