MCAT Psych/Sociology, MCAT Psychology/Sociology (The Princeton Review) Glossary + Misc Terms

The authoritarian personality

Obedient to superiors but don't have much sympathy to those inferior to themselves (oppressive). Rigid thinkers, inflexible with viewpoints. Use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves. HARD to change.

Distal stimuli

Objects and events out in the world around you

Principle of common region

Objects sharing a common background will be perceived as a group even if they would be separated by eh principles of nearness and/or similarity

Case-control study

Observational study where 2 people differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor

Obsessions vs compulsions

Obsessions: repeated intrusive uncontrollable thoughts/impulses that cause distress Compulsions: repeated physical/mental behaviors that are done in RESPONSE to an obsession

Memory construction

Occurs during retrieval. Memory is a construct of the mind and therefore can be updated with new info and experiences.

Fundamental movement stage

Occurs from age 2-7. During this time, child is learning to manipulate his body through actions like running, jumping, throwing. Necessary for proper motor development

Categorical self

Occurs once babies realize they are separate. It is becoming aware that even though we're separate, we exist in the world with others. Babies first learn AGE and GENDER, then SKILLS and SIZE. They learn concepts like traits, comparisons, and careers last.

Source monitoring

Occurs when a person attributes a memory to a particular source. May not always be accurate. Memory construction may follow, where a person converts their inference into memory. Also can lead to incorrect construction of memories that never actually happened.

Peripheral route processing

Occurs when an individual does not think deeply to evaluate an argument (occurs when a person isn't very invested in an argument/has no knowledge). If a person is using this route, is more likely to change attitude based on situational cues (strength of argument d/n matter)

Non associative learning

Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus

Amalgamation

Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

Spreading activation

Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory

Individual discrimination

Occurs when one person behaves negatively toward another because of that person's membership in a specific social group or category

Sampling bias

Occurs when participants are not equally likely to be in each condition

Incongruence

Occurs when people encounter experiences in life that contradict their self-concepts. Can help a person learn what their true values are and then become healthy again by modifying their self-concept.

De-individuation

Occurs when people lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd

According to humanistic theory, what causes psychological distress in an individual?

Occurs when the actual self, ideal self, and perceived self (self concept) are different from one other

Drug overdoses

Often occur when a person takes a new drug at a high dose, or when a regular drug user takes their normal level of drug dose in an unfamiliar location--> no external cues to alert body that they're getting a dose.

Positive transfer

Older information can facilitate the learning of new information

Side-effect discrimination

One institution can unintentionally influence another institution negatively.

Bystander effect

Onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume someone else will help. Willingness to help is inversely proportional to # of people present

Big 5 Model of Traits

Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism (OCEAN)

Skinner box

Operant conditioning chamber for animals, where food is dispensed to animals only after carrying out a specific behavior. Sometimes included areas of electrical shock, used for animals to learn to avoid.

Opiates vs opiods

Opiates = naturally occuring (morphine and codeine) Opiods = semisynthetic derivatives (oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin) - bind opiod receptors in peripheral and CNS causing decreased rxn to pain & sense of euphoria

Visual pathway

Optic nerve - optic chiasm - optic tract - Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus - visual cortex - also inputs to superior colliculus

According to Freud, adult personality is largely determined by what three psychosexual stages?

Oral, anal, phallic

Semantic networks

Organization of information in networks of meaningfully related memories

Utilitarian organizations

Organization where members get paid for their efforts (ex. businesses)

Normative organizations

Organizations motivated based on morally relevant goals (ex. MADD)

Coercive organizations

Organizations where members do not have a choice in joining (ex. prisons)

Retinal disparity

Our eyes are 2.5 inches apart, so they create slightly different images that the brain puts together to give a solid image with an idea of DEPTH.

The self as a social construct

Our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people

Public conformity

Outwardly changing behaviors to align with group, but maintaining inner core beliefs

Inclusive fitness

Overall fitness, considering both individual's own progeny as well as the offspring of its close relatives. Can increase it with altruism

Intersectionality

Overlapping of social categories such as race, class, gender as they apply to a given individual or group. Creates interdependent systems of discrimination/disadvantage

Acute stress disorder

PTSD symptoms that appear for a month or less

Visual processing

Parallel processing occurs at the level of bipolar and ganglion cells in the eye. Visual info is then split into two distinct pathways: one that detects motion and one that detects form, and these pathways project to separate areas of the LGN and visual cortex. From there, feature detection occurs via serial processing of the information.

Types of Schizophrenia

Paranoid: psychosis involves hallucinations/delusions Disorganized: Flat/inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, negative symptoms Catatonic: Negative symptoms predominant Undifferentiated: Basic criteria are met, but symptoms do not fit a subtype Residual: Acute phase has resolved, but person still appears odd and suffers some symptoms

bradykinesia, resting termor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity, shuffling gait are all symptoms of what

Parkinson's disease

What is the most sustainable way to establish a learned response?

Partial reinforcement

Reward pathway

Pathway within the limbic system that is associated with feelings of reward in day-to-day life and the feelings of pleasure that lead to craving and addition. Activation of this pathway by addictive drugs leads to increase levels of dopamine.

Proximal stimuli

Patterns of stimuli from objects and events that actually reach your senses

Cultural universals

Patterns/traits that are common to all people. Tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs (eg. securing food and shelter)

Incentive theory

People are motivated by external rewards, and get psychological feeling of pleasure that comes with receiving an incentive DISTINCT from operant conditioning because it focuses on the internal motivations of the individual rather than their outward behavior

Need based theory

People are motivated by the desire to fulfill unmet needs

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

People are much more likely to agree to a large request if they first agree to a smaller one

Mere presence

People are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business

Cognitive theory

People behave based on what they predict will yield the most favorable outcome

Generalized anxiety disorder

People feel tense or anxious much of the time about many issues, but do not experience panic attacks.

Rural rebound

People getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas

Belief perseverance

People hold on to their initial beliefs even when rational argument would suggest they are incorrect

Appraisal view of stress

People make two appraisals which determine their overall emotional reaction to the event.

Justification of effort

People may modify their attitudes to match their behaviors

Mere exposure effect

People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli (aka familiarity breeds fondness)

Continuity Theory

People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives. As they age, they make decision to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

People understand the world through language and language shapes how we experience the world

Aggregate

People who exists in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

Dependency theory

Periphery countries export resources to core countries, and don't have means to develop

Obsessive compulsive personality disorder

Person does not have any true obsessions/compulsions, but may instead accumulate money and worthless objects. Person is perfectionistic, rigid, and stubborn

Dependent personality disorder

Person feels a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself

Narcissistic personality disorder

Person feels grandiosely self-important, and feels desperate need for admiration. Feels envy toward/from others. Lacks empathy for others, feels entitled, arrogant, and haughty

Avoidant personality disorder

Person feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism

Antisocial personality disorder

Person has history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including aggression and rule violation.

Schizotypal personality disorder

Person has several traits that causes interpersonal problems, including inappropriate affect, paranoid/magical thinking, off beliefs

Paranoid personality disorder

Person mistrusts and misinterprets others' motives and actions without sufficient cause

Borderline personality disorder

Person suffers from enduring/recurrent instability in his impulses, mood, and self image. Results in instability in behavior and relationships with other. Person feels empty with an unstable sense of self, terrified of abandonment,

Cognitive appraisal

Personal interpretation of the situation that triggers stress

Trait theory of personality

Personality consists of a set of traits which are characteristics that vary between people and are STABLE over the course of the lifetime. Key: NO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. Very little personal control over personality, and personality is hereditable.

Behaviorist theory of personality

Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment. Individuals have learning experiences through their lifetimes that lead to predictable behaviors (behaviors make up the personality). People are born as BLANK STATES, and environmental reinforcement/punishment determine the personality. KEY: Environment shapes personality

Surface traits

Personality traits that are evident from a person's behavior

Verbal info is processed in the:

Phonological loop

Phonology: Morphology: Semantics: Syntax: Pragmatics:

Phonology: actual sound of language - phonemes (categorical perception - separating phonemes from other sounds) Morphology: structure of words (morphemes - building blocks Semantics: association of meaning with a word Syntax: how words are put together to form sentences Pragmatics: dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge (prosody - rhythm, cadence, inflection)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological- food, sex, etc. Safety- physical/emotional security Belongingness- Socialness Esteem- Approval and recognition Self-actualization- Equation, hobbies, religion

Arousal

Physiological/psychological tension

formal operation stage

Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning

preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7; during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts

Pathway of sound (ear structures)

Pinna (auricle) - external auditory canal - tympanic membrane (eardrum) - ossicles (malleus [hammer], incus [anvil], stapes [stirrup]) - oval window or round window - membranous labyrinth (cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals)

Albert Bandura

Pioneer in the field of observational learning. Demonstrated the learning of aggressive behaviors in children after watching violent videos

Primary groups

Play a more important role in an individual's life; usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term emotional ways. Serve EXPRESSIVE functions

Hippocampus

Plays an important role in the initial consolidation of declarative memory and long term potentiation.

Affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions. It is an attempt to limit discrimination, but has been accused of perpetuating reverse discrimination

affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination

Freud's Theory of development

Posits stages of development in terms of the impulses of the id (and overcoming these impulses) Oral - 1st year- Nursing, oral stimulation-Requires development of trust and capacity of delayed gratification Anal - 2nd year- Toilet training- Allows the development of self control Phallic- 3-6 years- Gender and sexual identification- Allows internalization of society's rules and development of superego Latent- 7-12 years- Social development & suppression o sexual impulses- Allows children to focus on other developmental tasks Genital-Adolescence-Mature sexuality & return of sexual urges

Erikson's Theory of Development

Posits stages of development in terms of the interaction between self and society experienced across society, with each stage presenting a crisis that must be resolved 1st year - Trust vs mistrust (ability to trust) 2nd year: Autonomy vs shame/doubt (ability to self-care) 3-6 years: Initiative vs guilt (ability to carry out a plan) 7-12 years: Industry vs inferiority (ability to learn new tasks) Adolescence: Identity vs role confusion (stable identity formation) Young adulthood: Intimacy vs isolation (ability to form relationships w/ others) Adulthood: Generativity vs stagnation (ability to put energy into others) Maturity: Integrity vs despair (determining how well they have lived)

Piaget's Theory of Development

Posits that all children develop cognitively by experimenting with their environment and passing through same set of developmental stages. 0-2 years: Sensorimotor -Children learn to separate themselves from the world -Learn object permanence 2-7 years: Preoperational -Children learn to use language -Children think literally and egocentrically -Children unable to take on perspectives of others 7-11 years: Concrete Operational -Children develop inductive reasoning -Understand conservation of mass 11 years +: Formal Operational -Children develop deductive reasoning -Can think theoretically and philosophically -Children at this stage are able to reach post-conventional moral reasoning

Racism

Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another

Death instinct

Psychoanalytic concept--> drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself/others

P.E.N.

Psychoticism: a measure of nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion: a measure of tolerance for social interactions and stimulation Neuroticism: a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations

Dreaming occurs during ________ sleep.

REM

Racial formation theory

Race is a social construct, with no basis in actual genetic differences

Fundamentalism

Reaction to secularization, by going back to strict religious beliefs. Creates social problems when people become too extreme.

Self-actualization

Realizing one's human potential

Primacy effect

Recall of items at the beginning of the list is strongest

Recency effect

Recall of items at the end of the list is strongest

Negative symptoms of psychosis

Reduced/absent emotional expression, reduced quantity/fluency of speech, reduced initiative or will to do things (avolition)

Procedural memory

Refers to unconscious abilities to remember how to perform a particular task

Circadian rhythm

Regulates the body's functions on a predictable schedule. Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus is associated with:

Regulating the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)

Is reinforcement or punishment a more effective form of conditioning?

Reinforcement---> punishment does not have a long lasting effect

Chunking

Reorganizing large number of items into a smaller number of "chunks". A process that allows a larger amount of info to be maintained in working memory

Trial and error

Repeated, unsystematic attempts to solve a problem until the desired outcome is achieved

Freud's defence mechanisms (8)

Repression: unconscious forgetting Suppression: conscious forgetting Regression: returning to an earlier stage of development Reaction formation: an unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite Projection: attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else Rationalization: justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviours Displacement: changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same Sublimation: channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction

Availability heuristic

Rule of thumb where we use examples that come to mind to apply to a new problem.

Norms are reinforced by _________.

Sanctions

Superego

Seeks psychological rewards/moralistic goals to serve a higher purpose. Feelings of pride and self-love are sought by the superego, and guilt/inferiority are avoided

Attention

Selects sensory information for perceptual processing and conscious awareness. Any information not paid attention to will only be processed unconsciously.

Educational stratification

Separation of students into groups on the basis of academic achievement

General adaptation syndrome

Sequence of physiological responses to stress 1) alarm - sympathetic nervous system, cortisol levels increase 2) resistance - continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic NS to remain engaged to fight the stressor 3) exhaustion - body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity - individual becomes more susceptible to illness and medical conditions

Compliance

Situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. Aka going along with behavior without questioning why. Goes away when rewards/punishments removed

Group produced reduction of individual effort is a result of _____________.

Social loafing

Malthusian theory

Starvation is the inevitable result of population growth, because the population increases at a geometric rate while food supply can only increase arithmetically

The effects of alcohol on the nervous system

Stimulates GABA and dopamine systems--> creates feelings of reduced anxiety and minor euphoria

Welfare capitalism

System where most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society.

Signal Detection Theory

The ability to detect a meaningful stimulus in the midst of vast amounts of sensory info increases an organism's chances of survival. There is always some amount of error in the process of distinguishing signal from noise, but a higher hit rate will increase sensitivity by the organism.

Race

The biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual

Information-processing model

The brain receives a stimulus input, process the stimulus, and selects and output function.

Principle of continuity

The brain will perceive an ambitious stimulus according to the simplest possible continuous forms

Conjunction fallacy

The co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one.

Consolidation

The conversion of working memory into long term memory

Stranger anxiety

The fear a child feels for faces that are not recognized by their developed schemas

Self-efficacy

The feeling of being able to carry out an action successfully

genital stage

The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers

Selective attention

The focus of attention on one particular stimulus or task at the expulsion of other stimuli. Limitation: potentially important information may be discarded and missed

The hippocampus is critical in:

The formation of NEW memories (and emotional, flashbulb memories)

genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism

Ego depletion

The idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up and you'll have less to use in the future

Expressive aphasia

The inability to produce language ( despite being able to understand language)

Infantile amnesia

The inability to remember memories before age 3.5

Receptive aphasia

The inability to understand language (despite being able to hear it and produce it)

Sensitivity bias

The individual's tendency toward or against accepting evidence of a signal. It is a cognitive appraisal of input by sensory system, and can occur consciously or unconsciously.

adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body

Reciprocal determinism

The interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (individual motivational forces), and environment. Posits that people both shape and are shaped by their environments.

Stimulus discrimination

The learned lack of response to a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus

Absolute threshold

The lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be sensed and perceived. The intensity level that is detected 50% of the time. While mostly a biological trait, can change based on factors such as strong emotions or degree of subjective importance of correctly identifying a stimulus

Existential self

The most basic part of self concept. It is the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant throughout life.

Self-concept

The most personal aspect of identity. The knowledge of oneself as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations. AKA a person's view of his/her own personality. Developed and refined through interactions with others

Replacement level fertility

The number of children that a woman/couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die

Life expectancy

The number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates

Interposition

The overlapping of objects signifies positioning relative to one another. A monocular cue

Social identity

The perception of oneself as a member of certain social groups. Characteristics that are associated with the group come to be seen as part of the self. Cognitive component: categorization of oneself into a certain group Emotional component: individual's emotional attachment to the groups w/ which they identify

Constancy

The perceptual problem of distinguishing between information received by the retina and chances in the surrounding. Two types: Size--> allows a single object to be perceived as being the same size regardless of whether it is moved closer/further from the eye Shape--> allows us to know an object has the same shape regardless of how light reflects onto it

REM rebound

The phenomenon that occurs when someone misses REM sleep in a night. Causes an increase in REM sleep the next night

Groupthink

The phenomenon where a group's members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony. May cause individuals to self-censor ideas and opinions that go against group norms, or may be pressured by other group members to keep silent on these opinions.

