Flashcards For GO260 Midterm
What were the principle targets on 9/11? Why were they specifically chosen?
#1. Twin Towers in the World Trade Center (built between 1971 and 1973), the tallest buildings in the world at the time, and deeply symbolic of the United States. The scope of the WTC was global, since we were the leaders in the global financial market. #2. The Pentagon (where US military personnel are based) #3. Either the Capitol Building or the White House (but the plane ended up hitting a rural field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania). Why These Targets Were Chosen: al Qaeda, and the mastermind behind the organization of the 9/11 attacks (KSM: Khaled Sheikh Mohammed) chose the Twin Towers, the Pentagon, and the Capitol Building/White House because they knew that these buildings were very symbolic of our national identity; they were visual representations of our economic, political, and military superiority over the rest of the nations in the world. Because they were symbolic of our nationalism, patriotism, and hegemony, al Qaeda knew that America would be most humiliated and devastated if these symbols of our nation were destroyed. The goal was not to have the highest casualty count, but to bring down American pride.
What did Thomas Friedman believe? What was his Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention?
-1999, Friedman came out with a book called The Lexus and the Olive Tree -The Golden Arches Theory basically said that no two countries that have a McDonald's have ever had a war with each other since the two countries got their respective McDonald's franchises. In Friedman's extended metaphor, the fast food restaurant McDonald's is a symbol for the spread of capitalism and Western democracy (which will create peace). Essentially, Friedman states that if a country is economically-prosperous (capitalistic), then its interests are integrated in the economies of other capitalistic societies, and it is less likely to go to war with those countries. The world "wants" liberalism and capitalism to maintain economic stability, and free markets go with liberalism. Countries will choose liberal affluence over religiously-defined nationalism. Presence of McDonald's in countries are a sign of political stability.
Give the rough timeline of the events that transpired on 9/11.
-AA 11 leaves at 7:59 AM -United 175 leaves at 8:14 AM -AA 77 leaves at 8:20 AM -United 93 leaves at 8:42 AM -AA 11 hits North Tower (WTC 1) at 8:46 AM -United 175 hits South Tower (WTC 2) at 9:03 AM -AA 77 hits Pentagon at 9:37 AM -United 93 hits rural field in Shanksville, PA at 10:43 AM
What was the general demographic of the 19 hijackers that carried out the 9/11 attacks?
-All were male members of al Qaeda (which is a group based in Afghanistan but started in Saudi Arabia by Osama bin Laden) -Received training in Afghan training camps funded largely by Osama bin Laden -Several had combat experience (fought in religious conflict in Bosnia to prepare for jihad (Holy War)) -These hijackers were NOT uneducated; many possessed university degrees (for example, Mohammed Atta was an engineering student) -The hijackers were hand-picked by Osama bin Laden for this suicide mission (highest form of glory is dying in the name of Holy War, or jihad) -Khaled Sheikh Mohammed (KSM) is a HUGE figure in al Qaeda. In fact, he was the "mastermind" behind 9/11 in terms of organization and execution -The hijackers organized into cells before 9/11, entered the United States legally on travel visas, then overstayed their welcome (this is quite possible if one lies low and does not get arrested, pulled over by the police, etc.. One must remain relatively low-profile). -They began arriving into the country nearly a YEAR before 9/11, in the year 2000. -They took flying lessons in Venice, Florida, but instructors found it odd that many of them were mainly interested in keeping a plane in flight, not landing it or taking off.
What did Francis Fukuyama believe? What was his End of History proposal about?
-Believed that HISTORY IS LINEAR and TELEOLOGICAL (final purpose has an end goal, which is democracy and capitalism). -Fukuyama believes that democracy/capitalism are the best and final forms of economic and political life. American way of life was the only one left standing in 1989, so no one was really there to contest his argument. -Fukuyama had a range of inspirations, including Hegel, who was an 18th-19th century philosopher. Another inspiration was Hegel's French translator, Alexander Kojeve. -Hegel too believed that history was linear (not cyclic). -Fukuyama knew that Marxists followed Hegel's idea of history being linear, but did not want Marxism and Hegel's ideas to be seen together. -The Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991 because it could not keep up with the United States. Fukuyama mentions that fascism was defeated militarily by the United States and the Soviet Union -According to Fukuyama, 1989 was not just the end of the Cold War, but the beginning of univerization as final form of government. History's future will be a global convergence to America's way of life (globalization) -All countries eventually are bound to converge to the American way of life (a representative government). Either they will do this willingly, or be swept off the Earth. There may be reversals and backlash to this transition, but this will merely be temporary. -It can be argued that Fukuyama was a bit condescending with his predictions. He said: 1. The world will be more peaceful in the future, 2. Major wars will disappear (no more wars of ideology) 3. Decline of war and incline of grand culture (history's future will be "boring") -This kind of embodies the concept of "Manifest Destiny," which is the obligation of the West to settle the frontier, convert the savage Native Americans, and spread our ideology (with divinely-anointed honor) -Fukuyama was not the only person trying to predict the future. THERE WAS ALSO HUNTINGTON
What was Bush's foreign policy ideology after the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait?
-Bush declared this in a major address to Congress, which had 5 goals. 4 were short term, and 1 was long term. 1. Restoration of Kuwaiti sovereignty 2. Restoration of Kuwaiti gov't 3. Stability of Persian Gulf assured 4. U.S. Personnel abroad protected 5. New World Era (era in which nations of the world can prosper and live in harmony)
What were the death tolls like on 9/11?
