GEOG 30N Exam 2

Uganda Case Study

-Coal company pays Uganda to grow trees -Planted exotic trees that didn't take up as much carbon as expected -Inflation meant Uganda got less money than expected -Hundreds of farmers lost their land and created only 43 jobs *CO2 went down which equals carbon credits which equals money

Subterranean Energy Regime

-Fossil fuels have huge energy content (Joules per kg or Joules per liter) -Lots of work can be done with relatively little or light-weight fuels (large-scale global trade in ships and industrial mass-production) -Network of landscapes dedicated to extracting, transporting and distributing fuels and industrial commodities -Forms of production became more spatially intensive with fossil fuels *Spatially Extensive: Lands/forests + laborers + sun energy for photosynthesis *Spatially Intensive: Oil well+Mine+Factory+Investors -Few places rich in fossil fuels and mineral resources became coveted spaces

Non-Solutions for climate change

-Individual action (need collective action) -Geoengineering (bad! catch carbon before it goes into atmosphere and reflect more light into space) -Biofuels (fuels produced from organic material like plants or animal waste) -Infighting (Protests and groups)

The Great Acceleration (1945-Onward)

-Population explosion, economic growth, dam construction, nitrogen compounds, deforestation, urbanization -Carbon dioxide emissions skyrocketed

Green Revolution

A shift towards more intensive cultivation based on technological innovations developed between 1950s and 1980s to boost agricultural yields and prevent hunger. -High-yielding seed varieties -Chemical fertilizers and pesticides -Heavy use of machinery and irrigation -Anti-poverty, anti-hunger program -Make capitalist agriculture a viable alternative to communist models -Expand input markets -Crop standardization, monocultures -Soil degradation -Eutrophication due to nutrient runoff -High carbon dioxide emissions -Greater dependence on cash for inputs *Had winners and losers

Impact

Effects on humans or socio-ecological systems.

Where to expect high biodiversity

High: Landscape full of trees, rivers, forests, patches (heterogeneous). The equator (longitude). Large areas with continent overlap (Papua). Moderate disturbance (stressors and perturbations like volcano) Low: Flat landscape with only grass. Toward the north and south poles (latitude). Small islands (Nauru). No disturbances

Climate Change Mitigation

Human efforts to "reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases" in order to reduce the magnitude of climate change. -Need the UNFCCC

Stressors and Perturbations

Perturbation: A sudden, major spike in pressure on a social-ecological system(e.g., clearing a forest, tornado) Stressor: Continuous or slowly increasing driver of change (e.g., agricultural intensification, plowing, GHG emissions).

Exposure

Presence of people, resources, ecosystems, or things we value in places that could be adversely affected by hazards.

SIFT method

S: Stop I: Investigate the source and author F: Find better coverage T: Trace claims and media to original content *Attention is a finite resource! Save it for good information* Think... -What journal published it? (Not all peer reviewed journals are equal) -Sample size and methods -Who funded the research? -How many citations does this article have? (Less then 10=meh, 30-50=Good, Greater than 50=Great *Watch out that people aren't citing an article to talk about how bad it is *Not all academic journals are created equal!

Resilience

The amount of stress and change a system can experience and still maintain its current functions and identity.

Carbon Intensity

The emission rate of carbon dioxide relative to a specific activity. -How much CO2 we emit when we generate one dollar in the economy (Has been declining, but China is the highest) Formula: Carbon Intensity of economy = Carbon Dioxide Emissions (kg) / GDP (dollars)

How Disease and Conquest Carved a New Landscape (The Atlantic) reading summary

-16th century Revolution changed how people acted, farmed, ate, communicated, and treated land which influenced the development of the Earth system -Started in America when Europeans crossed over and populated the land -Disease spread fast killing people and the building empire -Later, more died from wars and slavery which caused farming to collapse and famine to spread -The global mixing of humans and their deadly diseases is just one aspect of a much larger global biological mixing -Species traveled continents (evolution) -Farmers from the 16th century onward had a greater number of crops and animals to choose from. Newly available plants and animals led to the single largest improvement in farm productivity since the original agricultural revolution. -Homogenization of Earth's biological diversity is one key hallmark of the Anthropocene -Two hundred million years ago, all of Earth's land was linked together in the supercontinent of Pangaea, which then broke into continents (transcontinental shipping began to link the continents back together creating a new Pangea)

Columbian Exchange

-16th century transcontinental movement of people, animals, plants, and microorganisms between the Americas and the rest of the world. -Columbus started intercontinental trade which also started disease spread and diminished Native American population -The "New Pangaea": Oceans had kept species apart for thousands of years until 1500s, with transcontinental trade -Small pox, influenza, measles decimated native American populations -Depopulation and de-agrarianizaiton of the Americas due to Europe an diseases -Domestic plants and animals (and foods) spread throughout the world. -Dramatic changes in species and ecological biodiversity

Mayor's Climate Agreement

-500 mayors agree to reduce CO2 emissions -Many cities have had real reductions -Local city government have lots of opportunities to reduce pollution with the city -State governments are also setting their own standards -Under the Trump administration reductions in CO2 and pollution are forced to only local level

Poisonous Frog National Geographic reading summary

-800 poison dart frogs were found in a box in the airport. The species is endangered and many of the frogs in the boxes died -This was part of an illegal wildlife trade and they were to be sold as pets -They stayed at the airport and did everything they could to save the remaining frogs -Poison dart frogs are some of the most toxic animals on Earth and poison is used to fend off predators -Humans taking the frogs out of their environment could make them extinct -Goal was to breed them so they lose their toxicity then sell them to international pet markets -Tesoros de Columbia was created and conserves endangered Columbian species through bio-commerce. Prices are low and buyers must focus on conserving the frogs -Illegal smuggling of frogs declined due to the value of them being diminished and less people want them -Bred frogs are healthier and produce more offspring making it easier to escape extinction -The illegal trade in reptiles and amphibians is popular in collectors and traders and small animals are easy to conceal/smuggle across borders -Bogus captive breeding (wild-caught animals are falsely claimed to be captive bred to get around trading restrictions) is a common method to traffic animals -Solution is to breed the frogs and reintroduce them into the wild

Debt

-Agribusiness farms make money from the loans they give to farmers -Low prices→ Farmers must keep getting loans to stay in business -If they don't pay, they may lose their farm! *Debt makes nominally independent landholders in effect their tenants, disciplined by the need for further loans and the threat of foreclosure

Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels

-Air pollution (sulfur dioxide from coal and PM 2.5) -Nutrient loading due to excessive fertilizer use -Climate change -Water pollution from oil spills -Unknowns -Forest recovery in US northeast (lower demand for land for energy and agriculture)

Have we been successful in curbing carbon dioxide emissions?