Instinctual drift

The phenomenon whereby established habits learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors

Fecundity

The potential reproductive capacity of a female

fecundity

The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population

Cultural relativism

The practice of trying to understand a culture on its own terms, and to judge a culture by its own standards rather than by one's own standards

Multiculturalism

The practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture. Believes that the harmonious coexistence of separate cultures is a valuable goal, rather than encouraging all cultures to blend together through assimilation

Cortisol is:

The primary stress hormone, which increases blood glucose

Gatekeeping

The process by which a small number of people/corporations control what info is presented to the media

Cultural assimilation

The process by which an individual or group becomes part of a new culture. Can occur through a variety of means (language acquisition, gaining knowledge of social norms)

Impression management

The process of consciously making behavioral choices in order to create a specific impression in the minds of others

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of lessened response

Retrieval

The return of information stored in long-term memory into working memory for the purpose of problem-solving and guidance of behavior

Self-fulfilling prophecies

The stress and lowered expectations regarding a situation contribute to making beliefs into reality

Causation bias

The tendency to assume a cause and effect relationship

Self serving bias

The tendency to attribute one's success to internal factors and one's failures to external factors. Functions to support self esteem -Invoked by members of individualistic cultures more Here we are JUDGING OURSELVES

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to automatically favor dispositional attributions over situational ones when judging other people (assuming another person commits an action because of their personal qualities rather than environmental influences) Here we are JUDGING OTHERS

Halo effect

The tendency to believe that people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Our overall impression of a person is influenced by how we feel/think about his character

Self-reference effect

The tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves and consistent with one's self-schemas

Belief bias

The tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic

Misinformation effect

The tendency to misremember information

Stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Prejudice

The thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience. Power, prestige, and class can contribute to the effect that it has on the lives and opportunities of individuals as well as the structure of social institutions. Think: PREJUDGment about a group.

Social inequality

The unequal distribution of opportunities or treatment of individuals within a society based on various demographic categories

Perception

The use of sensory information and pre-existing knowledge to create a functional representation of the world

Social stratification

The way that people are categorized in society

STRONG social constructionism

The whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits. All knowledge is social construct and no brute facts. There are no facts that just exist.

Gardner's Theory of Intelligence

Theorizes that everyone has a variety of intelligences that are used in combination to solve problems and perform tasks. Intelligence has multiple domains: Linguistic Musical Logical-mathematical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal

James-Lange Theory

Theory of emotion that states that an external stimulus elicits a physiological response, and that emotional experience depends on recognition and interpretation this physical reaction Physiological and behavior response---> cognitive awareness--> emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

Theory of emotion that states that emotional feelings and physiological reactions to stimuli are experienced SIMULTANEOUSLY physiological and cognitive appraisal simultaneously--> emotion

Place theory

Theory of hearing. Our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane

Elaboration Likelihood Model

There are two routes to attitude formation: peripheral route processing and central route processing. Each route is defined by the likelihood that the person who receives an argument will elaborate on it by generating his/her own thoughts and opinions in response

Motion parallax

Things farther away move slower, while things closer to us move faster

Self-referencing

Thinking about new information and how it relates to you personally. Form of encoding

Skeptical perspective

Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits

Group polarization

Through the interactions and discussions of a group, the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members

Cardinal traits

Traits that are characteristics that direct most of the person's activities (the person's dominant traits that influence all of our behaviors)

Secondary traits

Traits that are more preferences/attitudes

Social reproduction

Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next

Positive control

Treatment with known response

Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence

Triarchic theory of intelligence that emerges from a person's adaptive abilities Analytical intelligence Creative intelligence Practical intelligence

Schacter-Singer theory

Two components of emotional response: physiological arousal and situational cues. Must evaluate BOTH before cognitive appraisal of emotion physiological arousal--> cognitive appraisal of situation--> emotion

Game Theory

Use of mathematical models to represent complex decision making in which the actions of other group members must be taken into account. Success of an individual in the "multiplayer game" depends not only on his or her own strategy but also on the strategies and decisions of the other "players". The most successful strategies result in greater fitness and will be favored by natural selection

Behavioral therapy

Uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction. Commonly used to desensitize anxiety patients to phobias or anxiety-provoking stimuli

Psychoanalytic therapy

Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his/her unconscious motives, in order to help the patient be more able to choose behaviors consciously. Therapy sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives and reducing anxiety through self insight through analysis and interpretation.

False memories

Using imagination to create inaccurate memories

Mnemonic device

Using unrelated stimuli or words to help you remember information. Encoding strategy

Feature detection theory

We activate different areas of the brain when looking at different features of an image. Allows for parallel processing of a visual stimulus.

Actor-observer bias

We are victims of circumstance, but others are willful actors. Form of fundamental attribution error.

Inattentional blindness

We aren't aware of things not in our visual filed when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field

Resource model of attention

We have a limited pool of resource son which to draw when performing tasks. Practicing a task diminishes task resource demand

Principle of closure

We perceive whole shapes even when they are not actually present in the stimulus

Secularization

Weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines

Subject bias

When a study participate intentionally/unintentionally reports distorted measurements

Extinctive burst

When an individual no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically)

Observer bias

When an observer intentionally/unintentionally records a distorted measurement

Global aphasia

When both production and understanding of language is damaged

External validity

Whether the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. Protected for by randomization of sample and control of situational variables

Cognition

Wide range of higher level internal mental activities (eg. logical reasoning, language) that influence external behaviors

Modeling

Witnessing another person's actions, retaining info on that person's behavior, and later re-enacting what was learned

Gender bias

Women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness. In healthcare, often due to research being conducted only on male subjects

Gender oppression

Women are not only unequal as men, but they're oppressed and abused.

Structural oppression of women

Women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy and racism. Women are exploited because of capitalism model, but not all women express oppression in the same way. Men are associated with the mind, while women are associated with the body.

Formal norms

Written down rules that are precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them

altruism

a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the indivudal

Generalization b) what is the opposite of generalization

a broadening effect, by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response b) discrimination - organism learns to distinguish b/w two similar stimuli

inter-generational mobility

a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.)

neurotransmitter

a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc.

pheromone

a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species

hallucinogens

a class of drugs, also known as psychedelics, that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions (e.g. LSD, marijuana)

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels

caste system

a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into

ganglion

a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS

group

a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

social isolation

a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary

door-in-the-face technique

a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.

addiction

a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal

learned helplessness

a condition where on has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards

reinforcememnt

a consequence that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated: two types are there: positive and negative

interdependence

a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization

Values

a culture's standard for evaluating what is good and bad

habituation

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

downward mobility

a decrease in social class

case study

a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups

delusion

a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false

egalitarian family

a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

rational-legal authority

a form of leadership that is organized around rational-legal rules

charismatic authority

a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)

polygyny

a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman

polyandry

a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man

personality trait

a generally stable predisposition towards a certain behavior

reference group

a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to, such as a peer group

pupil

a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light

peptide hormone

a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; and exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones do its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell

epinephrine

a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system

parathyroid hormone

a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase serum calcium levels; it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption)

growth hormone

a hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults

prolactin

a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk

dual coding hypothesis

a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

organization

a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently

action potential

a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. Action potentials are all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane

axon

a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated

Inclusive fitness

a measure of an organisms success in a population, based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of offspring to then support others

method of loci

a memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place such as your home and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be rememebered

functional amnesia

a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, also called psychogenic and dissociative amnesia. These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common

ennui

a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect

spreading activation

a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks.

parkinson's didsease

a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigr, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are a resting terror (shaking, slowed movemement, rigidity of movements and the face, and a shuffling gait)

interneuron

a neuron found completely within the central nervous system that typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs

efferent neurons

a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron

multipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system

bipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs

conditioned stimulus

a normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response called a conditioned response ex. the bell in Pavlov's experience became a conditioned stimulus, salivating the conditioned response

glucagon

a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level

long-term potentiation

a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory

attitude

a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations

iris

a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; it regulated the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light

conditioned response

a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

acculturation

a process that occurs when one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact

neural plasticity

a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes

conversion disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms of conversion disorder begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor

antisocial personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation

dependent personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself

mood disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

dissociative disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness

hypochondriasis

a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness

somatization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a variety of symptoms over an extended time period, including pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, sexual symptoms, and pseudoneurological symptoms

dissociative identity disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time

personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life

pain disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors

bipolar disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme

borderline personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life

narcissistic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power

avoidant personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn

schizoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members

paranoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal

catatonic-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded or excited motor activity)

paranoid-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme

schizotypal personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions

schizophreniform disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning

Schizoaffective disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month

disorganized-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal function

dissociative fugue

a psychological disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall personal history prior to the journey

prison study (Stanford Prison Study)

a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of roll-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it.

