history quiz 8-10
9.1
Sword of Tiberius: please identify who are the possible figures on the silver relief from a commemorative scabbard; Tiberius offering to Augustus a victory he gained in the Alps in 16-15 BC Could also be Germanicus offering to Tiberius his German victory of 14-16/17 AD
Res Gestae, personal record of princeps' achievements
The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) was a monumental inscription narrating and celebrating the life and accomplishments of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. The long text was written during the life of the emperor and completed just before his death in 14 CE
interpretatio
The assertion of some form of equivalence between a foreign deity and a Roman one
Women
increasing public visibility for woman in early empire on the model of the more prominent role played by members of the imperial family like Livia, Octavia, and Agrippina (see also the imperial cult below); especially increased in religious roles (as had been the case in the Greek East for a long time; important role in early Christianity according to Paul's letters in the NT.
lex de imperio Vespasiani
its content and significance for the institutionalization of the Principate (i.e. insuring monarchical foundation); imperator, meaning, especially now for emperors;
10.4
marble-relief scene from the column of Trajan, dedicated in 113, depicting the Dacian Wars of 101-02 and 105-06. Be able to identify what's on the panel, e.g. difference in garb of legionaries (w/sturdy armor) and auxiliary troops (w/overshirts & neckcloths)
Circuses and Chariot Racing:
very popular, most famous = Circus Maximus at Rome at the site where Romulus and first Romans had abducted the Sabine women: it was an attractive place for emperors and members of the imperial family to make their presence felt, hence often refurbished, cf. Map 10.3 and Figure 10.7, Roman charioteer.
Beneficial Ideology
on the model of Augustus, Roman emperors were expected to care for their subjects; only Claudius really completed building projects in the provinces; at Rome itself "bread & circuses" were a form of social control / benefice; there was a broader base for the promotion into elite society, e.g. from southern Gaul and Spain
vigiles "watchmen"
patrol force to combat outbreaks of fires etc that ruin grain supply.
Amphitheater and Gladiatorial Games
perhaps not as frequent as often assumed, i.e. 10 days/yr. in 4th cent. First permanent amphitheater= 70 CE = Colosseum after the 120 ft. statue of Nero next to the lake which serviced Nero's golden house (domus aurea). Highly stylized games / spectacles of different kinds exerted "social control & manipulation," i.e. strengthened unity of citizens, public prayers & homage to emperor.
Octavian as sole ruler (30 onwards). How did Octavian put his rule on secure footing, in contrast to Julius Caesar or others before him (p. 276-78)?
To ensure that he would continue his ruling, he acknowledged that he and Agrippa were coequals. Then he staged a meeting of the senate and handed back all authority to the senate and the people. He consented tyo remain consul and take responsibility for Spain, Gaul, Cilicia, Cyprus and Syria, Eygypt. He restored peace with the Republic. Octavian established a stable government structure with clear lines of succession. He also created a professional army and reformed the tax system to ensure financial stability. Additionally, he implemented policies that promoted family values and morality in society. By focusing on stability and order, Octavian was able to establish a long-lasting dynasty that would shape the course of Roman history for centuries to come.
pater patriae
2 BCE "Father of the Country",bestowed on Augustus in the senate in 2.
plate 10a
Agrippina the Younger as Priestess, grey Basalt (6ft. tall), found in Temple of Deified Claudius, Rome, 1st cent. CE
Explain at least three facets of Octavian's behavior—i.e. analyze three actions he took—that would have seemed shocking to a figure like Cicero, so devoted to Republican principles (p. 262-3). To what do scholars (Boatwright et al.) tend to attribute this shocking behavior?
Cicero believed that the ideal government is formed by an equal balancing and blending" of monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy. Octavian actions such as; making laws without reference to the senate or people and was to exercise all authority without jurisdiction without appeal. By switching the allegiance of the senate's own troops and giving them to himself. And his demand for consulship. Octavian wanted power.
plate 9a
Domus Transitoria (of Nero) decoration, 64 CE, scene from Homer's Odyssey.