-Death toll was 2,996 on the DAY OF 9/11 -Of the full 2,996 people killed, 2993 died immediately and 3 were in a coma and died later -265 individuals died on the 4 hijacked planes -2,226 died in the World Trade Center Towers -125 people died in the Pentagon -All were civilian casualties (with the exception of 71 policemen, 343 firefighters, and 19 hijackers) -The majority of deaths (2605 of them) were U.S. citizens, while 391 were from other countries (80 other countries around the world) -Approximately 6,000 people were injured -The grand total of 2,996 dead plus 6,000 injured is: approximately 9,000 casualties (deaths and injuries combined) -At least 8 unborn babies were killed -1140 people got cancer due to toxin exposure following 9/11
What did Huntington say in the "Clash of Civilizations?"
-Disagreed with Fukuyama in the fact that he did not believe wars of ideology would disappear altogether. Instead, he believed that there would be new kinds of conflict along different divides. With the Iron Curtain gone (a notional barrier separating the former Soviet bloc and the West prior to the decline of communism that followed the political events in eastern Europe in 1989), there is a rise of the EU, BUT THERE IS NO PREDICTED END TO CONFLICT ALTOGETHER. -Conflict will spoon be called "civilizational conflict," hence the name of Huntington's piece, "The Clash of Civilizations." -After 9/11, no one listened to Fukuyama, everyone listened to Huntington instead OTHER GIRL'S FLASHCARD: - Theory that cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post cold war world, especially Islam vs. the West. - Harder to compromise/shift over cultural issues (religious) than over ideological/geopolitical issues
Describe the fate of the Soviet Union following the Soviet-Afghan War.
-In 1989, communism was brought down by capitalism (the US won the Cold War essentially) -Puppet regimes were now peaceful, and communism was swept out -The entire Eastern Bloc came to an end -The Velvet Revolution occurred in November of 1989 (this was a non-violent transition of power in what was then Czechoslovakia. Popular demonstrations against the one-party government of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia occurred, and communism was eventually pushed out. -1991: The Soviet Union disintegrated (and it was the anchor of the Eastern Bloc), so there was a large period of chaos and domestic upheaval. -Vlademir Putin restored order later. -After the Cold War, there was a monumental victory of the United States over the Soviet Union. Nobody at the White House could believe their eyes. -In 1989, this was the year that foreshadowed the spread of global capitalism and American liberalism worldwide. -Bush wanted to create the New World Order in the early 1990's, so he called the UN to defend Kuwait's political sovereignty
Explain Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm.
-On August 7, Bush responded with Operation DESERT SHIELD, which was basically when several squadrons were sent to Saudi Arabia immediately. This was to protect Saudi Arabia and to build up U.S. presence in the region before we could clear up and free Kuwait from Iraq's grasp. Desert Shield was just the buildup of troops in the region. Desert Storm was the actual areal and ground attacks. -The freedom of Kuwait itself was called Operation Desert STORM. A coalition of many countries formed (with a man named Norman Schwarscoff in charge). Desert Storm was a multinational force and mission. But Israel was not a part of this or invited to be a part of the coalition because there was a fear that Arab soldiers would not want to fight next to Israeli ones. -In November of 1990, Resolution 678 was enacted, which told Iraq that it needed to withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, or military forces would act to expel Iraq from Kuwait. -Desert Storm was launched on January 17, after Iraq refused to withdraw by the 15th of January. -Air assault went on for four weeks, ground operation followed, and lasted about 100 hours. -Iraqi forces were pushed out of Kuwait very fast. -On February 28th, 1991, Kuwait was liberated -The coalition in the US refused to continuously bomb Iraq until they reached the Iraq borders. Iraqi forces were just pushed out of Kuwait's borders. Bush knew that it was one thing to expel a force out of a country, and another to relocate a regime entirely.
How did Osama bin Laden fund/support the Soviet-Afghan War?
-Osama bin Laden threw his full weight into the war -Moved to Peshawar, Pakistan in 1981 (this was a transit point for mujahideen fighters) -Funded the effort with his fortune, and maybe did some physical fighting in the Battle of Jaji -Was mainly an organizer, though (despite the fact that he did participate in some physical fighting) -At the end of the Soviet-Afghan War, Osama bin Laden was welcomed back to Saudi Arabia a hero (a "lion" warrior) -At the time, he was also a close friend with the United States
How did President George W. Bush handle the attacks on 9/11 as they were occurring?
-President George W. Bush had a mostly domestic agenda, but he was sort of thrown into foreign policy when 9/11 occurred. -Was visiting a primary school in Florida, where he was informed that there was an "accident" at the WTC -He was reading to kids when he heard the news, but when someone came to him and whispered about the 2nd attack on the WTC, Bush kept reading in order to keep the children calm -Bush was then put on Airfare 1 in order to keep him out of harm's way, but no one really knew where to relocate him (where was it truly safe? There could be more planes out there). -The Vice President Dick Cheney was put in an underground bunker at the White House, where he eventually met Bush -That evening, Bush went on the air and spoke of "deliberate, deadly terrorist attacks." -He said "we will make no differentiation between the terrorists that committed these attacks and those who harbor them." -In Bush's diary: "Pearl Harbor of 21st century today. Think it is Osama bin Laden." -This created a very large US vs. THEM mentality, which later became the mainstream narrative of how we dealt with 9/11 after its occurrence.