Raymond Cattell

a psychologist interest in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control

saltatory conduction

a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier

sect

a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed

chemoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH)

culture

a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential

IPSP

a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold

social construct

a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class

social constructionism

a sociological theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interaction; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent; it looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in the absence of outside interference (conditioning)

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment

meta-analytic study

a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information

secure attachment

a style of relating to to others that forms whe an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room

patrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage

bilateral descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important

parallel processing

a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processes simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion. e.g. visual processing in the brain

distraction

a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded

halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics

primacy effect

a tendency to better recall the first items on a list

belief bias

a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic

mental set

a tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past even if they may not have applied to the current situation

misinformation effect

a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the. (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question)

attribution theory

a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions

signal detection theory

a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal), amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (noise), there are 4 possible outcome: a hit (signal present and detected), a miss (signal present but not detected), a false alarm (signal not present but person thought it was), and a correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was)

inclusive fitness

a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring)

incentive theory

a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior

conflict theory

a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. According to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure

Unconditional positive regard

a therapeutic technique by which the therapists accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment

cerebral cortex

a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four lobes: the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes

aqueous humor

a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). The aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, and helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea, as well as remove metabolic wastes

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone

luteinizing hormone (LH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone

exposure therapy

a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia

retroactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously

proactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently

bottom-up processing

a type of sensory processing that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing

chemical synapse

a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ)

deviance

a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations

social network

a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others

Operant conditioning a) positive punishment b) negative punishment

a) adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behaviour to reduce that behaviour (ex. arrest for stealing) b) reduction of a behaviour when a stimulus is removed, ie. something enjoyable is taken away (ex. privilege of tv is taken away to prevent a behaviour) * punishments are always to prevent a behaviour*

memory techniques a) mnemonics b) method of loci c) peg-word d) chunking

a) mnemonics - rhyming, acronyms b) method of loci - assigning an item to a location (walking through house each room has an item of grocery list) c) list that is then associated with items to be memorized d) organize into meaningful chunks

a) preparedness b) instinctive drift

a) preparedness: an organisms predisposition to certain behaviours that make them easier to condition b) instinctive drift: the opposite, the difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviours (trying to get a racoon to put money in a piggie bank)

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

a) sensorimotor b) preoperational c) concrete operational d) formal operational

Empathy

ability to vicariously experience the emotion of another

parasomnia

abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep

psychoanalytic theory

acc. to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud

ego

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle)

id

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure; it does not use logical or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects; according to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id.

manifest content

according to Freud, the overt storylines of dreams

latent content

according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underly dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation)

self-actualization (actualizing tendency)

according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes

social cognitive perspective

according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

Amygdala

aggressive behaviour, fear and rage

Benzos, barbiturates, alchohol

all depressants, increase GABA activity causing hyperpolarization of neurons via chloride channel activation

peripheral nervous sytem

all the parts of the NS except for the brain and the spinal cord

amygdala

almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences

posterior pituitary gland

also known as the neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus

Difference threshold

"Just noticeable difference"--> the smallest difference that is sufficient for a change in a stimulus to be perceived. The more sensitive the sensory system, the smaller the threshold.

Expectant-value theory

amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which they value succeeding

capitalism

an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit

socialism

an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit)

manic episode

an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased talkativeness and pressured speech, poor judgement, increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts

deindividuation

an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

relative poverty

an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

sensitization

an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus

ostrich effect

an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect

Huntington's Disease

an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain; it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders

myelin

an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes

prefrontal cortex

anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this are may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation

gonadotropins

anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids

Dementia is characterized by ____________ amnesia.

anterograde

In conflict theory the thesis describes the initial environment, the status quo. Therefore, the anti-thesis is:

anti-thesis is the reaction to the thesis, the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo

mnemonic

any memory technique used to promote the retention and retrieval of information

person-situation controversy

(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)

Dissociative identity disorder

(formerly multiple personality disorder) - two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behaviour

observational learning

(or vicarious, social learning) a type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations

Implicit memory Explicit memory

- Implicit memory: procedural or non-declarative, skills and conditioned responses - Explicit memory: declarative memories, divided into semantic (facts) and episodic

Primary reinforcer

- a naturally positive reinforcer (ex. a dolphin getting a fish)

Theory of mind

- ability to sense how another's mind works

Self-determination theory

- another needs based theory of motivation 1) autonomy: the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas 2) competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks 3) relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships

elaborative rehearsal

- association of new information with previously stored information - way of adding something to long-term memory

Deindividuation

- becoming part of a group - attempts to explain violent behaviours seen in mobs or crowds - increases if people are masked

Neurulation

- begins at 3-4 weeks' gestational age - ectoderm overlaying the notochords begins to furrow - forms a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds, furrow closes and forms the neural tube (becomes the CNS) alar plate become sensory neurons basal plate becomes motor neurons

Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation

- being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinders the ability to perform less familiar tasks - ie. expert pianist would perform better with an audience while someone with little knowledge would perform worse

Medulla oblongata

- breathing, heart rate, blood pressure (vital functions)

Deductive (top-down) reasoning

- deducing from a set of general rules and drawing conclusions from the information given - formal logic - conclusion is certain

Mirror neurons

- located in the frontal and parietal lobe - fire when one performs an action OR watches someone else perform the same action - connected with observational learning

serial position effect

- more likely to remember the first (primacy effect) and last items on a list (recency effect)

Cerebellum

- posture, balance, coordinates body movements

Avoidance learning

- prevent the unpleasantness of the something that is yet to happen - negative reinforcer

Pons

- primarily relay of sensory and motor information

Impression management (and 3 selves)

- refers to our attempts to manage how others perceive us a) authentic self b) ideal self c) tactical self: who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us (similar to ought self)

Escape learning

- role of behaviour is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists (ex. taking an aspirin) - a negative reinforcer

Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning

- seeks to create a theory via generalizations - conclusion is probable

Schacter-Singer Theory of emotion

- states that both arousal and labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced - importance of the surrounding environment and others emotions first response: nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal second response: conscious emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion

- states that cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioural part of emotion - tested by severing cats afferent nerves first response: nervous system arousal and conscious emotion second response: action

Whorfian hypothesis or linguistic relativity hypothesis

- suggests that our perception of reality - the way we think about the world - is determined by the content of language

Group think

- tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas - phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which a desire for harmony and conformity results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome

James-Lange Theory of emotion

- theory of emotion that begins with physiological arousal, which leads to labelling of the emotion - ex. getting cut off - physiological response and "i must be angry b/c my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high" first response: nervous system arousal second response: conscious emotion

Opponent-process theory

- theory of motivation that explains continuous drug use - when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology

Babinski reflex

- toes spread apart when sole of foot is stimulated

short term memory

- usually only lasts ~30 seconds unless attended to - 7 plus or minus 2 rule

Psychoanalytic

- views personality as resulting from unconscious urges and desires Freud's Id: basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce based on the pleasure principle Ego: guides or inhibits the activity of the id based on the reality principle Superego: idealist and perfectionist

Cocktail party phenomenon

- when engaged in a convo, if we hear our name mentioned across the room we somehow perk up - defines selective attention - we pay attention to one thing while other stimulus is processed in the background - only if important is it brought to our attention

5 Considerations of Gender

-Biological--> XX vs XY -Identity --> What gender they identify -Expression--> What gender they express -Attraction--> Not dependent on gender of a person (is not limited to sexual attraction, can be romantic) -Fornication --> sexual attraction

3 Main Assumptions of Rational Choice Theory

-Completeness (every action can be ranked) -Transitivity (Since A is preferable to B, A is also preferable to C) -Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a 4th option, it won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options)

George Herbert Mead's I vs Me

-Description of a restricted influence of other people on our perceptions of self -Generalized other: society as a whole and its expectations on an individual -Me: our social self (how we believe society sees us) -I: response to the social self (our personal responses to what society thinks) -Our actual self balances the I and the Me