-Annex 1 countries have constant emissions (North America, US, Europe, EU-28) -Non-annex 1 countries have increasing emissions (India, China, Asia)

Agricultural Intensification

-Anthropocene (1950s) -Urbanization -Damming of rivers -GHG emissions -Fertilizer consumption *Agricultural intensification is one of many Anthropocene processes*

Climate change and biodiversity/infectious disease

-Arctic animals like polar bears are living in conditions that are too warm and ice is melting -Some tree species are disappearing and being taken over by Oak-pine or Oak-hickory -Climate change brings humans and animals into increasing contact (animals adjust their range like mosquitos and ticks through longer breeding seasons and humans migrate) -Could create another pandemic (infectious diseases from bats like corona or ancient diseases from melting permafrost)

Human Impacts on Earth (Late Pleistocene)

-Before agriculture, over 12,000 years ago -High climate variability -Small groups of hunter-gatherers -Widespread use of fire (keep dangerous animals away, warmth, cooking meat, modify landscapes to facilitate hunting) -Humans played a role in the extinction of Ice age animals like the wooly mammoth and created early domestication of dogs

Pleco Invasion video summary

-Blue Spring State Park in Florida is popular for visitors and home of manatees which depend on warm water for survival -Catfish found their way into the waters and are reproducing very fast (are an invasive species) -They began interfering with manatees, eroding soil which impacts the entire ecosystem -Don't release fish into the wild!

Entrepreneurial Agriculture

-Capitalist family farms with (mostly) non-family labor Market-dependent: -For credit -For labor -For selling produce -For inputs and machinery *In the US, Canada and Australia: emerged from settlers' peasant farms and evolved into entrepreneurial family farms. *Promoted in Europe and developing countries as a way of "modernizing" peasant agriculture through credit, technology, and market integration.

Corporate Agriculture

-Capitalist: 100% wage or piece-rate labor. -All production for market -Large companies, large farms (farms owned by large companies or individual farmers working for that corporation) -Vertical integration (supply chain owned by that company)/processing -Weak tie to land (Seek water, soil, cheap labor) -Leaves farmers with little money despite them doing much of the work

Talking about climate change with deniers!

-Climate and dice -Know thy stuff (Read green new deal, take classes, read books) -Know thy audience (lots of deniers shifted to soft denial and say it is too late or expensive to do anything). Know what they like and care about to appeal to their values -Know thy self (don't repeat rumors/hearsay). What is important to you and what do you want to achieve? Practice good information literacy and think critically! What does NOT work: -Assuming bad intent (for relatives only not congresspersons or internet trolls) -Guilt tripping -Talking about the polar bears -Bringing it up at the big family dinner (arguing) -Death by data/line graph/science -Not talking about climate What DOES work: -Talking one on one with people -Listening (asking questions) -Putting climate in human terms (make it personal and tell stories with people!) -Addressing that person's individual concerns -Pointing out logical fallacies, gently (Don't get distracted by flocks of red herrings) -Using analogies -What do the neighbors think? (Make it local) Final Step: -Be patient and consistent (It's not going to happen all at once. Keep at it) -Move the conversation towards implementing solutions (People don't have to believe in climate change to want wind power) -Focus on actions we can take (Give people agency, like VOTING)

Climate Change Impacts

-Complex biome shifts with unpredictable socio-ecological consequences -Glacial retreat and peak water in Andean agricultural valleys -More frequent and intense climate-related hazards (Hurricanes and storm-surges coupled with sea-level rise, forest fires, increased concentration of rainfall, followed by longer dry spells with large geographical variations) -Indirect impacts on climate-related livelihoods and health

Peasant Agriculture

-Family-owned or communal land -Production for family and market -Mostly family labor. Temporarily hired laborers work with family. No fixed labor position -Most modern peasants do some off-farm work *Simple farming techniques are used and laborers are supplied by the family/farmer

Wind Turbine Blades

-Fiberglass and resin -Small localized problem -Disposal strategies (Burry in landfills, burn as fuel for cement production, turned into new types of particle board) -We Still Need Wind Turbines to Fight Climate Change!!!

Steffen: The Anthropocene Summary

-Global change is human driven from nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, and silicon imbalance -Earth left its natural geological epoch (interglacial state), the Holocene and is now in the Anthropocene -Humans modified landscapes using fire to protect them from animals and use in weapon making -Earliest impact of humans was Pleistocene megafauna extinctions (ice age animals like wooly mammoth went extinct) due to human migration patterns and domestication of animals -Clearing forests for agriculture an irrigation of rice lead to carbon dioxide and methane increases -Preindustrial humans were making impacts locally and continentally and were not making a big global impact yet -The Industrial Era (1800-1945) was Stage 1 of the Anthropocene. Began in England with expansion of fossil fuels and coal burning (use 4-5x more energy) -Fossil fuels made things more efficient for humans -CH4, CO2, Nitrous Oxide levels had risen on a global scale due to industrialization -CO2 concentrations can track the progression of the Anthropocene -The Great Acceleration was Stage 2 (1945-2015). After WW2, population doubled and the global economy expanded (Petroleum increase, motor vehicles used more, new technology created) -The Earth is in its 6th great extinction event, its is warming rapidly -Great Acceleration was stalled by WW1, Great Depression, and WW2 (slowed population growth) -Stage 3: Recognizing that Humans are affecting the Structure and Functioning of the Environment (advancements in research, use of internet, free societies, democratic political systems) -"Business as usual" approach will not work due to human time being different than how the Earth works -Need Mitigation to reduce human impacts on environment and allow Earth to function in a pre-Anthropocentric way, technology advancements to benefit environment, and individual/society behavior

Big Bad Wolf reading summary (recitation)

-Gray wolves were removed from the northwestern region of the United States by the 1930s, due to extermination efforts by private citizens and governments wanting to remove the threat they posed to livestock and game species. -In 1974, gray wolves were endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). As a result of the protections and management required under the ESA, gray wolf again inhabited Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, eastern Washington, and eastern Oregon. -Prey on elk, deer, bison, and large animals -Wolves that returned naturally were endangered, but reintroduced wolves were non-essential, experimental populations (help protect livestock) -Wolves kept being re-listed and delisted -Ranchers are compensated for their livestock killed by wolves, but humans were the cause of 80% of wolf deaths (hunting, cars, legal control)

Greenhouse Effect (atmospheric factor)

-Greenhouse gases act like a blanket covering the Earth and trap heat in the troposphere. The Sun's energy hits Earth and some of it is reflected back to space, but most is absorbed by land and oceans. The absorbed energy is radiated upwards (back to space) in the form of heat. Without greenhouse gases, the heat would escape to space and freeze the planet. Greenhouse gases absorb and redirect some of the energy back down keeping heat near the surface of Earth. -Concentrations of heat trapping greenhouse gases increase in the atmosphere and the natural greenhouse effect is amplified and surface temperatures rise