What was the weather like on the date of 9/11
-Spotless on 9/11 -Visibility for over ten miles (it was the perfect day for flying) -Hurricane Erin occurred the weekend prior, but an air mass nudged it off for the date of 9/11 -Thunderstorms over NYC on 9/10, but these were gone by 9/11 -7:00 AM it was 67 degrees F, 8:00 AM it was 70 degrees F
Explain the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
-The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait was also called Gulf War I. -Occurred on August 2, 1990 -Result of many long-term disputes -Iraq went to war with Iran. After the war, they found themselves in deep debt to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Their idea of how to fix the problem was to simply annex Kuwait so they would not have to pay the debt anymore. -Accused Kuwait of violating oil prices set at OPEC meetings in order to drive the price of oil down. -Iraq also claimed that the border separating Kuwait from Iraq was not real (it was colonial fiction) -Saddam Hussein (leader of Iraq at the time) used United States arms that we previously gave them during the Soviet-Afghan War to make a quick attack against Kuwait. -Bush condemned this attack and had UN meetings within house of the invasion, during which Resolution 660 was enacted, which urged Iraq to leave. -On August 9th, 1990, Resolution 661 was enacted, which applied soft rules to get Iraq to leave. -Saudi Arabia was worried that Iraq was going to attack them next, since Iraq also owed debt to Saudi Arabia. They were offered help from Osama bin Laden and his Holy Warriors, but were TURNED DOWN. The United States was chosen instead. This made Osama bin Laden start to hate the United States even more.
Discuss the crash at the Pentagon.
-The Pentagon was hit next by American Airlines Flight 77 at 9:37:46 AM -It was not a tall structure, so the hijacked planes were forced to fly really low. -Death toll was relatively low (125), but it included both civilians and members of the military -The section of the Pentagon that was hit was actually under repair at the time of the crash, so not many were occupying that area (this reduced the casualty count) -Fire burned really hot for over 2 days, and it caused a partial building collapse
Discuss the crash at WTC 2 (South Tower).
-The South Tower was hit 2nd by United Airlines 175, which was flying at approximately 590 mph upon impact (again, a good fact to know, but you do not have to memorize this for the test). -Was hit between floors 77 and 89, and roughly split the tower in half -Once again, the plan hit the building deeply, and the raging fire melted the steel columns in the center of the building -Casualty count for the South Tower was much higher because: 1. There were less rescue efforts being made in the South Tower because many rescue personnel were already in the North Tower dealing with that crash. 2. This tower collapsed faster, so there was less time to rescue everyone. -When WTC 1 was hit, people were told to go to the Sky Lobby in WTC 2 (South Tower), and this was where United 175 ended up hitting the building, so those people in the Sky Lobby died -When WTC 2 was hit, America realized that this was no accident; it was a direct attack. -There was a massive evacuation of individuals below the impact zone -1 stairwell in the South Tower remained unblocked because the plane entered the building offset (diagonally) -People once again anticipated a rooftop rescue, but could not escape for the same reasons they could not escape in the North Tower -Communication was impossible -56 minutes after the impact, at 9:58:59, WTC 2 collapsed. This was followed with a period of complete silence (sound was insulated and blocked because everything was covered in white dust from the crash)
Why did the Soviets lose the Soviet-Afghan War? Provide some reasons.
-The Soviets failed in the Soviet Afghan War and had to withdraw from Afghanistan in 1989. They later imploded. 1. Afghanistan had really difficult, mountainous terrain which was difficult to move across. 2. The Soviet Union trained for Demetria conventional warfare (fighting with a peer that understands war in the same way that you do), but the Afghani fighters used dirtier tactics (guerrilla warfare) 3. The Soviets could not make lasting change because of the loyalty and organizational tactics of small villages in Afghanistan. The Soviets would invade a village, hold it for a few days, retreat, then the village SOMEHOW still managed to fall back into the power of local rulers. 4. The freedom fighters (mujahideen) were drawn to war by religion and solidarity (would lay down their lives for the protection of their God), while the Soviet Union was simply fighting for ideological superiority over the United States. The reasons were much more personal for the Holy Warriors, which may explain their passion. -The Soviet Union was hated so much because they entered Afghanistan and tried to assert their communist ideology. They were a communist country of opposing religion, so they were seen as "infidels," or non-believers, by the mujahideen. -They proved their dedication to Islam by fighting the Soviet Union -This is why Sunni Muslims flooded in from all over the region 5. The United States supported the mujahideen. This was our opportunity to pay the Soviets back for Vietnam and wreak havoc on the background of the Soviet Union. The United States had to subtly get involved through proxy to create plausible deniability that we were ever involved (this was done to prevent a major nuclear exchange between the United States and the Soviet Union). This whole "using Pakistan as a proxy for our own war against the Soviet Union" was called Operation Cyclone. Finances, training, and equipment was supplied by the United States. The proxy of choice was Pakistan (money was sent there and 15 thousand to 25 thousand soldiers trained there as well). They received ultra-conservative, Sunni military/religious training. MOHAMMED ZIA-UL-HAQ was an important leader here (the United States shipped money and weapons to Zia and the ISI [Inter-Services Intelligence], but had no say at all in which groups got certain quantities of money). Pakistan used the money to fun Islamists first, like Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, who was a terrible military leader but radical Islamic fundamentalist. Zia also liked him because he wanted to assert Pakistani hegemony against India (the Pakistani agenda was involved here too). He received a lot of money from Pakistan, but fought more Afghan leaders than Soviets. He won 0 wars against the Soviets. In essence, the United States "paid the piper but could not call the tune." 6. Weapons given to the mujahideen during the Soviet-Afghan War were very effective. -Stinger missiles were easy to hid, lightweight, and cheap. -Before stingers were brought into this conflict, the Soviet Union controlled the skies -After stingers, the Soviet Union control of the skies evaporated overnight *NOTE: Over 900 stinger missiles were shipped to Afghanistan and the Middle East to prepare for the war. 300 of these are lost and rogue, existing somewhere in the region. Some were fired in the 2001 hunt for bin Laden.