Industry vs inferiority

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved age 7-12 years -Ability to learn new tasks

Identity vs role confusion

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in adolescence -Ability to form a stable identity

Initiative vs guilt

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in age 3-6 years -Ability to carry out a plan

Integrity vs despair

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in mature adulthood -Determining how well one has lived

Generativity vs stagnation

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in middle adulthood -Ability to put energy into others

Intimacy vs isolation

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in young adulthood -Ability to form relationships with others

Collective behavior

-Happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not in line with societal norms -Time limited -Involves short social interactions -Have loose norms

3 Stages of Self Consciousness Development

-Prepatory stage--> imitation of others -Play stage--> pretend play, focused on perspectives of other people (role taking) -Game stage--> understanding of generalized other, starting to understand that people can take multiple roles in society

Kinsey scale

0 to 6 scale of sexuality 0 being solely heterosexual 6 being exclusively homosexual

Sensorimotor stage

0 to ~2 years learn to manipulate environment in order to meet needs stage ends with development of object permanence (beginning of representational thought)

Cluster B personality disorders (Wild)

1) Antisocial PD: disregard for and violation of the rights of others 2) Borderline PD: pervasive instability in interpersonal behaviour, mood, and self-image (fear of abandonment, interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable) (splitting - view people as solely good or solely bad) 3) Histrionic PD: constant attention seeking 4) Narcissistic PD: grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness

Factors that influence conformity

1) Group size (the larger, the better) 2) Unanimity 3) Cohesion 4) Status 5) Accountability 6) No prior commitment

Kohlberg Moral reasoning phases

1) Preconventional morality - adolescence a) obediance b) self-interest 2) Conventional morality - adolescence to adulthood c) conformity d) law&order 3) Postconventional morality - adulthood (if at all) e) social contract f) universal human ethics

Erikson's Psychosocial development stages (crisis):

1) Trust vs. mistrust - Can i trust the world? (0 to 1) 2) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt - Is it okay to be me? (1 to 3 years) 3) Initiative vs. guilt - Is it okay for me to do, move, and act? (3 to 6) 4) Industry vs. inferiority - can i make it in the world of people and things? (6 to 12) 5) Identity vs. role confusion - Who am I? What can i be? (12 to 20 years) 6) Intimacy vs isolation - Can i love? (20 to 40) 7) Generativity vs. stagnation - can i make my life count? (40 to 65) 8) Integrity vs. despair - is it okay to have been me? (65 to death)

Cluster C personality disorders (worried)

1) avoidant PD: shyness and fear of rejection (might stay in same situation despite wanting change) 2) dependent PD: continuous need for reassurance 3) Obsessive-compulsive PD: perfectionist and inflexible

8 factors indicative of groupthink

1) illusion of vulnerability 2) collective rationalization: ignoring warnings 3) Illusion of morality 4) excessive stereotyping 5) pressure for conformity 6) self-censorship: withholding of opposite views 7) Illusion of unanimity 8) mindguards: appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views

4 primary factors that influence motivation

1) instincts: innate fixed patterns of behaviour in response to stimuli 2) arousals: physiological and psychological state of being awake 3) drives: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviours focused on goals 4) needs: either Maslow's hierarchy or self-determination theory

Cluster A personality disorders (weird)

1) paranoid personality disorder: pervasive mistrust of others and suspicions regarding their motives 2) Schizotypal PD: pattern of odd or eccentric thinking - may of ideas of reference and magical thinking (superstitiousness) 3) Schizoid PD: pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression

5 mechanisms of mate choice

1) phenotypic benefits: observable traits that make a mate more attractive to the opposite sex (ex. males that appear more nurturing) 2) Sensory bias: development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population (fiddler crabs building pillars to attract females) 3) Fisherian/ runaway selection: a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time (ex. plumage of the peacock) 4) Indicator traits: trait that signifies overall good health and well-being of an organism (females cats are more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats) 5) Genetic compatibility: creation of mate pairs, that, when combined have complementary genetics (mechanism for reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population)

Three elements of emotion:

1) physiological response 2) behavioural response (facial expression, body language) 3) cognitive response: subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (5)

1) physiological: food, water, sex, etc, 2) Safety: security of body, employment, morality, family, health, property 3) love/belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy 4) esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others 5) Self-actualization: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts - achieved in order

Sensorimotor stage

1st stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 0-2 years -Children learn to separate themselves from the world -Object permanence is learned here

Distress vs. eustress

2 classifications of stressors Distress: occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors Eustress: is a result of more positive conditions - graduating college

People under 20 make up approximately ________ of the US population.

25%

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)

What percent of the American population will have a serious mental illness?

6%

Dreams & Theories a) activation-synthesis theory b) problem-solving dream theory c) cognitive process dream theory

70% of dreams occur during REM a) activation-synthesis theory: dreams caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry - can mimic incoming sensory info, access memories/desires b) problem-solving dream theory: dreams are a way to solve problems while asleep c) Cognitive process dream theory: dreams are the sleeping counterpart of consciousness

Labelling Theory

A behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant

Unconditioned response

A behavioral response that is innate (not learned)

Instinct

A biological, innate tendency to perform a central behavior that leads to the fulfillment of a need

Subculture

A culture that is shared by a smaller group of people who are also part of a larger culture but have specific cultural attributes that set them apart from the larger group

Rationalization

A defense mechanism that involves explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulse behavior

Reaction Formation

A defense mechanism that involves expressing the opposite of of what one really feels, when it would be dangerous to express the real feeling

Denial

A defense mechanism that involves forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory

Repression

A defense mechanism that involves lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory

Displacement

A defense mechanism that involves redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one

Regression

A defense mechanism that involves reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior

Monoamine hypothesis

A deficiency in the availability of monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine) in the synapses contributes to depression

Change blindness

A failure to bring attention to changes in our environment

Fixed-interval reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response

Fixed-ratio reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specified # of responses

Variable-ratio reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses

Variable-interval reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable time interval has passed since the response

Out-group

A group with which an individual does not identify and toward which she may feel competition or hostility

In-group

A group with which an individual shares identity and toward which she feels loyalty

Melatonin

A hormone secreted by the pineal gland that stimulates the drive for sleep as part of the sleep-wake cycle

Polygyny

A man married to more than one woman

Counterbalancing

A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject

Spotlight model

A model of visual attention. Shifts in attention precede the movement of our eyes

Stigma

A negative social label that changes a person's social identity by classifying the labeled person as abnormal/tainted

REM sleep

A period of high brain activity and rapid eye movements that occur during stage 1 sleep. The brain lives the massive amount of stimuli experienced during the day and consolidates important info into memory and discards less important info. The body is immobilized during this stage.

Specific phobia

A persistent, strong, and unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation

Dissociative fugue

A person goes on a journey, during which he cannot recall personal history prior to the journey. During the journey, the person may be disoriented, confused, or violent. Usually involves the assumption of a new identity/occupation. Journey usually ends suddenly with recovery of prior memories but amnesia for the episode

Depersonalization disorder

A person has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from his body or mental processes, as if observing themselves from the outside. May feel that the external world is unreal

Identity foreclosure

A person has a sense of identity but has failed to identify an identity crisis (unquestionably adopts the values and expectations of others)

Dissociative amnesia

A person has had at least one episode of suddenly forgetting important personal information. Person usually wanders aimlessly during the episode. Disorder usually ends suddenly with full recovery of memory

Panic disorder

A person has suffered at least one panic attack and are worried about having more of them. Can be cued by certain situations, but are more often spontaneous

Affect

A person's VISIBLE emotion in the moment

Self-regulation

A person's ability to control their behavior in the absence of rewards or punishments; in association with observational learning

Locus of control

A person's belief about the extent to which internal or external factors play a role in shaping his/her life

Cognitive behavioral therapy

A person's feelings/behaviors are seen as reactions not to actual events, but to the person's thoughts about those events. Helps the client become aware of their irrational thoughts and substitute rational/accurate beliefs and thoughts through reconditioning, desensitization, and reversal of self-blame.

Fixation

A psychoanalytic concept referring to a permanent aspect of the individual's personality that is related to an unbalanced urge experienced in childhood development

Primary reinforcer

A reinforcing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (ex. food, water, shelter). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.