Threats to Biodiversity

-Habitat Loss (fragmentation in the land from agriculture, urbanization, logging, mining, and transportation). Fragmentation causes animals to be unable to travel to new areas for food/mating -Invasive Species (rats, muscles, spotted lantern fly, pets like cats and goldfish) -Pollution (nutrient loading causes eutrophication, chemical pollution affects reproduction and food chain, plastics can kill animals) -Overharvesting (cut off shark fins to sell, poison dart frog trafficking). Hunting, fishing, gathering -Climate Change

Habitat Loss (The Conversation article) summary

-Habitat loss is the leading cause of biodiversity loss worldwide -Once the area of available habitat goes below a certain threshold, populations are no longer viable and species go locally extinct. -Loss and fragmentation affects biodiversity inside remaining patches through "edge effects" -Loss and fragmentation changes the way species within biological communities interact before extinctions are detected. -Habitat destruction brings about "the extinction of ecological interactions" -When habitat is fragmented, it becomes difficult for large predators to reach distant patches for hunting and predator-prey interactions can weaken having secondary effects on the community -Habitat loss affects community stability, through changes in ecological interactions, by altering the abundance and spatial distribution of species through time -Limited animal movement between remaining habitats translates into negative changes in things like eating patterns, which in turn affects the way population sizes change through time and across space. -Less fragmentation makes populations less stable due to stronger species interactions in the remaining suitable area -Biodiversity strategies need to take into account community interactions, as well as the shape of habitat loss

State of Biodiversity

-Human actions threaten more species with extinction than ever before -Rate of species extinction: 10s to 100s times higher than the average over past 10 million years -Invasive species have expanded their distribution on the planet (keep pets out of the wild) -Indigenous peoples and local communities report loss of natural resources in managed areas, with negative implications for their livelihoods. -Climate change affects biodiversity in complex and very uncertain ways, through changes in temperature, rainfall, atmospheric CO2 levels, and ocean acidification. Climate change is a major concern for biodiversity. What are we doing about it? -Zoos -Seed Banks -Natural Parks -Nature Reserves

GMO (genetically modified organism)

-Humans have been modifying the genetic makeup of organisms since the early days of agriculture (modern corn vs. teosinte) Ex: Salmon size increased due to it being genetically modified, apples, corn, potatoes, squash *Biodiversity where to get genes for GMO's They are safe to eat! -We should still label them -Long term health effects still unknown -Short term effects negligible *Each GMO must be evaluated on a case by case basis: -It would be easy to take the gene from a poisonous plant and stick it into an edible plant Modify crops to be resistant to: -Herbicides, drought and insect (produce their own pesticides) Most concern are political or ecological -Biotech companies may create high tech debt cycles for farmers (Biotech companies patent seeds, engineer seeds so they can only grow in the presence of the same companies fertilizer) -Once you release them into the wild have no control over where they go -Pest are evolving resistances faster we can produce new GMOs *GMO's failed to produce the promised increased crop yields (mosquitoes to combat viruses) Cross Pollination: GMOs could potentially hybridize with non-GMOs -Contaminate organic and heirloom crops -Create genetically engineered super weeds -Makes it hard for farms to promise their food does not contain other particles since corn can be cross contaminated with potato field Bt Eggplants (success story): -Bangladesh Implemented GMO Eggplants -Resistant to Insects -Gave poor farmers access -Farmers are using less pesticides and producing greater yields (Must plant perimeter of non Bt Eggplants around field to help slow development of resistant insects) -Farmers are allowed to save, sell and replant seeds

"Let the Environment Guide our Development" Ted Talk video summary

-Humans take up more nitrogen in the atmosphere than the whole biosphere does naturally -3 planetary boundaries: Nitrogen cycle, Biodiversity loss, and Climate Change and if we pass one, we break the planet and cause environmental change. -200 countries on the planet must simultaneously move in the same direction to transform change -Countries in South America have zero tilling and farm sustainably which lowers carbon emissions -Australia's government has protected the Great Barrier Reef -We need a new green revolution to keep resources available and prevent expansion on land because there will be none left -Elinor Ostrom said we can govern the commons if we invest in trust, local, action-based partnerships and cross-scale institutional innovations -To transform the planet, we must shift our mindsets, move simultaneously, collaborate on a global level, from local to global scale, in transformative options, which build resilience on a finite planet.

Climate Change and Hurricanes (video summary)

-Hurricanes begin from small atmospheric interferences in the jet stream (easterly wave) Ex: A girl playing in the sand triggers a small dust devil that perturbs the atmosphere downstream in a way that creates an easterly wave -Easterly waves create turbulent eddies which develop into a cluster of thunderstorms and they travel over the oceans making them stronger from the warmness of the ocean and it begins to spin/rotate -Climate change makes hurricanes and storms stronger due to oceans absorbing heat from emissions and that heat allows hurricanes to increase wind speeds making them worse. (Hotter oceans lead to wetter hurricanes) *Strongest part of a hurricane is flooding and storm surges*

Oxygen almost killed everything (video summary)

-In the Archaeon Eon, 2-3% of the planets surface was dry land, the rest was oceans full of iron making them green from rust (lack of oxygen) -The atmosphere was full of carbon, nitrogen, and water vapor rather than oxygen until photosynthesizers (cyanobacteria) developed and they released oxygen as waste -The oxygen later caused the oceans to turn red and fill oceans with iron oxide (rust) and can be seen through banded iron formations -It transformed structure of the planet and affected organisms by killing anaerobic ones and aerobic ones spread while oxygen began to reach the air -Carbon was absorbed by plants more causing very few greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and making the planet very cold turning it into ice (Huronian glaciation, 300 million years) -All life on Earth was almost killed due to the glacial periods, but some life remained making the Earth more hospitable and oxygen was abundant in the air and water (helped blocked UV radiation through atmosphere) -Cyanobacteria created oxygen as waste and were almost killed off by an oxygen-rich atmosphere.