Discuss the crash in Shanksville, PA.
-This rural field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania was hit by United Flight 93. -We do not know what the target to this hijacked flight was (could have most probably been either the Capitol Building or the White House). -The plane was flying at 583 mph upon impact (a good fact, but you do not need to memorize this for the test). -Passengers were about to regain control of the plane after making around 30 calls and SMS text messages to family/rescue personnel, and it was recorded that at lest 3 passengers planned to actively resist. There was a vote among the passengers to run to the cockpit and ram through the door. -These passengers were genuine American heroes because they were successful in getting the hijackers to abandon their target and down the plane at 10:43 AM in the rural Shanksville field.
Who was Osama bin Laden (general biographical information)?
-Turned al Qaeda into a prominent jihadist group -Born on March 10, 1937 in Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia, and died on May 2, 2011 in Abbottabad, Pakistan. -Name Osama means "young lion" (he was seen as a hero to Muslim militant extremists, especially after the Soviet-Afghan War) -Son of Mohammed bin Laden, Yemeni Origin had ancestors from Yemen), but Mohammed bin Laden moved along with a bunch of members of the bin Laden family to Saudi Arabia in order to allow their construction company to prosper -Construction empire led by the bin Laden family gains favor with the Saudi family in Saudi Arabia (1950's) -Political maneuvering occurred- the SBG (Southern bin Laden Group) aided King Faisal in 1964 -Completed prominent construction at Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina -Brother Salim diversified the company following Mohammed's death -SBG worth 5 million dollars (it was a multinational conglomerate) -Osama actually owed 30 million dollars in shams (he had a bit of trouble with financial security at one point) -Married five wives and had 27 children -Attended university -Life gained purpose during the Soviet-Afghan War (1979 to 1989)
Discuss the crash at WTC 1 (North Tower).
-WTC 1 (North Tower) was hit first on 9/11 -Plane was flying at 466 mph (good to know, but do not need to memorize it for the test) upon impact -Plane flew right into the building, and entered between floors 93 and 99 (the whole building had 110 stories, for reference) -People in American Airlines Flight 11 and people in the tower at the impact zone were killed immediately -The exterior/outside of the WTC was made of glass and drywall, so it was very soft material. Inside the building was steel columns keeping the entire building upright. -The plane severed all 3 drywall-encased stairwells -The airplane's fuel tanks were full; they had a lot of kerosene in them since they were transcontinental flights, and kerosene burns extremely hot -The fire began to melt the steel columns which supported the building -Giant shock waves travelled down the building, blew out elevators/people in the lobby, then travelled back up and killed more people -Because the steel columns were melting, the top of the building was pressing down on what was underneath, and it cased the "pancake collapse" of the building altogether -Paper from the WTC was raining as far as Brooklyn, NY -Organic shrapnel (pieces of human bodies) were being lodged into the air and into the skin of passerby -Survivors above the impact zone headed to the roof of the WTC for a rooftop rescue. What they did not realize was that this could not plausibly occur (the roof doors were locked, and helicopters could not fly low enough to hoist people out of the buildings from the roof). -Some people who were desperate hung off the side of the building and jumped to their deaths -Some efforts were made by firefighters to send helicopters, but this was rendered impossible -Entire firms inside the WTC were wiped out (one company lost 1/3 of its employees on 9/11) -Restaurant-goers at the top of the building were killed -News outlets at first thought that the crash was an accident (few people saw the impact because it was so unexpected, but one firemen documentary caught the explosion on tape) -The Fire Department of New York 1st battalion chief was the first one to notice the crash and call it in. He immediately proceeded to the site and coordinated a RESCUE response (he determined that the fire could not be put out) -Chaos broke out everywhere (scary image) -One of the first jumpers off the building accidentally killed a fireman standing below the building -There is an estimate that before the attacks, there were approximately 14,000 people per tower on 9/11 -The North Tower took a while to collapse, the South Tower actually ended up collapsing first even though it was hit second -The FDNY did not originally realize that the South Tower was hit -The ground shook, and the South Tower collapsed fast, and when it did, debris killed the FDNY personnel in the lobby of the North Tower -The 1st official casualty of 9/11 was Chaplin Father Michael Judge, who was viewed by millions on live TV. This entire atrocity was a global media event.
Francis Fukuyama- Who is he?
-Wrote a book called The End of History -Fukuyama used to be Neo-conservative -Had extensive policy background -Catapulted into worldwide fame in 1989 when he predicted the fall of communism -Most policy makers at the time saw no end to the Cold War in sight, so at first they did not believe Fukuyama -As soon as the planet learned that Fukuyama was correct in his prediction, he wrote a book about it, and made a fortune -The context was summer, 1989 (the Berlin Wall was still standing, and Gorbacev was still in power) -Fukuyama stated in his work that the principles of democracy have prevailed over communist (Cold War is de facto over) -Long after the fall of the Soviet Union, Fukuyama was revered -The general subject of his article, before he wrote the book, was political and economic life.
Explain the "birth" of al Qaeda.
-al Qaeda was born from 1988-1989 as the Soviet-Afghan was winding down -MAK (Maktab al-Khidamat Bureau) was starting to redefine jihad. They began to reformulate the mission in more global terms. -Any enemy country was now a new target of the Holy Warriors (someone needed to replace the Soviet Union as the enemy of the mujahideen)
What are the Principal Actors in the Middle East?