State Religion & Imperial Cult
even in very diverse empire, there was common thread of imperial cult, which grew in prestige of priests and priestesses: very civic-centered cult w/public worship, celebrations, and festivities. Note: never imposed on the community, which was able to choose its priests etc., which they did as a way to gain prestige and curry favor w/Rome, thus there was a fair amount of variation from community to community.
primus inter pares
first among equals (why is this term better than rex or dictator?); It emphasizes civil rather than military power --praetorian guard; Elite military force formed to serve as the Emperor's bodyguard Instituted by Augustus Disbanded by Constantine in 312
princeps
first in time or order; the first, foremost, chief, the most eminent, distinguished, or noble; the first man, first person 1st phase in Roman History termed Principate
Cities and Provinces
the empire, which encompassed perhaps 50-60 million inhabitants during the first & second centuries, depended on cities & urbanization for its massive administrative complex; tripartite system of government in local cities was crucial: a) magistrates (= office holders), b) advisory council, c) citizen body; these were often set up as timocracies (i.e. w/minimum wealth requirements); peace & Roman engineering were responsible for the growth of cities: e.g. forums, aqueducts, fountains, streets, sidewalks, temples, baths, spectacle buildings, and multistoried dwellings; cities tended to be on coasts, rivers, and major inland roads, hence major benefaction of the emperors was the maintenance of roads & harbors (Augustus & Claudius).
10.2
the triumphal procession of Vespasian and Titus in 71 from the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum.
Religious Practices & Principles
the wide array & variety reflects an empire gained by military conquest, yet then consolidated and for the most part ruled by the cooption and collaboration of its indigenous peoples during the Principate."
auctorias
A private suggestion by Augustus or gesture would ensure a particular action.
second settlement
Augustus needed to make his formal authority more sweeping so he; 1. resigns consulship - Never held office again. 2. maius imperium, the supreme power, held esp by consuls and emperors, to command and administer in military, judicial, and civil affairs, supreme power. 3. tribunicia potestas; oath of the people to defend the tribunes.
Evocatio
Ceremony where the Romans call upon a deity to desert his or her town
9.2
Claudius subdues Britain, heroic nude, c. 45 CE from Aphrodisias in the province of Asian (modern-day Geyre, Turkey)
map 9.1
Roman Empire in 69 CE
9.5
Statue of Eumachia (p. 338) from Pompeii, first cent. CE;
optimus status
best condition - Augustus referring to his regime.
genius; Augustales;
the protective spirit of the emperor Augustus
Octavian
( Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus): first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Principate, which is the first phase of the Roman Empire, and is considered one of the greatest leaders in human history.
Hadrian
(117-138): spent more than half of 21yr. rule outside of Rome; improved material and administrative infrastructure of empire; had a mystical bent, interest in the arts, promoted his lover Antinous to heroic status. Insured succession for two generations b/c of the widespread rumors he faced upon his "deathbed adoption" by Trajan, which dogged his initial years as emperor, but he was more than capable. Third Jewish Revolt (132-35) w/Bar Kokhba "son of a star" devastated Judaea and exacted a heavy toll on Jews and Romans alike: in an attempt to eradicate Judaism province renamed Syria Palestina and Jews forbidden entry into Jerusalem. Hadrian created the quattuorviri consulares "four judges who had been consuls" to adjudicate cases more quickly and evenly throughout Italy (not just in Rome). H. promoted the idea of his accessibility both in and outside of Rome; took a keen interest in military matters, but renounced further expansion, e.g. "Hadrian's Wall." He died "hated by all" (Historia Augusta, Hadrian 25.7), perhaps unfairly since he had been a capable emperor
Tiberius
(14-37), early military successes; far less interested in public appearances; antagonistic relationship w/senate; promotes the likes of Lucius Aelius Sejanus (Praetorian Prefect) and then Quintus Sutorius Macro (also Praetorian Prefect); in 26 retreats to Capri, from where he runs the empire through his praetorian prefects, and never returns to Rome.