Greenhouse Gases

-Include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide ->CO2: Burn fossil fuels, clear forests, cement manufacturing, transportation ->CH4 (methane): Natural gas leaks, cattle/sheep digestive process, anaerobic waste decomposition (landfills), rice paddies (anaerobic conditions) ->N2O (nitrous oxide): Nitrogen fertilizer production and used in agriculture, cars, manufacturing -Are critical to support life on Earth -1896 by Svante Arrhenius -All GHG's have gone up since mid 1800's *Pre-industrial atmospheric CO2 was 200-280 ppm and 350 ppm is considered safe. May 26, 2018 hit 411.89 ppm (Keeling Curve) *

New socio-spatial relations through renewable energy

-It is now possible to meet current global energy demand with renewable sources at feasible prices -Requires massive amounts of land, labor, and capital investments -Reshaping geographies of industry and residence: ->Massive land acquisitions, land conflicts, potential human displacement, mostly in rural areas. ->Electricity can't be shipped overseas like fossil fuels. Energy loss through transmission lines favors movement of people and industry to locations of energy production. ->Emergence of new economic powerhouses in deserts (solar) or windy unpopulated areas (wind). *Renewable energy produces more jobs! Wind energy: Wind farm on windy parts of plains and deserts would supply far more energy than humanity uses. *5% of land for wind turbines to make "mailbox money" (more than $5k each/yr, with the rest of the land for "normal" agriculture) even ranchers who don't believe in climate change do believe in wind energy! -Renewable energy is still a huge task, but costs are going down and more jobs are made *Compared to "business as usual," efficient responses on climate and energy will give a larger economy with more jobs, improved health and greater national security in a cleaner environment more consistent with the Golden Rule. -We are the first generation in history to know we can build a sustainable energy system while helping the economy, health, security, employment, and planet

Kyoto Protocol

-Negotiated agreement added to UNFCCC in 1997 -Requires developed countries (Annex1) to limit their net GHG emissions by 5.2% relative to 1990 levels, by 2012. (Aggregate target) Ex: 100 tons of CO2 in 1990 -> 94.8 tons in 2012 -Entered into force in 2005 after Russian Federation ratified -US and Canada withdrew; Australia took many years to ratify. -Provides three mechanisms for Annex1 countries to reduce emissions *Is cap-and-trade* Emission Reduction Mechanisms... ->International Emissions Trading: Cap and trade between Annex 1 parties -Allowance set until 2012 -Parties reduce emissions: Fuel change, reduce deforestation, recovering methane from landfills, increasing fuel efficiency *Parties trade allowances ->Clean Development Mechanism: Industrialized (annex 1) party finances a project that will reduce emissions in a developing country. -Emissions reduction counts towards the annex 1 country's target because the developing country has no target. -Theoretically helps developing country follow a low-carbon development pathway. Kyoto Protocol in Hindsight: -China became a major GHG emitter, but had no obligations to reduce emissions -Big emitters saw the Kyoto Protocol as biased against them -United States and Canada withdrew -Numerous Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects in developing countries, but very little progress in transition away from fossil fuels. -Disproportionate number of CDM projects in fast-growing economies (China 41%, Brazil 14%, India 14%, South Korea 11%)

Problems with Nuclear Energy

-People fear anything nuclear -Construction (takes a long time to permit and build nuclear power plants) -Not economically viable (requires lots of subsidies) -New reactor technologies are not ready yet

Sea Level Rise (how even a small amount is a big problem)

-People live at low elevations -Storm surges (hurricanes and flooding) -Coastal erosion (houses along the coast may eventually be taken over by the ocean; LA will flood) *Miami is trying to develop a sea level rise plan to protect the city

Paris Agreement

-Post-Kyoto agreement established in 2015. -189 out of 197 parties have ratified -Enters into force officially in 2020 -Aggregate goal: To curb emissions to a level that would prevent global temperature from exceeding 2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial temperatures by 2100. -All parties (not just Annex 1) must make ambitious, but realistic commitments to reduce GHG emissions/enhance sinks -Pros: All countries must contribute; No more potential CDM greenwashing -Cons: Many Nationally Determined Contributions are not ambitious. -Note: US withdrawal November 2020 (reentering under Biden)

What makes today's climate change different?

-Solar irradiance (astronomical factors) does not explain rise in carbon dioxide concentrations or temperature change.

Climate Science (video summary)

-Some people believe climate change is a hoax and they try to prove it -Climate change is proven through the greenhouse effect, greenhouse gases give life but there is an increase of CO2 due to humans, temperature and solar activity move in opposite directions, sun only warms the lower layers of atmosphere where GHG's pile up, humans put 2,000 gigatons of CO2 into atmosphere, average temperatures are rising fast, data from ice and trees shows how low carbon levels were in the past, oceans are rising due to heat, albedo effect causing glaciers to melt.

Inorganic Fertilizer

-Synthetically derived nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K), calcium, magnesium, and micronutrients -Nitrogen fertilization can result in acidified soils -Pollute water bodies (Eutrophication) -Nitric gas (NO) contributes to smog, ozone an acid rain -Green house gas emissions in the form of N2O from soils *Scale matters*

Tundra-Boreal forest shift

-There is melting permafrost which releases methane emissions causing more warming -Warmer and drier conditions cause boreal forest fires which causes replacement with broadleaf forests -Boreal forests move north and take over the space where sea ice/sea used to be (since ice is melting, the forests are expanding). -June 2020 was the most severe fire seasons in Siberia (temps reached 100 degrees north of Arctic Circle)

The Anthropocene (YouTube documentary) summary

-We are living in the Holocene which meets conditions for human living, but we expanded too much -The rock color shows different periods of time and the condition Earth was in (ice, volcanic, global change) -The Holocene is depicted by a an ice rock that shows a dramatic shift in climate (CO2) -Human impact on the environment is changing the structure and function of Earth systems very fast -We are now entering the Anthropocene, a new era based on humans controlling the planet -The Industrial Revolution is the start of carbon emissions rising sharply causing ice melts, overfishing, and coral bleaching -Consumption is the biggest factor, not population ("Great Acceleration") -The Anthropocene is not formally recorded to be an era, and the Holocene is still the declared era -Aluminum, concrete, plastic, lead are all parts that impact the planet -We breed animals that we want to eat and take them out of the wild -The Anthropocene began mid-to-20th century (60 years go) and if it becomes an actual event, humans won't be around to know about it -Bands in coral can tell scientists about different events in different years (warming today) -Military understands the issue and security is harder when we have environmental difficulty, but most of society does not understand the Anthropocene

The Industrial Era (1800's-1945)

-Widespread use of fossil fuels: coal, followed by oil and gas (steam engine, internal combustion engine) Haber-Bosch process: Production of ammonia fertilizers (NH3) from N2 and natural gas. ->Very high energy requirements ->Highly soluble synthetic fertilizers leach easily and affect groundwater ->Nutrient loading in bodies of water and eutrophication

Temperatures are getting warmer

-Winter temperatures are getting warmer -Oceans are heating up (rising since 1940) -Daily temperatures are getting warmer (U.S. showed extreme highs in day and night) *CO2 is mostly emitted by U.S. and European Union (developed countries emit the most) and Russia, China, India, and rest of the world (lower emissions)

Ways to encourage collective action

-Write Congress -Go to a city council meeting -Run for city council (Local and State Government is CRUCIAL) -Talk to people about climate change -Vote (2021 had Black Lives Matter and city climate ordinances and 2022 had Congressional Midterms will affect climate legislation. Pennsylvania is going to have a key senate race in 2022)