1. Israel -One of the sources of all "mischief" in the Middle East -U.S. is principal ally of Israel since the founding of the state. We helped it get off of the ground. -The capital of the country is Jerusalem (and another notable city within the country is Tel Aviv) -The population is 8 million -Jews make up 75% of the population -25% are non-Jewish (Arab/Muslim) -A few Christians -Language: Hebrew and Arabic -Parliamentary democracy -Current Prime Minister is Benjamin Netanyahu -Highly-advanced, westernized, armed country (compulsory military service for both men and women) 2. Palestine (Gaza Strip) The following will be an explanation of the conflict between Israel and Palestine starting in 1947 and going up until 2007. -In 1947, the United Nations proposed a Partition Plan for Palestine called "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181 (II) Future Government of Palestine." -The resolution noted Britain's planned termination of the British Mandate for Palestine (termination of the rule that Palestine had to hold a certain amount of land) and recommended the partition of Palestine into two states, one Jewish (Israel) and one Arab (Palestine). The Jerusalem-Bethlehem area would be protected and administered by the United Nations -The resolution included a highly detailed description of the recommended boundaries for each proposed state. The resolution also had plans for an economic union between the proposed states, and for the protection of religious and minority rights. -Resolution called for withdrawal of British forces and termination of the Mandate by August of 1948, and establishment of the new independent states by October 1948. -Jewish leadership accepted the Partition Plan, but Arab leaders completely rejected it. -Arab League threatened to take military measures to prevent the partition of Palestine and to ensure the national rights of the Palestinian Arab population. -One day before the British Mandate expired, Israel declared its independence within the borders of the Jewish State set out in the Partition Plan (they completed the partition) -This led to the Arab countries declaring war on the newly formed State of Israel, which negate the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. -After the war, the 1949 Armistice Agreements established the separation lines between the combatants: Israel controlled some areas designated for the Arab state (Palestine) under the Partition Plan, Transjordan controlled the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip. This was ABSOLUTELY terrible for the Palestinians, who got SO MUCH land taken away from them. -This led to the Six Day War, which was fought between June 5-10, 1967, with Israel emerging victorious and effectively seizing control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Now basically Israel, not all these other countries, are controlling the land that was supposed to be led by the Palestinians. -The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace" formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied by other countries in 1967 and the termination of all claims or states of belligerency. It recognized the right of every state in the area to live in security and peace without having their boundaries threatened by acts of force. This may explain why the UN is one of the only groups to recognize Palestine as a state. -From 1994-1999, Israel tried to give Palestine some sense of authority by transferring power to Palestinian authorities (led by Yasif al-Alefand, then Mohammed Abat). -In 2007, Hamas, which is a military actor, seized control of Palestinian land. -Palestine has 360 km.^2 of territory (Gaza Strip is an urban area) -98% of the population are Sunni Muslims -Total population is 1.8 million -39% of the Gaza population lives under the poverty line 3. Saudi Arabia -Monarchy with Islamic Law -Home to Mecca and Medina, the 2 Holiest Shrines in the Muslim world -Ruling family is the House of Saud -1/5 the size of the United States -13th largest country in the world -Population is 27.7 million -Arid, desert land -90% Arab, 10% Afro-Asians -Sunni Muslim country (85-90%) -Shia Muslims are persecuted there (10-15%) -Ruthless authoritarian dictatorship -Economy is almost completely oil-based (Saudi Arabia is the #1 Petroleum exporter in the world) -Almost all money comes from oil -15th in GDP in the world -Long standing US ally in the region 4. Iran -Islamic Republic established in 1979 -1979 was the Islamic Revolution (the US embassy was breached in Iran and our diplomats were taken hostage, which humiliated the United States. Hostages were released only when President Bush was inaugurated). -Population is over 80 million -Ethnic groups include: Persians, Curds, and other tribes -Language is Persian -Shia Muslim country -Saudi Arabia and Iran HATE each other, probably due to the Sunni and Shia religious differences -2.5x the size of Texas. -Huge oil/natural-gas based economy -Major US ally until 1979 (now we hate them) 5. Iraq -Principal theater of US forces in the Middle East -Established in 1958 as a Republic -Baghdad is the capital -Population is 37 million -Arab country (75-80%) and Curds are there too (25%) -Arab and Curdish languages -2/3 Shia Muslim, 1/3 Sunni Muslim country -Approximately 3x the size of New York state -In 2003, Sadaam Hussein was overthrown by the United States and was hung -Petroleum is 98% of Iraq's revenue 6. Afghanistan -Established in 1747 -Mountainous region -British empire held power until 1919 when Afghanis became independent -Population is 32.5 million people -Over 14 ethnic groups there, over 30 languages spoken (Dari and Pashto are two main ones) -Most are Sunni Muslims (99.7%) -Rugged terrain is difficult to conquer -Has next to no economy, dependent on foreign aid -Exports opium (economy does better in wartime than peacetime)
What are the Principal Non-State Actors in the Middle East?