Caligula
(37-41), name means "Little Boot" (Lat: caliga, army boot), since as the son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder he was raised in the Roman army camps [the world's first identifiable "army brat"!]; started out more personable than the morose Tiberius, but suffers from mental illness and begins to present himself as divine, plans a consulship for his horse, Incitatus
Claudius
(41-54), creates two praetorian prefects; has more cordial relations w/senate, but elevates imperial "freedmen" to positions of power rankling the elite senators and equites (p. 322); much more active (and successful) militarily than his predecessors, e.g. invades Britain, subdues Judaea, Mauretania becomes a province, exploratory expeditions into Germany, etc.; helped solve the perennial problem of grain supply; perhaps murdered by Agrippina the Younger w/mushrooms.
Nero
(54-68), succeeds at 17 w/help of mother Agrippina the Younger (4th wife of Claudius), had good relations w/senate, equites, & army at first; his tutor was Lucius Aennaeus Seneca, brilliant philosopher (p. 325); other tutor: Sextus Afranius Burrus, one of the Praetorian Prefects; Nero exhibited interests in the arts early on which became problematic later; murdered his mother; brought on economic debt by spending lavishly; Pisonian conspiracy of 65 CE; in 68 w/reports of revolts on the borders of Gaul & Germany, N. was declared a public enemy (hostis) and committed suicide; somehow still the most popular of Julio-Claudians, probably b/c of his large public persona (& spurning of elites); the megalomania of the Golden House, 64 CE (p. 326; Plate 9a); great fire of Rome, 64 CE, for which N. blamed Christians.
Vespasian
(69-79): Jewish revolt / Jewish War (66-73), cf. Fig. 10.2; building projects: Temple of Peace; Flavian amphitheatre = Colosseum; Germanico-Gallic revolt demonstrated that leaving auxiliary troops in their home provinces where they had been recruited was dangerous: the Flavians changed this practice and sent auxiliary troops elsewhere; Vesp. & his son Titus helped reform citizenship and tax laws for putting the Empire back on stable footing.
Titus
(79-81): well-groomed for the position having led the suppression of the Jewish revolt, served as Praetorian Prefect, consul seven times, censor, and held tribunician power and maius imperium every year after 70. Insured smooth transition and good working relationship w/upper orders (senators / equites)—and even banished informers and trials for treason (maiestas)—but he died in under two years in office.
Domitian
(81-96): very different from father & brother,e.g. no military experience, never expected to become emperor and thus never gained self-confidence and/or patience to develop working relations w/senate. Very suspicious, encouraged informers / treason trials, by 93 wanted to be called dominus et deus ("lord and god"); assassinated for his autocratic rule in 96 by a small group without knowledge of Praetorian Guard, after which the senate instituted damnatio memoriae (destruction of the memory of Domitian).
Nerva
(96-98): senior ex-consul aged 66 when he became emperor, his motto (on his coins) was: Equality, Liberty, Safety, and Justice; established the alimenta, complex child-support scheme involving low-interest loans to Italian landowners, the interest from which funded monthly distributions to children; after Praetorians call for execution of Domitian's assassination, Nerva names Trajan, from southern Spain and now governor of upper-Germany as Caesar, i.e. next emperor.
Trajan
(98-117): combined goodwill of army w/harmonious relation to senate, considered in the tradition Optimus Princeps (Best Princeps); distributed grain to more recipients, gave lavish and frequent spectacles, extended Nerva's alimenta; appointment of curatores for special imperial tasks; Dacian Wars 101-02; 105-06 (cf. Fig. 10.4) brought great wealth, esp. gold from the Carpathian mountains; annexation of Arabia Petraea ("Rocky Arabia"); after 110 problems in Armenia wound up provoking the Parthian War, which occupied Trajan until his death (see Map 10.2) and which was costly for many reasons, including disasters both manmade & natural (earthquake in Syrian Antioch in winter 114-15); Jewish revolts of 115-17, virtual pogrom in Egypt; dies on his return from Parthia but adopts Hadrian as heir, to whom he had been guardian in his youth, also from Italica in southern Spain: "as a cultured and prominent senator, [Hadrian] combined military and civil talents."
battle of philippi
42 BCE, and the deaths of Cassius and Brutus, which really mark the end of the Republic; In October 42 BC the Roman Republic committed suicide. Near the town of Philippi in northern The Battle of Philippi marked a critical moment in the demise of the Roman Republic. This, in many ways, was where the Republic breathed its last and could not be resurrected. With the suicides of Cassius and Brutus, but also the deaths of many other notable figures desperate to restore the Republic, the idea of restoring Rome to the constitution of old withered away. 23 October 42 BC was when the Republic died.
deification of Julius Caesar
42 BCE, making Octavian the "son of a god" (divi filius); the senate had him deified posthumously. Julius Caesar's recognition as a god of the Roman state in January 42 bce enhanced Octavian's prestige as son of a god.