Challenges of climate change mitigation

1.) Challenges in estimating which impacts will occur when and where -Complex climate impacts interact with additional non-climate drivers -Impacts are felt years after emissions Different positions about how to manage climate change: -Mitigate now! -Let's adapt to the impacts! -Some people are ok with defaulting to suffering 2.) Different responsibilities and vulnerabilities lead to different interests (tragedy of the commons) -Shared Pasture: Costs of overgrazing are borne equally by all farmers. No other stakeholders exist. -Climate Change: Small farmers are more vulnerable than oil and gas corporations. Impacts are not borne equally by stakeholders *Per capita CO2 emissions were highest in US, Canada, Australia, and parts of Europe *Places that are at extreme risk/vulnerability are many parts of Africa, Philippines, Bangladesh, parts of Asia *Richest people/countries cause the most emissions 3.) Casting doubt over climate change: -Real? -Anthropogenic? -Impacts? -Powerful GHG emitters cast doubt over the causes and impacts of climate change. -Lobbying, faulty "science"

Factors Leading to the Holocene (beginning 19,000 years ago)

1.) Combined astronomical factors 2.) Polar ice cap melt 3.) Change in ocean currents 4.) Warming southern ocean 5.) Ocean releases dissolved CO2 6.) Amplified greenhouse effect and global warming *In the past, changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and subsequent climate change was triggered by astronomical factors (Deglaciations). Current climate change is caused by human GHG emissions (1800s-present)

Peer Review Process

1.) Form Idea, Theory, or Hypothesis 2.) Research and Write 3.) Manuscript (proposed article) 4.) Send to Journal Editor 5.) Reviewed by 3-5 experts in the field 6.) Decision is made to accept, reject, or revise -The author of the article must submit it to the journal editor who forwards the article to experts in the field. Because the reviewers specialize in the same scholarly area as the author, they are considered the author's peers (hence "peer review") -These impartial reviewers are charged with carefully evaluating the quality of the submitted manuscript. -The peer reviewers check the manuscript for accuracy and assess the validity of the research methodology and procedures. -If appropriate, they suggest revisions. If they find the article lacking in scholarly validity and rigor, they reject it.

Commodity

A generic good or service traded in the market (pork rather than a specific pig); an object made for exchange. -Commodities are created. They require effort and have a history -Are typically standardized so they can be easily marketed Ex: Russet potato/French fry

UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)

A global international agreement established to manage climate change. -Adopted in 1992 during the Earth Summit of the United Nations in Rio de Janeiro -Entered into force in 1994 -197 parties (196 countries+ the EU) -Conference of the Parties (COP): the collective decision-making body for the UNFCCC Objective: Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system (Climate mitigation) Principles: 1.) Shared but differentiated responsibilities and capabilities in relationship to climate change 2.) Developing countries (especially the most vulnerable ones) have special needs and must not be over burdened by obligations under the Convention 3.) Precautionary principle: Do not delay mitigation action because of lack of full scientific certainty! 4.) Right to sustainable development and need for economic development 5.) Do not use climate change policies as excuse to unjustifiably restrict international trade. Obligations for all Parties: -Cooperate in climate change mitigation and adaptation policies and action -Contribute to research and education -Communicate GHG emissions and sequestration periodically (monitoring) Other Obligations: Annex 1 (industrialized countries in transition to market economies): Meet set GHG targets Annex 2 (OECD countries in 1992): Help developing countries transition to low-carbon economies

Monopsony (contract farming issue)

A market in which most producers sell their products to a single buyer (Single buyer is able to set a low price) -Multiple different farmers are providing for one Agribusiness company

Double Exposure

A metaphor for cases in which a particular region, sector, social group, or ecological area is simultaneously confronted by exposure to both global environmental change and globalization. -Positive or negative effects of global environmental change and global economic processes are often coupled, leading to increased inequality -New conditions for experiencing and responding to change -Feedbacks between the global environmental change and globalization influence the outcomes *Social-ecological systems today are situated in a context of faster and longer-distance flows of matter, energy, and ideas, due to globalization *Global environmental change does not occur in a vacuum! *Double exposure causes economic and environmental stressors (cause inequalities)*

Climate Hazard

A physical climate-related event or trend that may cause harm to people or ecosystems (Hurricanes, droughts, floods) -Drought and fire in the west, flooding in the east -Hurricanes and forest fires during Covid (cannot maintain social distancing, hard to evacuate people, cannot avoid an outbreak in disaster area, minorities get hit the hardest due to economic disadvantages, less work from home, and live in areas vulnerable to climate change)

Biodiversity Hotspot

A place on Earth that is both biologically rich and deeply threatened (Conservation International) - >1,500 endemic vascular plants (irreplaceable area) - <30% of its original natural vegetation (threatened) *Found close to the equator (Central America, Amazon Rainforest). Places like Cerrado in Brazil and Chile have high biodiversity, but the amount of people living there threatens it

Eutrophication

A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria. -Phosphorous and nitrogen cycles are being used abnormally by humans causing eutrophication (get into water causing algae blooms) -Plants need Nitrogen and Phosphorous, so farmers use fertilizer to give the plants those elements. But the excess fertilizer is carried away by rain or irrigation and get into bodies of water like lakes, rivers, or oceans and the water creates algae blooms which blocks sunlight into the water and causes plants to decay which takes away the oxygen in the water and sea life/other plants start to die. Can cause coral bleaching and decrease in biodiversity. Phosphorus: Found in soil, animal/plant tissue, weathering of rocks, decomposition of fungi/bacteria Nitrogen: What is mostly in the air and is incorporated into animals, soil, and plants

Monoculture

A single crop cultivated to the exclusion of any other potential harvest (only one crop is grown) -Good for Industrial Agriculture and Green Revolution -Farming machinery can be customized to one crop. -Makes planting and harvesting easier and more efficient Problems with this? -Leads to soil erosion (strips it of nutrients) -Overuses fertilizer (Russet potato used for French fries) Russet Potato issue: -Russet Burbank: Most common potato in the United States, used for French fries -Selected from a Chilean variety (Early Rose) in Massachusetts in 1872 -Large, with white, dry flesh -Resistant to diseases -Half of US production grown today in Idaho (rest in WA, ND, OR, and WI) -Russet potato is McDonald's potato (large buyer). Causes more frozen French fries and less fresh potatoes -The French fry is a commodity meaning it requires effort and is standardized to be easily marketed Growing Russet Potatoes: -Before planting: Soil fumigant to kill microbial life -During planting: Systemic insecticide -When plant is 6" tall: Herbicide -Subsequently, chemical fertilizers applied each week -Crop dusting to protect against pests - +Energy - +Irrigation (total water needs = 500-700mm) *Key: Big market + low prices (low profits) encourage intensive, standardized monoculture*

Endemic Species

A species restricted to a particular area or region

Planetary Boundaries

A threshold that if crossed would represent unexpectable environmental change (If pass one, we break the planet, making it harder to live on) 1.) Climate Change (carbon dioxide concentrations/ppm rose) 2.) Biodiversity Loss (extinction rates rose) 3.) Nitrogen Cycle (N2 removed from the atmosphere for human use) 4.) Phosphorus Cycle (quality of Phosphorous flowing into the oceans)

Albedo effect

Albedo: The ability of a surface to reflect light. Effect: The positive feedback loop in which an increase in the Earth's temperature causes ice to melt so more radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface leading to further increases in temperature.