Conditioned response

A response that is learned (elicited through a conditioned stimulus). Is similar to the original unconditioned response that is used to create a conditioned stimulus

Analogies

A strategy where a new problem is reduced to a previously known problem, and prior knowledge of how to determine the solution can be applied

Methadone

A treatment that activates opiate receptors slowly than other opiates, dampening the high that addicts get. Eases withdrawal.

Shaping

A type of operant conditioning where successive approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced in order to gradually achieve the desired behavior

Partial reinforcement

AKA intermittent reinforcement. Reinforcement of a behavior by delivering a response only part of the time. Four types: Fixed-ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, and Variable-interval

anterior pituitary gland

AKA the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus

Absolute vs relative poverty

Absolute: socioeconomic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic necessities Relative: in which one is poor in comparison to the larger population

Confederate

Actors that are told what to do during an experiment

Emotion is:

Adaptive

Life Course theory

Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from the time you are born until you die.

Fictional finalism

Alder's theory that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences

Nonverbal communication

All communication between individuals that does not involve words (eg. body language, touch, appearance, facia l expressions)

Social behavior

All interactions taking place between members of the same species

Statistical regression

All variables examined are continuous. Makes assumptions about which variable is influencing the other

Correlation

All variables examined are continuous. Makes no assumptions about causation.

Function of sleep cycles

Allows the individual to enjoy benefits of both light and deep sleep.

The most prevalent form of dementia is:

Alzheimer's disease

What region of the brain is particularly important in negative conditioning?

Amygdala

Emotional Regulatory Centers of Brain

Amygdala--> conduction and identification emotions Hypothalamus--> creates physiological aspects of emotions Prefrontal cortex--> controls behavioral aspects of emotions

Sigmund Freud

An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory

Habit

An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

Principle of aggregation

An attitude affects a person's average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act

Capitalism

An economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit. Driving force in society is the pursuit of personal profit. Emphasizes personal freedom by limiting government restrictions and regulations

Socialism

An economic system where resources and production are collectively owned. System of production and distributed designed to satisfy human needs, with goods/services produced for direct use instead of profit.

Operant conditioning

An individual becomes more or less likely to carry out a certain behavior based on its consequences. Think: BEHAVIOR ---> RESPONSE. Discovered by B.F Skinner.

Classical conditioning

An individual develops a response to a previously neutral stimulus by associating the stimulus with another the already elicits the response. Think: STIMULI ---> BEHAVIOR. Discovered by Ivan Pavlov and his dogs.

Central route processing

An individual thinks deeply and even elaborates on argument presented ( occurs when a person is deeply invested in a situation/has not knowledge). If a person is using this route, is more likely to change attitude if argument is strong and persuasive

Social phobia

An unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others

Crude birth rate

Annual number of live births per 1000 people

Neuroleptic agents

Antipsychotic medications that have an added side effect of enhancing negative symptoms. The "original" drugs

Atypical antipsychotics

Antipsychotics that do not have significant side effects common to older antipsychotics

Prevalence of psychological disorders in adults

Anxiety disorders -20% Mood disorders- 10% Schizophrenia - 1% Personality disorder - 9% Dissociative disorders- 19% Eating disorders -1-6% Somatoform disorders- up to 2%

Food deserts

Areas where it is difficult to find affordable, healthy food options. More common in highly populated low-income urban neighborhoods where there are fewer grocery stores/transportation options to seek out other food choices. Contribute to obesity in these areas bc people resort to buying cheap, highly caloric foods

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Arises when person feels intense fear, horror, or helplessness while experiencing, witnessing, or otherwise confronting an extremely traumatic event

Ascribed, achieved, and master status

Ascribed status: given involuntarily (race, ethnicity, gender, family background) Achieved status: gained as a result of one's efforts or choices Master status: status by which a person is most identified, is pervasive in person's life

Secondary appraisal

Assessing personal ability to cope with a threat. An individual who does not think they can handle a threat will experience greater stress than someone who appraises their ability more highly.

Assimilation vs multicultarism

Assimilation - (usually uneven) merging of cultures; a melting pot Multiculturalism - celebration of coexisting cultures; a cultural mosaic

Stage 2 Sleep

Associated with bursts of brain wave activity that indicate a full transition into sleep

What is the gatekeeper of consciousness?

Attention

Stereotype

Attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals and overgeneralizing

The temporal lobe is associated with:

Auditory/ olfactory information, emotion and language, and memory formation

Mating behavior

Behavior surrounding propagation of a species through reproduction. Natural selection plays a role in this.

Altruism

Behavior that is disadvantageous to the individual, but confers benefits to other members of its social group. Appears to have no evolutionary benefit, but in actually improves inclusive fitnesses

Deviance

Behavior that violates social expectations or fails to conform to social norms

Innate behaviors

Behaviors that are developmentally fixed (cannot be modified through experience)

What is necessary for an individual to be capable of observational learning?

Biological processes (mirror neurons)

Biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders vs biomedical

Biopsychosocial approach assumes there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individuals disorder biomedical views it as strictly bioloical

Bipolar I vs Bipolar II

Bipolar I: Person experiences one manic/mixed episode Bipolar II: Person experiences less extreme manic phases

What point in the human lifespan has the highest amount of neurons?

Birth!

Three types of kinship

Bloodline, marriage, adoption

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis

Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. Our brain tries to find meaning from random brain activity--> explanation that dreams may not actually have meaning.

Alpha waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG during Stage 1 sleep that represent a relaxed state of wakefulness

Delta waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG during Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep that are stronger than alpha waves; signify a person is in deep sleep

Beta waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG that represent a state of fully alert wakefulness

Perceiving depth

Cannot be represented on the 2D surface of the retina, so the brain compensates by comparing images seen by each eye--> the differences in the two versions of the same stimulus from slightly different locations allows the brain to estimate depth of object being viewed

Perceiving motion

Cannot be represented on the brain based only on pattern of information received by retina. Visual cortex integrates information gathered by retina and by eye movements to develop correct inferences about motion.

What aspect of cognition is unaffected by aging?

Capacity for retrieving general information

Cardinal, central, and secondary traits

Cardinal traits: traits around which a person organizes his or her life (not everyone has one) Central traits: major characteristics of personality Secondary traits: more personal characteristics and limited in occurrence

Humanistic theory of personality

Carl Rogers. People continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals- motivated by enhancing the organism. The individual shapes his or her own personality through free will. Conscious decisions make people who they are.

Gender inequality

Central to all behavior. Women subordination is viewed as an inherent feature in our patriarchal society.

Information processing takes place in the:

Cerebral cortex

The most evolved portion of the brain is the:

Cerebral cortex

Accommodation

Changing a schema in response to new information that is unable to fit into previously held schemas

Private conformity

Changing internal behaviors/opinions to align with the group

Back stage self

Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs when with other players, but no audience is present. Can include behavior that would be unacceptable when performed in front of the audience.

Class system

Considers both social variables and individual initiative in social stratification

Social cognitive theory of personality

Considers learned experiences and observable behaviors as shaping personality, but also considers the contributions of an individual's mental life and personal choices. Posits reciprocal interaction between behavior, personal factors, and environment in shaping personality/ Includes process of observational learning. Individual have personal control over personality by choosing experiences

Biological basis of Alzheimer's disease

Cortical disease (affects outermost tissue of brain) due to formation of neuritic plaques (hard formations of beta-amyloid protein) and neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of tau protein). Some evidence of acetylcholine activity abnormality in the hippocampus

Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia:

Delusions of reference, delusions of persecution, delusions of grandeur, thought broadcasting, though insertion, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behaviour, catatonia

Delusions of reference:

Delusions of reference: belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual

Positive symptoms of psychosis

Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized/catatonic behavior

What is Alzheimer's disease?

Dementia that is characterized behaviorally by anterograde amnesia (can remember the past but cannot form new memories). Visual memory is also impaired, leading to confusion with regard to orientation.

Tactics

Describe how the movement implements a strategy

Gestalt Principles

Describe the top-down processing that organizes sensory information into distinct forms. Six principles: nearness, similarity, common region, closure, continuity, and figure & ground

Identity moratorium

Describes a person actively attempting to develop a unique set of values and an understanding of self in society

Identity diffusion

Describes a person with no sense of identity or motivation to engage in identity exploration. Associated with an external locus of control

ABC Model

Describes three major components of attitudes Affective component- person's feelings about the thing Behavioral component- The influence that attitudes have on behavior Cognitive component- Beliefs/knowledge about a specific object of interests

Insight learning

Describes when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways.