Second Triumverate
43 BCE, w/Octavian, Marc Antony, and Lepidus: increase their power and control a government. The triumvirate was a magistracy which came into being through the passing of a law, the lex Titia, through a popular assembly. It was constitutional in form. The magistracy was 'the three men for the making of the Republic'. Those three men were Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. The title recalls the dictatorship of Sulla and the closest equivalent of the position of the triumvirs was that of dictator.
Augustus
63 BCE-14 CE): In 46 BC, Caesar won the civil war and was named dictator of Rome. To secure his position, he needed an heir. With no son of his own, he adopted Augustus.Caesar Augustus was one of ancient Rome's most successful leaders who led the transformation of Rome from a republic to an empire. During his reign, Augustus restored peace and prosperity to the Roman state and changed nearly every aspect of Roman life.
Year of the Four Emperors
68-69 (p. 327-29): Galba, Otho, Vitellius, & Vespasian (= novus homo) fight a civil war for control of the empire; Tacitus, Histories 1.4: "the secret of the empire ... emperors could be made elsewhere than Rome." I.e. becoming princeps depended on military might first, then currying (social / political) favor in Rome later. Vespian wins because he proves himself capable
******9. What changes did Augustus make to an increasingly professional army to insure its stability: how many legions were there? what role did the centurions come to play that was different from before (291-94)? Was the "oath of loyalty" significant here?
All legionaries would be volunteers citizens who were committed to serving for a fixed number of years, if they remained loyal they would receive an honorable discharge and a fixed bounty payment. They could not legally marry while they were legionnaires. Their services were for 15 years. Prior the centurions had sided with their men during mutanies so to stop this he paid them much more money to stop them wanting to support mutineers in the future. For fear of his safety he required that all soldiers have an oath to his family and not their officers. It did appear to be successful in creating a strong bond.
The great 18th-cent. English historian Edward Gibbon praised the period of Roman history between 96-180 as "the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous." Why reason might he have to say that? This is a question about the post-domitianic era (96 CE) ushered in first by Nerva and Trajan and continued by a succession of responsible emperors.
All the emperors of this period made a point of deferring to their peers, who gained more marks of status. Ever more responsible administration was linked to peace and prosperity; child support schemes, seemingly aimed at bettering the lives of those of lower status, were established; urbanization was liberally encouraged; and the judicial system was standardized. It had good fortune to be spared lengthy warfare with external foes. Gibbon based this claim on the ancient literary sources. Subsequent rulers of Domitian appeared much more pleasant. Evidence paints the picture of a kind and benevolent governemnt characterized by harmony, and by a principle of the adoption of the most meritous emperor.
8.12
Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae, p. 304) Altar voted by the Senate to mark his return to Rome from Spain and Gaul. A annual sacrifice was to be held there.
pax Augusta
Augustan peace
The Roman family in the Augustan period. How do you explain the emperor's moral legislation of 18/17 (p. 281f.)? In one law penalties were introduced, first, for the failure to have children; then, restrictions were placed on marriage among the different classes (e.g. senators could not marry beneath themselves, e.g. ex-slaves or entertainers); third, there were rewards for having children. In another law, adultery was severely punished. What was different about these laws in terms of how Romans exercised personal morality? Were they effective?
Augustus comprised legislation of 18/17 due to what he considered was a crisis. He believed that Roman citizens showed no respect for marriage and its vital role for rearing children . Family was an important part of Ancient Roman culture and society. Much of Roman law was written around protecting the basic structure of the family. The laws differed in that what was normally considered a private matter between two individuals now became a public matter. It was disruptive and many people did not follow as there was no one to prosecute them. So therefore, it was not effective.