1. Muslim Brotherhood -Founded in 1928 -Sunni organization (transnational) -Leader in 60's and 70's was named Sayyid Qutb (and he was an inspiration for bin Laden) -Exists in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Africa, Asia, Europe, the UK, Libya, Algeria, Russia, Somalia, etc.) -Combines military activism with social and charity work (setting up schools and hospitals) -The goal is to spread word that the KORAN is the foundation for all life. 2. Islamic Jihad -Founded in 1981 in Palestine -Born out of the Muslim Brotherhood (so was Hamas) -Goal is to destroy Israel -Heavily funded by Iran (perhaps this is why we hate Iran) -Against the United States as well because we support the Israeli occupation and this was founded in Palestine -Main base is in Damascus, the capital of Syria. 3. Hesballah -Shia Islamic militant group in Lebanon -Founded in the 1980's -"State within a state" that mixes military action with social and charity work -Active primarily in the Palestinian Territories -Goal is to destroy Israel and create a new Islamic state in its place -Prominent leader is Sheikh Yassin (who was assassinated in 2004). He was a spiritual religious authority and political organizer. 4. Taliban -Islamic movement based in Afghanistan -Power lies in guerrilla fighters (mujahideen) -Financed, armed, and trained by Pakistan -Pakistan supported the Taliban until 9/11 -Formed as militia until the 1990's -1996 was when the Taliban took power over Afghanistan after the Soviets left Afghanistan in shambles -Imposed strict Sharia Law (anti-west) -Invited bin Laden and al Qaeda (said you can use our resources if you help us control the country) -Was forced out of power in 2001 by the US after 9/11 -Regrouped in 2004 and started a re-insurgency campaign -The Taliban has deep support in Afghanistan due to pride after defeating the Soviets 5. There are other non state actors that show up, try to get power, then disappear (like ISIS)
What was the monetary damage caused by 9/11?
9/11 caused billions of dollars in damage (trillions if we include the costs for measures to attack Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda following 9/11).
What event did people compare 9/11 to?
9/11 was the largest attack on our soil since Pearl Harbor. This is why it is often called the "Pearl Harbor of the 21st Century." In fact, when George W. Bush heard of the attack, he wrote in his diary that night: "The Pearl Harbor of the 21st century happened today. Think it is Osama bin Laden." 9/11 almost "crowded out" the attack on Pearl Harbor, and became the atrocity that everyone remembers.
Huntington believes that in the future the main source of conflict will be: a. ideology b. culture c. economics d. anarchy e. human nature
B-Culture
Which of the following is the main factor distinguishing civilizations from each other? a. language b. culture c. history d. tradition e. religion
B-Culture
Which of the following philosophers is among Fukuyama's intellectual inspirations? a. Kant b. Hegel c. Herder d. Nietzshe e. Foucault
B-Hegel
It makes it clear from Fukuyama's argument that 1989 marks the end of: a. World War II b. the Arab-Israeli conflict c. the Six Day War d. the Cold War e. the Velvet Revolution
D-The Cold War
According to Fukuyama, the future will: a. bring global convergence b. lack wars of ideology c. witness the spread of the American way of life around the world d. lead to a "common-marketization" of world politics e. all of the above
E-All of the Above
Give details about each of the four flights in the order that they departed from the airport on 9/11.
Flight #1: American Airlines Flight 11 -Flying from Boston to Los Angeles, California -The plane was a Boeing 767 -Left the airport at 7:59 AM -The leader of the hijacker group that boarded this flight (group was made up of 5 members) was Mohammed Atta, who was the designated pilot (he was an Egyptian nationalist). Atta was the oldest out of all the 19 hijackers carrying out the attacks on 9/11 (he was 33 years old), so he was essentially the leader of the entire 19-person operation. If he aborted the mission, the rest would abort as well. -The rest of the hijacker group was from Saudi Arabia -The flight attendants on Flight 11 were stabbed with boxcutters. The hijackers forced their way into the cockpit of the plane, took over the controls, and turned off the transponder signal -The 2 remaining attendants that were not stabbed called American Airlines to try to report the hijacking -During the flight, attempting to make an announcement to the passengers via the intercom, Atta accidentally called ground control and let the crews on the ground know that a hijacking was taking place -At exactly 8:46 AM, American Airlines Flight 11 hit World Trade Center 1 (which was the North Tower). Remember that even though it was hit first, the North Tower actually collapsed AFTER the South Tower. Flight #2: United Airlines Flight 175 -Flying from Boston to Los Angeles, California -The plane was a Boeing 767 -Left the airport at 8:14 AM -There was a crew of 9 on the flight, and there were 51 passengers -The lead hijacker of the 5-person group on this flight was named Marwan al-Shehi, and he was a citizen of the United Arab Emirates (he was the designated pilot for this flight) -The rest of the hijacking group included three citizens of Saudi Arabia, and one more citizen of the United Arab Emirates -All of the hijackers on 9/11 were in their 20's, and Mohammed Atta was the oldest of all of them at 33 years old. The hijackers on this flight in particular were between the ages of 20 and 25. -The hijackers breached the cockpit approximately 30 minutes after takeof, but when they were in the pilot's seat, they forgot to turn off the transponder signal, so ground control could still locate the flight. -Passengers were made to stand in the rear of the plane, which is where they made multiple calls home -This aircraft almost collided with two others as it made its warped path to the World Trade Center in New York City -The target of this hijacked flight was World Trade Center 2, or the South Tower. This tower actually collapsed first, despite the fact that it was hit second. It was hit at 9:03 AM. Flight #3: American Airlines Flight 77 -This flight was flying from Washington D.C. to Las Angeles, California. It was flying out of Dulles Airport -Departed at 8:20 AM from the airport -This plane was a Boeing 757 -On this flight, a crew of 6 were on board, along with 53 passengers -The leader of the hijacking group was named Hani Hanjour, a Saudi (he was the only hijacker out of all 19 that had a commercial flying license) -The ages of the hijackers on this flight was between 20 and 29 (they were all males) -The cockpit was breached 35 minutes after takeoff, but this time there was no evidence of stabbings on the flight -The plane hit the Pentagon at 9:37 AM Flight #4: United Airlines Flight 93 -Flying from Newark, New Jersey to San Francisco, California -This plane was a Boeing 757 -Departed from the airport at 8:42 AM -This flight had a crew of 7, along with 33 passengers -There were only 4 hijackers on this flight, unlike the other groups, which had 5 -Hijackers on this specific flight were between the ages of 20 and 24 -The leader of this group of hijackers was named Ziad Jarrah (who was Lebanese, and was the designated pilot) -The passengers placed more than 30 calls to relatives during the hijacking, which is how they heard of the first crash at the World Trade Center -Passengers took a vote, and agreed to run and ram the cockpit door in order to take back the plane -The hijackers realized that they would not make it to their target if the passengers rose against them, so they decided to down the plane at 10:43 AM -We do not know exactly where the plane was headed, but most likely it was headed for either the Capitol Building or the White House (two major symbols of American hegemony)
Who are notable figures in al Qaeda, especially in relation to 9/11? What group did they form, if any, do raise funds for the mujahideen during the Soviet-Afghan War?