Mate choice

Determined by a number of factors, including genetic qualities, overall health, and potential parenting skills of prospective mates

Why is the problem with characterizing mental illness?

Determining what classifies ""abnormal" psychological conditions is ARBITRARY. Imposes categories on traits that exist on a continuum

George Herbert Mead

Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things

Theory of Differential Association

Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws

Social control

Direct form of socialization in which one group or individual imposes a set of rules to control the behavior of others

Operant extinction

Disappearance of a behavior through removal of reinforcers (ex. if a dog learns to sit down in order to receive a treat, and treats are no longer given, the "sit down" behavior will eventually disappear)

Classical extinction

Disappearance of a conditioned response through disassociation of the conditioned and unconditioned response

Antagonists

Drugs that bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them, thereby blocking the binding of the associated neurotransmitter and undermining its normal effects.

Depressants

Drugs that cause a decrease of activity in the CNS.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse

Agonists

Drugs that mimic chemically similar, naturally occurring neurotransmitters

Enzyme inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters that have been taken up by the presynaptic neuron

Stimulants

Drugs that raise the level of activity in the CNS. Many act by increasing the amount of monoamine neurotransmitters (epinephrine/dopamine) in the synapse.

Sleep terrors are most likely to occur:

During NREM sleep

EEG and Alertness

EEGs show particular types of brainwaves called beta waves when a person is alert

The amygdala is associated with:

Emotional reactions of fear and anger

Role of Emotion in Memory Retrieval

Emotions act as retrieval cues, in that retrieval of memory is strongest when the emotional state during retrieval is similar to that of memory formation. Additionally, memories of higher emotional significance are more readily available for retrieval.

Interactionist theory of language development

Emphasizes interaction between biology and environment in developing language. The human brain develops so that it can be receptive to new language input and development. Children are motivated to practice the language in order to communicate/socialize

Pluralism

Encourages racial/ethnic variation

Retrieval cues

Environmental stimuli or pieces of information that are associated in some way with a memory being sought. Typically present at the time the memory was originally formed

What are the two main hormones released by the sympathetic nervous system?

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Catecholamines

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine - synthesized from tyrosine

Autonomy vs shame/doubt

Erikson psychosocial crisis resolved in the second year of life. Ability to self-care.

Random error

Error that is due to chance and is not standardized. Decreases precision.

Instrument bias

Errors due to systematic malfunctioning of a mechanical instrument

Primary appraisal

Evaluating a situation for the presence of any potential threat. If present, a secondary appraisal is generated

Social comparison

Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others. Facilitates the development of a distinct self of self in terms of similarity/difference from other people

Past-in-present discrimination

Even if discrimination done in the past is no longer allowed, can still have consequences for people in the present

Iron rule of oligarchy

Even the most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by a select few

Episodic memory

Event-related memories

Rational choices Theory

Every action people do is fundamentally rational. A person acts as if they are weighing costs and benefits of each action. People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and goals.

fMRI

Examines brain activity by measuring blood flow, which an indicator of metabolic activity (b/c of need for oxygen for increased metabolic activity)

Sick role

Expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities . However, if you don't get better or return you are viewed as deviant

Gender differences

Expectations for gender are passed down from generation to generation.

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus affects a response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention to it

Internal validity

Extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted. Impacted by confounding factors

Microsociology

Face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of society, looking at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society

Economic interdependence

Factor in globalization where corporations often conduct operations across multiple continents

Attraction

Factors that draw members of a species together. A social behavior

Source traits

Factors underlying human personality and behavior

Type II error

False negative

Type I error

False positive

Primacy bias

First impressions are important-- extra emphasis on information that reinforces first impression

Sensory memory

First phase in memory formation. Acts as temporary storage for incoming sensory stimuli. Encoding at this state is simply transducing physical stimuli into electrical information--> unconscious, neurological process. Information from here will either be lost or encode as short-term memory. Can hold a LOT of information at any given time.

Drive reduction theory

Focuses on internal factors in motivations. Posits that people are motivated to take action in order to lessen the state of arousal caused by a physiological need

base rate fallacy

Focusing on a specific case rather than sticking with the general base rate

Attachment

Forming relationships between individuals. A social behavior

Psychoanalytic theory of personality

Founded by Sigmund Freud. Personality is determined by a person's unconscious- the flow of psychic energy between three systems in the stream of consciousness (id, ego, and superego). Development of personality takes place according to a process of conflict between components of the SoC. CRUCIAL: Personality processes take place outside of conscious awareness.

Mass Media as viewed by functionalism and conflict theory

Functionalist: provides entertainment Conflict: portrays divisions that exist in society

Functions vs dysfunctions

Functions refer to the beneficial consequences of people's actions Dysfunctions are harmful consequences of people's actions

Gemeinschaft (community) & Gesellschaft (society)

Gemeinschaft - groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography Gesellschaft - groups formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal

Evolutionary psychology

Gene associated with certain psychological traits that improve an individual;s chances for successful reproduction tend to be conserved

Strategy

General plan describing the goals of a movement

Informal norms

Generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments

Stress-diathesis theory

Genetics provides a biological predisposition for schizophrenia, but environmental stressors elicit the onset of the disease

Biological factors associated with schizophrenia

Genetics, excess dopamine activity, brain atrophy (smaller brain)

The most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships:

Geographical proximity

Population pyramid

Graphs a population's sex and age cohorts

Negative control

Group with no response expected

Mass society theory

Groups only form for people seeking refuge from main society (ex. Nazism)

Role conflict

Happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person

Paul Ekman's 7 basic emotions:

Happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger

Dizygotic twins

Have genomes that are no more similar than any other biological sibling

Monozygotic twins

Have virtually identical genomes

Paraphilia

Having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli

Hypnagonic hallucinations

Hearing or seeing things that aren't there

High neuroticism corresponds to:

High levels of emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness

Flashbulb memories

Highly vivid memories that are tied to emotions. Can be subjected to reconstruction.

Professions

Highly-esteemed white collar occupations that require a great deal of education

Which region of then brain is particularly important in positive conditioning?

Hippocampus

Ghrelin

Hormone released by the stomach and pancreas that heightens the sensation of hunger

Self-presentation

How an individual is perceived

Kinship/kin

How we think about who we are related to. Considered a cultural group rather than biological

Medicalization

Human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions, and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment.

Dopamine hypothesis

Hypersensitive dopamine receptors and overabundance of dopamine is associated with schizophrenia

Just world phenomenon

Idea that the universe is fair so people must get what they deserve (Good things happen to good people, and vice versa)

Strain theory

If a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance

Thomas Theorem

If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. AKA the objective reality of a situation doesn't matter as much as someone's perception of what they believe is happening. Theory of social constructionism.

Regression to the mean

If the first measurement is extreme, second measurement will be closer to the mean

Normative social influence

If we do something to gain respect/support of our peers, we're complying with social norms

World Systems Theory

Importance of world as a unit, dividing world into CORE (Western Europe/US), PERIPHERY (Latin America, Africa), and SEMI-PERIPHERY (India, Brazil)

Normative influence

In group discussion, taking a stronger stance than you initially would have in order to better relate with and internalize the group's belief system. Even if you know what's right, do group's actions to avoid social rejection

Informational influence

In group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint. Looking to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct

Punishment

In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Reality principle

In psychoanalytic theory of personality, the ego uses logical thinking/planning to control consciousness and the id. Tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id.

Incidence, prevalence, morbidity

Incidence: (new cases / population at risk / time) a rate - number of new cases of an illness per population at risk Prevalence: (total cases / total population/ time)measure of the number of cases of an illness overall per population in a given amount of time Morbidity: degree of severity of illness associated with a given disease

Confirmation bias

Individuals tend to value new info that support a belief they already hold, while disregarding info that goes against preconceived notions. In groups, group members seek out information that support the majority view

Babinski reflex

Infant reflex where if its foot is stroked, the baby's toes fan out

Residential segregation

Instance of social inequality on the local scale, where demographic groups are separated into different locations with unequal access to resources

HPA axis

Interaction between the nervous and endocrine systems to produce the body's response to stress. Elevated levels of one of these hormones may lead to depression

Conformity: Internalization vs identification

Internalization is the changing of one's behaviour to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of a group Identification refers to the acceptance of others' ideas without questioning them

Positive punishment

Introduction of a punishing stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA adds stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior

Positive reinforcement

Introduction of a reinforcing stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA adds a stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior

Chi-square

Involves categorical variables. Looks at 2 distributions of categorical data to see if they differ from each other.