What changes did Augustus make to the senate and the role of the equites in Roman public life and how did these redound to increasing the highly centralized power of the princeps (288-91)?
Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members. He made 1,000,000 sesterces the minimum level of wealth for any senator. Throughout the principate the equestrians were a powerful body of men who played key roles in running the Empire. They were procurators who organized taxation of the provinces and payment of the troops, civilian officials, centurions, military tribunes in the legions and prefects of auxiliary units. He created more higher positions in the army to the equites which was needed to hold a post in the Princeps.
Reflect on Trajan's rule (98-117), in particular his campaigns to expand the borders of the empire in Dacia, Armenia, and Parthia (cf. p. 367f.). How would you evaluate the period of his rule in this regard? Was expansion always beneficial?
From some perspectives his expansion into Dacia may seen glorious and beneficial. Rome gained huge amounts of wealth, the emperor and his army performed amazing feats, the new province seems to have made a lourishing part of the empire. With Parthia, the Roman troops were overexpanded and it diverted Roman attention.
******12. Transformation of the city of Rome. Augustus is said to have claimed that "he found Rome a city of brick, and left it one of marble." On what basis might he have claimed this? I.e. what were his most significant building projects and how did they serve to glorify his rule? Moreover, how did they fit into the emperor's desire to place himself at the center of Roman public life (religion, law, politics, etc.)?
His claim that "he found Rome a city of brick, and left it one of marble could be seen as a metaphor for him transforming a republic into an empire. However, he did transform Rome from a city filled with bricks and build large structures made of marble. Augustus commissioned several large marble structures; Rome's now vast empire needed better organization. It was carved up into provinces, those on the fringes were vulnerable to foreign powers and governed directly by Augustus himself, he divided Rome into 14 regiones (wards) and these into vici (precincts), each with officials who performed both administrative and religious functions. Augustus targeted religion too, constructing several temples and reinstituting old festivals. His boldest move was 12 BCE when he declared himself the pontifex maximus, the chief high priest. From then on, it became a natural position of the Roman emperor and was no longer an elected office and he built many temples like the Temple of Apollo Palatinus, He built his own Forum Augustum to complement the congested older Forum Romanum, the historic heart of the Roman government, was more ostentatious. It was more spacious and monumental than its predecessor, adorned with a series of statues. In the center was and that of Augustus himself, placed in the center on a triumphal chariot.,
How did Octavian conquer Sextus Pompey and eliminate Lepidus? What did his victory at Naulochus tend to mean for the triumvirate? Especially when contrasted with Marc Antony's devastating loss in Parthia in the same year?
In 36 he attempted to raise Sicily in revolt against Octavian, but his soldiers deserted his cause. He was removed from even nominal membership in the triumvirate, and, although he was allowed to remain pontifex maximus until his death, he was forced to retire from public life. Octavian gained the loyalty of his adoptive father's veteran troops and loyalists. n 43 BCE, the three grandees pooled their armies and resources intending to avenge Caesar's murder and restore the stability and prosperity of the Roman Republic. The result was a political alliance known as the Second Triumvirate; the legalized murder allowed the triumviri to eliminate all their potential enemies. Then, in 37 BCE, Octavian's friend and admiral Agrippa defeated the fleet of Pompey the Great's last surviving son, Sextus Pompey, The victory of Octavian at Naulochus in 36 BC marked a significant turning point for the Triumvirate. The battle resulted in the defeat of Sextus Pompey, who had been a major threat to the Triumvirate's power. Octavian's victory solidified his position as the dominant member of the Triumvirate and gave him control over Rome's grain supply, which was crucial for maintaining public support. It also allowed him to consolidate his power and establish himself as the sole ruler of Rome, paving the way for his eventual rise to become Augustus, Rome's first emperor.
Name at least three elements of the second triumvirate that were different from the first.
It was a legal entity explicitly endorsed by the Senate, not a private agreement among strongmen. It divided the Roman provinces into spheres of influence, with Lepidus taking Spain and Africa, Antony taking the East, and Octavian taking the West. three-man ruling committee
Diversity
Local languages and culture—many different languages were spoken in the provinces, especially Greek, which was the (other) official lang. of the eastern empire; still local lang. & practices persisted, e.g. Aramaic in Judaea.