Capitalism (challenge of mitigation)

An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. *Means of production=Land, machinery, infrastructure, raw materials (all owned) -Firms strive to maximize profits: decrease costs and increase consumption -Globalization increases competition for low-cost production -Profit-driven firms will only reduce their emissions if they can continue to compete and make profits -Green/low-carbon consumption is still consumption -So far, gains in carbon intensity have lagged behind economic growth. How does a capitalist make profit? -Laborers are hired and underpaid (many are undocumented making it easy to pay them less)

Anthropocene

An emerging new geologic epoch marked by widespread human impacts on Earth systems. These human impacts are comparable to the forces of nature and leave an imprint in the geological record. -Began due to the Great Acceleration and replaced the Holocene

Invasive Species

An organism that is not native to particular area, reproduces and adapts in the new area easily, and harms the receiving environment or society (spotted lantern fly can lay eggs on cars and reproduce in new places easily, but can kill host plants by eating them) Introduced... -Intentionally: As food, for pest control, as pets, to recreate a valued landscape (goldfish that grow abnormally large, pythons, bamboo, English ivy, cats) -Unintentionally: In ship ballast water, adhered boat hulls, in imported crops, in cars (muscles, seafood)

Why Biodiversity Matters

Anthropocentric Reasons: Ecosystem services, Medicine (plants for herbs, snake venom), Recreation and ecotourism (National Parks, hiking, swimming), Prevent spread of plant disease (low insect diversity hurts crops), Food (fishing, hunting) Ecocentric Reasons: Biological integrity (it is right to preserve the biotic community), maintain stable ecosystems (intrinsic value) *More biodiverse ecosystems are more resilient*

Climate Change (Recitation)

Carbon Cycle: -Carbon flows between reservoirs (Atmosphere, rocks, ocean, vegetation, etc.) → carbon cycle -Climate changes throughout Earth history due to biochemical processes and astronomical cycles (Glacial and interglacial periods) -Oceans absorb carbon dioxide, some of which interacts with shell-building organisms and is then stored on the ocean floor as they die -Short carbon cycle (tens to hundred thousand years): Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition -Long carbon cycle (Few hundred thousand years): 1. Atmospheric carbon → rain → dissolves rock → eventually stored in rocks and ocean 2. Volcanoes → erupt → atmospheric carbon 3. Humans emitting 100-300 times more CO2 than volcanoes Human Contributions to Climate Change: -Burning fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) since the Industrial Revolution (1850s) -Land use and land cover changes (deforestation, agriculture, etc.) -Extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is leading to: 1. Rising sea levels through melting ice sheets 2. Ocean acidification and subsequent coral bleaching 3. Droughts, wildfires, more intense hurricanes, etc. What does ppm Mean? -CO2 concentration is listed in ppm -PPM = parts per million -This refers to the number of molecules of CO2 in every million molecules of dry air Ex: 400 ppm = 400 parts per 1,000,000 parts = 400/1,000,000 = 4/10,000 = 0.04% Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii: -Longest continuous record of CO2 -1958-Present -Observations have given us the "Keeling Curve", named after Charles David Keeling the scientist who set up observatory Seasonal Changes in CO2: -As the large land masses of the Northern Hemisphere green in the spring and summer, they draw carbon out of atmosphere -Cycle hits low in August (lowest atmospheric CO2) and peaks in late winter, around April (highest atmospheric CO2)

Astronomical Factors

Caused by Earth's relationship with the sun (Milankovitch cycles) -Obliquity (tilt): The tilt of the Earth's axis varies between 22.2 and 24.5 degrees. The greater the angle, the more energy received by the poles. -Eccentricity: Earth's orbit shifts from elongated to circular. Elongated orbits result in more extreme seasons. -Precession: Wobble *Astronomical factors played a role in the Earth's glacial cycles

Geoengineering

Cooling the climate by removing CO2 from the air or reflecting sunlight away from earth. Carbon Capture: -The technology is not there -Problems of scale -Where do you put the carbon? -May cause large amounts of pollution Fighting the Sun (reduce solar radiation): -Increase the Earth's albedo -Cool the Earth by reflecting more sunlight into space -Could cause abrupt and unforeseen changes in weather patterns -Won't solve ocean acidification or air pollution problems from fossil fuels *Once we start we must do it perfectly forever

Logical Fallacy

Defects that weaken arguments. Most Common: -Red Herring (A person raises an irrelevant issue to distract from the real issue. Ex: Simpsons blaming high taxes on illegal immigrants making them forget about the real tax issue) -Circular Reasoning (Argument is restated rather than proven. Ex: Opium is sleep inducing because it has a sleep inducing formula) -Hasty Generalization (Make a sweeping statement without considering all the facts. Ex: Only seeing women in a class, so you assume only women can take that class) -Slippery Slope (One small step will lead to a large, negative chain of events. Ex: If you do not study, you will fail, if you fail, you will not get a job) -Straw Man (Distort an opponents claim so it is easier to refute. Or if they refute, you rebuttal with a point they did not make. Ex: One says school should be lenient on testing and the reply is if we stop giving tests in schools, students will act badly and not learn) -Ad Hominem (Attacking a person to discredit their argument. Ex: Male cannot deliver babies since they have never been a woman) -False Dichotomy/False Equivalency (Argument presents two points, but ignores others to narrow the argument in someone's favor. "Either or" Ex: You are either for us or against us. I thought you were a good person, but you don't donate to charity) -Appeal to Emotion (goes after people's emotions to win an argument. Ex: I was so busy, and my gf broke up with me which is why I didn't do my homework) -Equivocation (Argument is presented in a double-sided way making it misleading. Ex: Hotdogs are better than nothing, nothing is better than hamburgers, so hot dogs are better than hamburgers) -Bandwagon (Groups of people persuade people and use peer pressure. Ex: Many people buy this, so you should too) -False Analogy (two things that are unalike become compared. Ex: People are like dogs, they respond best to discipline)

No Till Farming

Farming that excludes the usage of tillage to avoid negative effects such as loss of organic matter, soil erosion, and it leaves roots holding soil. -Tilling releases CO2 rather than absorbing it and turns the land into dust/dirt -Tilling leaves less than 15% of residue on the soil surface while no till leaves the soil covered 100% of the time