NOTABLE FIGURES: -Osama bin Laden (explained on earlier flashcard) -Khaled Sheikh Mohammed (KSM), who was US-funded. He laid the logistical foundations for the 9/11 attacks. He was the person who realized that if one really wanted to make an impact on the United States, one must target important landmarks in the country instead of attempting to kill the most number of people during the attacks. -Ayman al-Zuwahiri (today in hiding as the leader of al-Qaeda). He was a surgeon before becoming a leader of the Holy Warriors. *General Note: Some Muslim leaders were more radical, and others less. Some had different agendas than others. Transnational radicals of many countries are part of al Qaeda (the Muslim Brotherhood is also connected to this too). THE GROUP THEY FORMED: -BIN LADEN, AZZAM, AND AL-ZIWAHIRI formed the Maktab al-Khidamat bureau, which grew globally (it even had offices in the United States). -It was made to raise funds and recruit foreign mujahideen for the war against the Soviets in Afghanistan. -These three major figures in al Qaeda used war to build global networks of Holy Warriors
Was the Middle East a stable region? Why or why not?
No, the Middle East has always been conflicted with instability. 1. Western colonialism is a reason for this conflict (most of these countries did not rule themselves until recently) -The Middle East was part of the Ottoman Empire until WWI, when France and Britain split the region amongst themselves (they claimed that the Middle East was not civil enough for self-rule) -State borders do not reflect the natural borders of the region (the land was split at the Treaty of Versailles after WWI) -Decolonization occurred in 1950's to 1960's. Colonel Nassir was an important leader during this time. -This caused internal turmoil (constantly), because these countries have been essentially left leaderless. This led to authoritarian rulers and leaders imposing rules forcefully (AKA Saddam Hussein and the Said Dynasty). The countries would collapse without said leaders. 2. Differing religions were a key factor to instability -Middle East was birthplace of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity (3 religions with histories in the same area of the world, all claiming different gods) -In practice, these three religions have had a zero sum relationship and struggle -All three religions hold claim over Jerusalem and other sites -Palestine is subject to competing claims by the three religions 3. Tension BETWEEN same religions was also causing instability -Judaism is split into the orthodox and the moderates -Islam is split into Sunni and Shia, which hate each other. Sunni believes that people can be chosen as the "heirs of Prophet Mohammed, the new leaders of Islam" must be of direct descent of the original Holy Warriors. The other believes that this does not have to be the case. The Sunnis became more of a secular and conservative group, whereas the Shiites remained more traditional and orthodox. 4. Oil is also a huge factor to tensions in the Middle East -The Middle East is the world's largest depository of oil reserves (used to be inconsequential until the 20th century). -It causes tension between limited wants and limited resources, which creates competition. Outside powers want to rule the Middle East to get to the oil. Frequently, because outside rulers come in, locals do not like their rulers. -Middle Eastern countries compete against each other (each individual member has an incentive to cheat/undercut each other). Countries that are members of OPEC restrict "supply" of oil to drive up the price per barrel. -Countries in the Middle East are oil-dependent. This means that when the price of oil fluctuates, this causes major instability. 5. All instability in the Middle East is a byproduct of war or tension -In order to enlist the military and political support of the Arabs, Britain promised to support their struggle for independence in most of the lands ruled by the Ottoman Turks, presumably including Palestine, during World War I. -At the same time, Britain agrees with France and Russia to carve up the Middle East into mutually agreed spheres of economic and political influence. The map drawn up in the Sykes-Picot agreement contradicts the promises made in the MacMahon correspondence. -Once the Ottoman Empire imploded, there were two regions vying for the same area. -The Jews wanted a safe, national homeland after the Holocaust. -The Cold War (US vs. SU) was NATO vs. The Warsaw Pact. Both the US and the SU did not want to escalate the war to a nuclear exchange (were trying to keep it "cold"). They wanted to use the Middle East in a Proxy War instead. The US and the SU flooded the region with weapons and used them in Proxy Wars (like the Soviet-Afghan War) -If the US or SU got more allies on their side, their walk of life (communism or capitalism) would be considered more desired, or "sexy." -1956 was the Suez Crisis
What was the NWO? Or New World Order.
President Bush's vision for world peace centering around the United States taking the lead to ensure that aggression be dealt with by a mutual agreement of the United Nations, NATO, and other countries acting in concert. - Collective security - Establish American hegemony - Push democracy, peace, Western prosperity - *similarities to Fukuyama's argument* REMEMBER that there were no big powers at the time to block US foreign policy.
What is the reference area of the Middle East? What is the climate there?