Sextus Pompey
Naulochus (36 BCE); Roman military leader who, throughout his life, upheld the cause of his father, Pompey the Great, against Julius Caesar and his supporters during the last civil wars of the Roman RepublicThe victory of Agrippa, admiral of Octavian, marked the end of the Pompeian resistance to the Second Triumvirate.
Analyze the rule of Nero (54-68), p. 324-27: what are the driving interests of the emperor? what are some of his more monstrous acts (name at least three)? what are some of the factors that ultimately brought about his downfall?
Nero's interests were in the arts and showmanship rather than in government and the military and this became a problem as he grew elder and more headstrong. He had his mother killed in 59 in an elaborate ruse involving a shipwreck. In 62 he had gone too far with his spending and he had to devalue coinage and revive the laws of treason. He forced Seneca into retirement and suicide in 65. In 68 reports of revolts in Gaul and Germany came in the senate finally disowned him, declaring him a public enemy (hostis). He divorced and murdered Octavia, which the public did not like. He was rumored to have caused the Great Fire in 64 which he blamed on the Christians and that backfired.
who got which provinces in second triumverate
Octavian controls Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Italy and eventually Spain; Antony rules the Greek East, including Egypt; Lepidus controls Gaul and Further and Nearer Spain. how did they raise money to support the massive amounts of troops they were assigned (20 legions each for Oct. & Ant., i.e. roughly 80-100,000 men or 2/3 of all legionaries in the Roman world).
legal ramifications of second triumverate
Rights of the individual were suspended. These included protection from violence and rights over property. A Roman citizen could be subject to summary violence up to and including death. The powers of the tribune to intervene against magisterial action were removed. The triumvirs had the right to lead armies, seemingly without the territories in which they held that power being defined. The triumvirs take control of the financial and military machinery of government. They appointed persons to military commands and as governors in the provinces. They seem to have designated magistrates for several years in advance.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
Roman general and statesman who formed the Second Triumvirate alongside Octavian and Mark Antony during the final years of the Roman Republic.
marcus vipsanius agrippa
Roman general, statesman, and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law, and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus.
Mark Antony
Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autocratic Roman Empire.
8.7a, b, c, d, e, f
Roman portraits of the first century BCE. Since competition for public life made Romans to promote themselves so images were created of them.
Intellectual Life
Rome became in the first cent. CE a juggernaut of intellectual innovation, esp. in technology & engineering (cement, arch, etc.); literary activity (including didactic poetry) was a mark of status and even emperors & members of the imperial family engaged in it (e.g. Germanicus, Claudius, Agrippina the Younger); many practical treatises were written by the likes of Columella (on agriculture) and Pliny the Elder (Natural History of the universe in 37 books) as well as grammar studies & rhetorical exercises: it was an age of florid rhetoric! Schools and state libraries were promoted throughout the empire.
Write an analytical essay about Roman religious practices and principles in the early empire, including the most important religio-historical development of this period, the Imperial Cult (p. 339-45). What are the salient features of this vibrant polytheism and what conditions at Rome made possible their survival? Which religions were held suspect and why (e.g. druidism, Judaism, Christianity)?
Rome's diversity is most reflected in hte wide array of religious beliefs and practices in the polytheistic empire. No belief was forced on citizens or subjects. Rome often accepted a foreign deity. The quindeciviri sacris daciundis was a board of 15 men in cahrge of religious observances. Druidism was a resistance to Rome in Gaul and Britian and was not accepted. Judaism was monotheistic and had a strict lifestyle with a large following and was rejected. Christianity was monotheiztic and a sect of Judaism and was blamed for great fire.