Functional Redundancy

Functional Redundancy: Some species perform similar roles in communities and ecosystems, and may therefore be substitutable with little impact on ecosystem processes. -Four species (shapes): triangle, circle, star, and square -Two ecosystem functions (colors): black and white. Functional redundancy only applies to one color Imagine star and square are vulnerable to a perturbation (brutal winter). Which ecosystem function is most seriously threatened by a brutal fire and why? ->The square because it is the only white species (the rest are black) and it cannot afford to go extinct but the black ones can since there are more of it. *High functional redundancy requires high resilience*

Glacial retreat and peak water in the Peruvian Andes

Highland agriculture in the tropical Andes: -Rainfall during wet season -Snow/ice melt during the dry season *Glaciers and snow melt help meet smallholding farmers' irrigation needs in dry season -Climate change causes glacial retreat -Cordillera Blanca: over 25% decrease in glacial area since 1930 -Glacial retreat poses serious threats for water security and local rural livelihoods Adaptation to climate change in the Andes: -Direct observation of climate change through annual canal maintenance -Decrease in water supply, increase in water needs due to higher evapotranspiration -Small reservoirs as potential solutions *Hot summers impact glaciers and Peru adapts to this by building irrigation and canals Peak Water=The growing constraints on the availability, quality, and use of freshwater sources

Carbon Cycle

How carbon cycles through the land, air, and oceans. -Comes from the atmosphere and is absorbed by the oceans and land which contain coal, oil, and sea life. The coal and oil is burned by fossil fuels and plants release carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and the carbon is redirected into the atmosphere with the cycle continuing. Photosynthesis: How plants use sunlight and CO2 to make sugars (leads to carbon sequestration). Plant absorbs suns energy taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen -Fast carbon (what is stored in plants) *Carbon is found everywhere in animals, plants, rocks, atmosphere, humans, oceans. -Slow carbon is when it goes from oceans to atmosphere. Humans take slow carbon and burn it which ruins carbon cycle

Clean Development Mechanism

Industrialized (annex 1) party finances a project that will reduce emissions in a developing country. -Emissions reduction counts towards the annex 1 country's target because the developing country has no target. -Theoretically helps developing country follow a low-carbon development pathway.

Present-day global climate change is fast and anthropogenic

Is Earth Warming? -Yes by more than 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit over the past 100 years (most happened over past 35 years) -Heat waves are increasing, snow cover is decreasing in Northern hemisphere, glaciers and ice caps are melting, and plants/animals are migrating Increased Emissions: -Many scientists thought the oceans would absorb excess emissions from humans, but it cannot absorb it all -Keeling Curve shows accelerating increase of CO2 -Carbon dioxide emissions were steady until the 19th century and today they exceed 390 ppm (40% higher than any point in the last 800,000 years) -All greenhouse gases have increased as industrialization began -Almost half of excess carbon dioxide emitted from human activity remains in the atmosphere for many centuries (will continue to increase) -Global average combined land and ocean surface temperature increased 0.85°C (1.44°F) from 1880 to 2012 (IPCC2014) -Multiple independent measurements -Other indicators (More frequent heat waves, shrinking snow/ice/glacial cover and change in species range due to temperature changes)

Pesticide Treadmill

Pesticides: Include insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and herbicides -Can be poisonous to farmers -Cause declines in biodiversity -Pesticide use is expected to grow: ->Spurs pesticide resistant weeds, insects and fungus ->1,000 major agricultural pests are now resistant to most commercially available pesticides *Farming needs pesticides Pesticide Treadmill: May lead farmers to use stronger concentrations or more frequent pesticide applications, raising the risk of negative impacts on animal and human health. Increases Pesticide Resistance (for GMO's): -Does not break pesticide treadmill -Both insects and weeds can develop resistances to pesticides associated with GMOS... Bt→ Insects Round Up → Plants *Bt crops are bacteria that protect the plant from pests

Cover Crop

Prevent dust from the land from blowing in the wind. Are plants that are planted to cover the soil rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Advantages are that it builds soil health, nutrient retention, erosion control, weed reduction *Need the right plants in the right places (Tropical rainforests outweigh albedo and sequester carbon) and planting trees in Boreal forest causes warming*

Vulnerability

Propensity to be adversely affected if exposed to a hazard. -Vulnerable people (or things we value) that are exposed to climate hazards are at risk of suffering climate-related impacts. Social Factors of Vulnerability: -Sensitivity of livelihoods (direct dependence on environmental conditions) -Wealth (housing, transportation, health care, savings) -Social safety nets (knowing people to help you) -Secure access to resources (land and water) -Discrimination or socially constructed roles -Education (literacy, career development, income) -Age and disabilities (depend on other people)

Wolf Conservation Conflicts (Recitation)

Reintroducing Wolves: -Wolves hunted almost to extinction by 1930s -Began to return naturally in 1970s -Formally reintroduced in 1995 despite widespread debate (Environmentalists vs Ranchers & Hunters) -Delisted and relisted on ESA throughout the years (changed governing control from federal to state and allowed for hunting seasons) -Proposition 114 (Colorado) required state to develop a plan to reintroduce and manage gray wolves and pay fair compensation for livestock lost Proposition 114 Background Info: -Wolves were driven from Colorado in the early 1900s (same circumstances in other places around the US. Different outcomes like Kentucky Example) -2016, Colorado Parks and Wildlife Commission decided against reintroducing wolves like in Yellowstone -January 2020, Pack of 6 wolves were spotted in Colorado (near the border with Wyoming) indicating that natural recolonization was taking place -September 2020, 3 of the wolves were killed in Wyoming where they are no longer protected -Proposition 114 was a citizen driven ballot initiative that requires Colorado Parks and Wildlife Commission to reintroduce wolves by Dec 2023 Ecological Role of Wolves: -Ecosystems have multiple trophic levels (plants consumed by herbivores consumed by predators) -Wolves = Apex predators -Wolves reintroduced to Yellowstone → Rapid recovery of willows because decrease in elk population → Reemergence of beavers who use willows → Increase in reptiles, amphibians, eagles, ravens, beetles, soil nutrients Wild vs Reintroduced Wolves: -Wolves that returned naturally from Canada → Designated as endangered & protected by ESA -Reintroduced wolves → Classified as non-essential, experimental populations & Not protected -This designation was to give more power to state governments to balance their environmental and socioeconomic concerns

Dust Bowl (The Great Plains 1930's)

Semi-arid prairie, central U.S. Process: -Homesteading (1870s-1930) -Large-scale mechanized agriculture -Sustained drought -Strong winds Outcome: -Severe wind erosion -Loss of soil fertility -Poverty, out migration

Short and Long Wave Radiation (Electromagnetic Spectrum)

Short Wave: Visible sun light (UV, X-ray, Gamma rays) -Go to Earth Long Wave: Infrared radiation (Microwaves, radio waves, visible light) -Trapped in the Earth *Need the electromagnetic spectrum!