REFERENCE AREA: -The reference area of the Middle East is also quite ambiguous. -Sudan and Ethiopia were included in the Middle East in 1958. -More locations in this area of the world included Asia Minor, Levant, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Dead Sea, the Arabian Peninsula, the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, the Nile River, the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, a few deserts, etc. -Palestinian territories area also a part of the Middle East. -Israel was founded in 1948, and seized Palestinian territory. This caused fighting off and on for years; the fighting still continues today. -Both Palestine and Israel consider Jerusalem (the Holy Land) to be their capital. -Palestinian territory is comprised of Gaza, the West Bank of Israel, East Jerusalem, and it has ambiguous status. In fact, most countries do not recognize Palestine as a state (except Sweden and the United Nations). -Turkey is the only NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) country within the Middle Eastern region -Lebanon, Yemen, and many other countries are "failed states: (states that exist on the map, but there is no centralized government, and borders have no integrity." -Failed states (liked Afghanistan) provided al Qaeda with a safe haven, because this organization flourished under little strict rule -The United Arab Emirates is very rich, and it is a petroleum-exporting country -Afghanistan/Pakistan are technically not part of the Middle East, but are adjacent to it! They are where al Qaeda was based. CLIMATE: The climate of the Middle East can be quite arid.
Explain the Soviet-Afghan War. Then, explain what happened as a result of the war.
THE WAR ITSELF: -Its unofficial start was actually in 1978, but it officially lasted from 1979 to 1989 with the invasion of Kabul. -Part of the Cold War (Proxy War) -Afghanistan was a pro-farmer, pro-poor, socialist faction, so the Soviets had violent clashes with traditional village societies. The Soviets could not get through to the locals; once they attacked and pillaged a village, putting themselves in power, the power would fall back to local rulers within a few days. No amount of fighting was making definite changes. Thus, the Soviets needed to withdraw, and this lead to a deadly collapse of the union altogether. -It was really a global convention of radical Islamists in the region -One notable figure in the war was YUSEF AZZAM, who stated that no matter what their faith, all Muslims have the responsibility to kill occupiers and have no dialogues with non-believers -Another notable figure was AHMAD SHAH MASSOUD. He was called the "Lion of Panjshir" and was one of the most tactically-gifted guerrilla commanders in the 21st century. He was deeply admired by the CIA, and liked to operate on his own. Tensions existed between Massoud and Hekmatyar, because of course, both were leaders of the mujahideen vying for the most battles won against the Soviets, and the most amount of military fame. He was also eventually the President of Afghanistan, but his power was limited because Taliban controlled most of the country. There were definitely tensions between the Taliban and Massoud, so this is why al Qaeda killed Massoud in order to get rid of a competitor before a major terrorist attack on the United States. The assassination was also a favor to the Taliban, as a thank you for inviting bin Laden and al Qaeda into Afghanistan (said you can use our resources if you help us control the country). RESULTS OF THE WAR: -Massive death toll, millions of Afghani soldiers were killed. Thousands of Soviet soldiers were killed as well. Remember that the mujahideen received major help from the United States and Pakistan. -Massive displacement of Afghani locals occurred too (the country was in crisis) -Afghanistan was an absolute wreck after the war, and it had no functioning infrastructure -The Soviet Union stepped out, but the pro-Soviet Union regime kept fighting locals for 3-4 years afterwards -Afghanistan soon became a failed state. This is when it became one of the five poorest countries in the world. -In 1996, the Taliban seized power in Afghanistan -The Taliban was run by a man named Mullah Omar (he wanted Afghanistan to be a theocracy under Sharia Law) -The Taliban exhibited brutal treatment of women (rape, sexual trafficking, etc.), and men were forbidden from shaving. -The Taliban zoomed around in pickup trucks, performed public beatings and executions, etc. They believed they were creating order. -Death and scorched earth policy was being inflicted on the local people, broken landmarks, and infrastructure of the country -The United States was complicit in these developments by sponsoring Afghanistan in the war (this created unintended consequences, commonly called "blowback"). We also might be complicit for withdrawing our support right after the Soviet Union retreated, and not helping put Afghanistan back together. -The mujahideen were local resistance fighters, and were very fierce. That was the real takeaway from the War. This is what would eventually contribute to the birth of global jihad (al Qaeda).
How many suicide operators were part of the coordinated mission carried out on 9/11? What organization were all of them a part of?
There were 19 suicide operators carrying out the 9/11 mission. All were part of the terrorist organization al Qaeda.
How many teams of hijackers performed the attacks on 9/11?
There were four teams of hijackers.
Why were transnational planes the choice aircrafts for the 9/11 attacks?
Transnational flights were meant to fly over the entire length of the United States, so they were filled with kerosene in order to have enough fuel for the long flight ahead. These planes were essentially flying missiles; if they crashed into a building or into the ground, they would create a massive explosion. The amount of kerosene was essential in order to ensure that the maximum amount of damage was caused to the targets that were hit on 9/11. This is why residential, large, kerosene-filled flights were used.
What is the origin of the term "Middle East?"
Truthfully, the origin of the term "Middle East" is uncertain (it is often called the "Near East" by Europeans). John Foster Dulles was the first United States government official (Secretary of State) to use the term "Middle East: during the Suez Crisis. To say that the area is even called the Middle East, you have to live west of it (it is a Eurocentric term). It is also called the Fertile Crescent, the Levant (ISIL, a common term you probably hear in the news today, stands for Islamic State in Levant).
Where is al Qaeda located?
al Qaeda is based in Afghanistan, although it was founded in Saudi Arabia. In any case, it is located in a region of the world known as the Middle East.