The problem of succession (p. 283-88): how was the principate to carry on after Augustus? How did
The Principate was a form of government established by Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. After his death in AD 14, the question of how to carry on the Principate arose. Augustus had left behind a well-organized system of government, but it was not clear who would succeed him as emperor. The solution was found in the concept of adoption, which allowed an emperor to choose his successor and pass on his power and authority. Tiberius was chosen as Augustus' successor through adoption and continued the Principate with few changes. He maintained stability and expanded the empire's territory through military conquests. However, Tiberius faced challenges from political opponents and struggled with maintaining public support. After Tiberius' death, several emperors followed in quick succession, each facing their own challenges and crises. Caligula's reign was marked by extravagance and cruelty, while Nero's reign saw rebellion and economic turmoil. Despite these difficulties, the Principate continued for over two centuries after Augustus' death. The system proved resilient enough to survive even through periods of instability and crisis. Ultimately, it was only with the rise of Diocletian that a new form of government emerged in Rome - one that would eventually lead to its transformation into a Christian empire.
quindecimviri sacris faciundis
The board of 15 men in charge of ritual observances why were Druidism It functioned as a source of resistance to Rome in Gaul and Britian, Claudius and his successors undertook to extirpate it, killing its preists and destroying shrines , Judaism, Gave continuing problems sbecasue of the number of its adherents, their spread throughout the Roman world, their strict lifestyle, and the antiquity of their doctrones and Christianity considered to be suspect? Appeared to be a sect of Judaism Nero blames them for the Great Fire
What was the effect on civil society and the running of the Roman government that the Flavians-Vespasian, Titus, & Domitian-started to use more senators and equites, rather than freedmen, in the imperial service (p. 350)? How is this related to Vespasian's role in restoring the senate to its former total of 600 (from a low of about 200 caused by Nero's treason trials and civil war of 68-69)? I.e. where did many of the "new men" come from and what was their attitude toward traditional Roman values like virtus and thrift? Why did Vespasian style himself a founder of a new Rome? How did he do so? What other benefits did Vespasian in particular and the Flavians generally institute at Rome that helped put the empire on stable footing after the profligacy of the Neronian years?
The change of senators and equites rather than freedmen in the imperial service sent a clear signal that to rule the Roman world was not the exclusive prerogative of one individual or family. More subjects than ever actively participated in thier own government. Many of the new men in the Flavian senate came from north Itly and the nearer western provinces. They were typially quick to embrace Roman traditional values as service to the state virtus and thrift. Much of Vespasian's imperial imagery, especially on cons, marks him as the founder of a new Rome.
The "republic restored": how genuine is this claim (p. 279f.)?
The first settlement at the time allowed the Republic traditional institutions and offices to function with some degree of independence and stability. This new phase in Roman history was call Principate. Augustus removed all displays of authority, and no longer intervened into senate business. He was able to have them do what he wanted by a simple gesture. Keeping his power more constrained. The Roman "Republic Restored" was a period of political transition in ancient Rome. It followed the collapse of the Roman Republic and the rise of Julius Caesar as dictator. After Caesar's assassination, his adopted son Octavian emerged as the leader of Rome and established a new form of government known as the Principate. This system combined elements of both monarchy and republic, with power centralized in the hands of the emperor while still maintaining some semblance of representative government. The "Republic Restored" marked a significant turning point in Roman history and set the stage for centuries to come.
Latin literature in the late republican / Augustan periods was characterized by two features: 1. literary patronage and 2. "creative imitation" (of earlier Greek models in particular). Who were some of the more important poets of this period and what did they write? Theophanes and Mytilene wrote about Pompey.
Theophanes and Mytilene wrote about Pompey. Cicero- On His Own Consulship Lucretius - On the Nature of Things Catullus Vergil - Aeneid Homers Iliad and Odyssey Horace and Ovid Odes
The Empire and its expansion (p. 294-99). Is there a contradiction in bringing peace and being willing to wage campaigns to expand the empire? Where were the empires (natural) borders when the princeps died in 14 CE? What was the emperor's advice to Tiberius, his successor?