The New Climate War (challenge of mitigation)

Soft Denialism: -Harder to deny existences of global warming -Cast doubt on solutions -Shift focus from collective action to individual actions -Bots to promote in fighting in environmental groups -Doomism Denialism in other areas: -Plastic recycling -Air pollution and premature death (reason to cut CO2 despite free rider problem) -Covid-19

Power Density

The amount of power (Watts) produced per unit of area (square meters). Formula: (W/m^2) Ex: Solar farm needs lots of land, so low power density. Oil well does not need lots of land and has a high energy content, so high power density *Above ground renewables take up more space

Carbon Sequestration

The capture and storage of carbon from the atmosphere (plant photosynthesis). Biological sequestration is done through plants/trees and engineered sequestration is done through flux towers to measure how much CO2 will be absorbed by fields *Kiss the Ground explains carbon sequestration

Holocene

The current geologic epoch, which began after the last ice age approximately 11,600 years ago, and is characterized by remarkable climatic stability. Human Impacts: -Plant and animal domestication (animal energy!) -Agriculture, fire for clearing land -Irrigation -Urban settlements (from nomadic to sedentary life) Preindustrial Holocene (pre-1800's) -Sparse use of fossil fuels (coal in China since 10th century) -Limited technology -Local or regional impacts

Contract Farming (type of entrepreneurial farm)

The farmer (land, labor, machinery) sells produce to the Agribusiness company (capital, access to global market). The Agribusiness company gives technical assistance and sells seed, fertilizer, and pesticides to the farmer on credit -Sign contracts to make these deals Ex: Chicken farmers (97% of farmers sign contracts with poultry companies) *Due to vertical integration, the processor controls the grower/farmer since they buy the seed, determine location, and when chickens will be processed. Then monopsony develops and there is a single buyer which is the corporation. The treadmill of debt forms and the farmer does not have money left over since the companies forced them to get new equipment and they were overloaded with loans to pay off. -The farmer owns land (and some machinery, or infrastructure). The farmer hires workers and (probably) also pays them less than they deserve, but the farmer is not getting their fair share either. *Agribusiness company exploits the farmer through debt (capital) through finance expenses and monopsony (setting price) Environmental problems with contract farming: -Agribusiness company has upper hand in determining cultivation process -More inputs sold on credit (fertilizers, pesticides)→more income for agribusiness company -Agribusiness company does not own the land→ no incentive for sustainable agriculture

Industrial Agriculture

The industrialized production of livestock, poultry, fish and crops. -High Inputs (Fertilizers, pesticides/herbicides, water, fossil fuels) -High Food Output -Large Environmental Impacts -Monoculture -Large Farm Equipment

Agroecology

The use of ecological processes to meet the production needs of agriculture. Farming more naturally -Diverse species and crop varieties will reduce the spread of disease -Intercropping, agroforestry -Instead of adding inputs, functions are performed by biological community: ->Nitrogen fixing legumes +manure replace synthetic fertilizers ->Pest control through the food web (protect natural predators!). Avoid invasive species! -Sharing/circulating resources in community ->Livestock provides manure for agriculture ->Seed exchange and experimentation ->Knowledge sharing Ex: Cow manure, pollination

Uneven outcomes and growing inequalities in rural communities (Double exposure)

Trade Liberalization: -Elimination of tariff and nontariff barriers to trade -Reductions in national agricultural subsidies or other supports for local farmers Why Trade Liberalization? -To increase efficiency of agricultural production -Make products cheaper Measures of Success: -Price, productivity, aggregate income Overlooked Impacts: -Uneven distribution of incomes -Rural outmigration and growing urban poverty -Environmental consequences Projected Climate Sensitivity (2050): -Dryness -Climate variability -Does not account for flooding India's Trade reforms since 1991: -Reductions/changes in tariffs and reduction in production of subsidies Recent (pre-COVID)status of Indian economy: -Surge in foreign investment (higher GDP) -Rise in income inequality Import sensitivity (trade disadvantage): -Lower productivity -Crops less likely to be exported -Distance from international ports Double Exposure Map: -Climate and import sensitivity, response capacity (irrigation technology, NGO and state support, literacy rates) Additional Info: -Impacts of liberalized trade on environmental conditions -Household inequality (men vs women) -Rural outmigration and different living standards in cities (those with private jets can leave faster) -Fair trade, organic products, green certification

Globalization

Trend towards "greater economic, political, and cultural integration across nations." Space-time compression: The world is being "shrunk" by our increased ability to cover lots of space in very little time -Increase in international trade and investment, and transnational commodity chains -Liberalization of financial markets (to enable increased trade) -Increased movement of people -"Global" middle-income class. -Global cities (New York, Singapore, Hong Kong, Sao Paolo, London, Paris) -Global social movements

Weather vs. Climate

Weather: The day-to-day variation in temperature and precipitation in a given location (what forecast says) -Short-term variation in atmosphere -On a smaller scale Climate: The long-term pattern of weather in a given location (PA half covered by an ice cap in the last Ice Age, extreme hot weather) -Weather conditions over a long period -Climate is on a long time, global scale *Climate change can cause harsh weather patterns!

Governing climate change: A global collective action problem

What is the commons? -> The atmosphere (impossible to divide it) What is the collective action problem? -> Each person's GHG emissions are negligible, but all emissions put together affect us all. How is free riding applicable to climate change? -> Bold policies to curb GHG emissions may be expensive. Some countries benefit from other countries' policies.

Biodiversity (species, genetic, ecosystem)

a) The number of different species in a place and time period (Species=A group of organisms whose members are able to interbreed and have fertile offspring) Species Biodiversity: Number of different species in a place and time period. Ex: Mammals in PA are deer, bats, foxes, gray squirrel *A Mule is not a species since it is a male donkey mixed with a female horse and cannot reproduce! b) The genetic variation within a single species in a place and time period. Genetic Biodiversity: The genetic variation within a single species in a place and time period. Ex: Potato varieties in the Andes (thousands of varieties, all same species of potato, cheetahs) c) The variety of ecosystems or habitats in a place and time period (heterogeneity). Has lots of different niches. Ecosystem Biodiversity: The variety of ecosystems or habitats in a place and time period. Ex: Uyuni salt flat in Bolivia has low ecosystem biodiversity (flat land with no animals or species), Riparian ecosystem has high biodiversity with trees, animals, and species (heterogeneous, complex landscapes support high species biodiversity) *Humans are pushing Biodiversity loss to its breaking point*