When the Princeps died in 14 CE, the Roman Empire had expanded to its greatest extent, stretching from modern-day Spain to Egypt and from Britain to Mesopotamia. The natural borders of the empire were defined by geographical features such as mountains, rivers, and deserts. The Rhine and Danube rivers marked the northern and eastern borders respectively, while the Sahara Desert acted as a barrier in the south. To the west, the Atlantic Ocean provided a natural boundary for Roman control in Spain and Portugal. In Africa, the Nile River served as a border between Roman Egypt and Nubia. The Euphrates River marked Rome's eastern frontier with Parthia. Augustus advised Tiberius to maintain peace and stability in the empire by avoiding unnecessary wars and conflicts. He also urged him to be cautious in appointing officials and to choose them based on their merit rather than their social status. Augustus further advised Tiberius to respect the Senate and work closely with them in governing the empire. He warned him against becoming too autocratic or tyrannical as it could lead to rebellion and unrest among the people. In addition, Augustus advised Tiberius to focus on improving the economy by promoting trade and agriculture. He also encouraged him to invest in public works such as roads, bridges, and aqueducts
first settlement
allowed the Republic traditional institutions and offices to function with independence and stability unknown prior.
figure 8.1
among the most famous coins in history: a silver denarius minted for Brutus by L. Plaetorius Cestianus in 42 BCE w/the head of Brutus (bearded) on one side and the image of the pileus (= cap of freedom for manumitted slaves!) between two daggers and an inscription saying EID MAR = Ides of March;
massacre of the Teutoberg Forest Germany
an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their auxiliaries, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus.
laudatio turiae
an inscription at Rome praising an upper-class Roman woman (probably not Turia) in a eulogy delivered by her husband, c. late first cent. BCE; ("In praise of Turia") is a tombstone engraved with a carved epitaph that is a husband's eulogy of his wife.
Other Urban Amenities (thanks to Roman engineering)
aqueducts & baths = major component of Roman, imperial urban life.
Education
based on thorough knowledge of the past & skill to reshape past for the present; memorization was essential, e.g. passages of Cicero or Vergil; cultural and literary movement of the Second Sophistic (c. 50-300 CE) peaks in Antonine period emphasizes public speaking & rhetorical flourish, nostalgia for greatness of ancient Greece, yet keenly aware of present political realities.
Theaters and Processions
beginnings / endings of religious & civic processions at theaters = prominent public spaces w/large seating areas.
figure 8.2
bust of Marc Antony
urban cohorts
created by Augustus to counterbalance the enormous power of the Praetorian Guard in the city of Rome and serve as a police service.
Imperial Cult
developed on the model of Hellenistic Greek ruler cult, esp. Alexander the Great and other dominant rulers, who commanded cults, temples, altars, priests, public sacrifices, and games, i.e. visible signs of unmistakable power; it was only a matter of time / due course that Romans would adopt these practices, beginning in the east and then, eventually, even at Rome, where Julius Caesar emphasized his connection to divinity and was even decreed a temple in the forum romanum; thus the appellation divi filius = "son of a god" became important for Octavian / Augustus, who as pontifex maximus after 12 BCE became intermediary between the people and the gods; after his death there were tributes, which turned into rituals, which required temples and priests; after Augustus the imperial cult spread rapidly: it was clearly an expression of power for the Roman emperor vis-à-vis his subjects.
Roman Cities and the Empire's Peoples
population of Rome c. one million; empire perhaps 50-70 million, w/20% in cities (very high); in large part, it did not matter to the large majority of citizens who ruled at Rome
8.9a, b, c, d:
representations of Octavian / Augustus from different periods signifying different things
octavia
second wife of Antony; Octavia was the elder sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus
Army
standing land-army of 150,000 legionaries + 150,000 auxiliaries, supported by naval installations in Italy and southern Gaul; paying of army led to monetarization of Roman state (p. 330); the army became a vehicle of social change and inexorable Romanization of the areas it occupied (e.g. Rhine & Danube rivers, Northern Spain, North Africa); this was the age of the pax Augusta (peace of Augustus or Roman emperor).
Economy
without expanding borders & tax-base new sources of income were needed; financial crisis of 33 CE (p. 331); extent of Roman commerce: India, Sri Lanka, South Korea (!), sometimes maritime, but often via caravan through western Asia.
imperial cult
worship of the emperor and personified Roma (p. 305); The imperial cult or emperor worship honored the emperor during his reign (common in the eastern provinces), or in Rome after his death. Emperors in Rome could be declared divus after their death, thereby elevating them to the level of the gods or demigods.