Lazarus theory

Lazarus theory requires that interpretation must happen before arousal or emotion, which happen simultaneously. Since the event (story describing fear) was interpreted as being non-threatening before a physiological response (fight or flight) and emotion (fear) were to be perceived simultaneously, neither the physiological response (fight or flight) nor the emotion (fear) were elicited.

Linguistic information is lateralized in the:

Left hemisphere

Rational-legal authority

Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document. How the United States government operates

Demographic transition theory

Links population growth to the society's use of technology, describing sequential stages of change in birth and death rates. AKA tech is what keeps population size in check

Suprachiasmic nucleus

Located in the hypothalamus. Regulates the body's sleep-wake cycle. Maintains drive for wakefulness by inhibiting melatonin. Light triggers SCN firing.

Wernicke's area

Located in the temporal lobe. Primarily involved in speech comprehension. People who are damaged in this area can hear words and repeat them back, but do not understand language.

Elaboration likelihood model

Model of Persuasion. There are two ways information is processed: central processing (depending on quality of arguments by persuader) and peripheral (superficial-non-verbal persuasion cues)

MAOIIs

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Interfere with the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters (eg. serotonin, norepinephrine)

As group size increases, the group is ___________ stable and __________ intimate.

More stable, less intimate

Glutamate

Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, EXCEPT vision. Acts as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter on bipolar cells of the eye in the absence of light.

GABA and glycine

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters

Benzodiazepines

Most commonly prescribed suppressant. Act as a sleep aid or anti-anxiety aid. Enhances brain's response to GABA neurotransmitter.

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by internal factors (pleasurable feelings or satisfaction). Can be diminished if person continuously receive extrinsic rewards for the behavior

The frontal lobe is associated with:

Motor control, decision making, and long-term memory storage

What is Parkinson's disease?

Movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantial nigra. Characterized by resting tremor, slowed movement, rigidity of facial muscles, and shuffling gait, and reduction in capacity for language

Intergenerational mobility

Movement through the class system between generations (old generation is poor/rich, sets up environment for new generation to become rich/poor)

Polysomnography

Multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep

Transformationalist perspective

National governments are changing, with world order (new world order) forming

Language development theories Nativist (biological) Theory: Learning (behaviourist) Theory: Social Interactionist Theory:

Nativist (biological) Theory: existence of some innate capacity for language, believe in critical period for language acquisition b/w 2 years and puberty Learning (behaviourist) Theory: operant conditioning through reinforcement of proper phoneme usage Social Interactionist Theory: language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate

Myopia

Nearsightedness

Language acquisition device

Neural cognitive system that allows for learning of syntax and grammar

Retroactive interference

Newly learned material that prevents successful retrieval of related older memories. Occurs when information that is newly learned is similar to that in older memories

Nativist theory of language development

Noam Chomsky. Language is an innate biological instinct, and everyone has a neural cognitive system allowing for learning of syntax and grammar.

Animal signals

Nonverbal methods to communication such as vocalizations, visual stimuli, touch, and smell

Mores

Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced

Folkways

Norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior

The pleasure center of the brain

Nucleus accumbens

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Nutritional deficiency of vitamin B1, which results in a deficit in the ability to recall recent events. Often due to severe alcoholism.

selective priming

being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected

Exchange-rational choice theory

believes that decisions are made by rational beings who have weighed all aspects of the problem, and who the proceed to make the rational choice

procedural bias

bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon

selection bias

bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen

Socioeconomic status (SES) is dependent on

both ascribed (race, ethnicity, gender) and achieved status ex. caste and estate systems stratify by ascribed SES, while class systems stratify by achieved SES

sleep spindle

bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep

secondary reinforcers

conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers

Stanley Milgram

conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliances or obedience

Emile Durkheim

considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism, Emile Durkheim was the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy

Carl Rogers

considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, Carl Rogers pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy

Social capital

considered the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards; the greater the investment, the higher the level of social integration and inclusion

parallel forms reliability

consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation

material culture

consists of physical objects that are particular to a culture which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations (e.g. saree in indian culture)

ideal self

constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits, from role models, the ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are

controlled processing vs. automatic processing

controlled processing = effortful (like studying, flashcards, notes, etc) automatic processing = just going about regular day, what one notices - both associated with encoding memories

pathway light travels through the eye

cornea (focuses light) - anterior chamber - iris - posterior chamber - lens - vitreous humour - retina

Display rules

cultural expectations of emotions (ex. certain Inuit societies rarely express anger)

Ego-syntonic

describes personality disorders, a person believes that their behaviour is correct (in contrast, ego-dystonic - person sees the illness as something thrust upon them that is intrusive)

Magnocellular cells

detect motion have high temporal resolution

Parvocellular cells

detect shape - have very high colour spatial resolution

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms: 1) re-experiencing of traumatic events through flashbacks or nightmares 2) hypervigilance of one's surroundings 3) avoidance of situations related to stressful events

Top-down processing

driven by memories and expectations, allows us to quickly recognize objects without recognizing their specific parts

Major depressive episodes:

duration of at least two weeks and at least 5 of the following symptoms: depressed mood, anhedonia (loss of interest), sleep disturbances, feelings of guilt, lack of energy, difficulty concentrating, changes in appetite, psychomotor symptoms, and suicidal thoughts one of the symptoms must be either depressed mood or anhedonia

Dyssomnias: Insomnia: Narcolepsy: Sleep Apnea:

dyssomnias: disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep Insomnia: difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep Narcolepsy: lack of voluntary control over sleep onset (symptoms: cataplexy [loss of muscle control and sudden REM during waking hours], sleep paralysis, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations [hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening] Sleep Apnea: inability to breath during sleep

Second sickness

exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

Ludwig Gumplowicz

expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups

social roles

expectations for people of a given social status

Attitude and 3 components

expression of positive or negative feeling towards a person, place, thing, or scenario 1) affective: emotional 2) behavioural: how one acts toward noun/scenario 3) cognitive: way individual things about something

Erik Erikson

extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair

kinship

familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry

Phineas Gage

famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy

REM stage

final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur

sensorimotor stage

first stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety

Strain theory

focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance - examples of anomic conditions: excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation

Social constructionism

focuses on how individuals and groups put together/make decisions to agree upon their social reality ex. how money (which in and of itself has no value) is defined as a society, so that it can be used to trade for goods and services

Spatial inequality

focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations

Attribution theory dispositional vs situational

focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behaviour dispositional (internal): causes that relate to features of the person whose behaviour is being considered Situational (external): causes are related to features of the surroundings or social context

Source amnesia

forgetting where the memory came from (might be someone else's story viewed as ones own)

Dramaturgical approach to impression management

front stage self: in front of an audience, act according to ones setting, conform to the image they want others to see (live up to the roles assumed by our status) Back stage self: free to act in ways that may be incongruent with his desired public image

Anxiety disorders (list types)

general anxiety disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder

Yerkes-Dodson law

graph of arousal theory, in which optimal performance is based on an arousal of not too much or too little

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

Self-discrepancy theory

holds that we have three selves: 1) actual self: way we see ourselves as we currently are 2) ideal self: person we would like to be 3) ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be - the closer these 3 are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be

melatonin

hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions

Mate bias direct vs indirect benefits

how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate direct benefits - material advantages, protection, emotional support indirect benefits - promoting better survival in offspring

Social perception/ cognition and 3 components:

how we form impressions about the characteristics of individuals and groups of people 3 components of social perception: a) perceiver: influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state b) target: person about which the perception is made c) situation:

The autonomic nervous system is regulated primary by the:

hypothalamus

Reciprocal determinism (Social cognitive)

idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviours, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation - part of social cognitive perspective

N-Ach

if rated high on N-Ach - concerned with achievement and have pride in accomplishments - avoid high risks (avoid failing) and low risks (easy tasks do not generate a sense of achievement) - stop striving towards a goal if success is unlikely

Odds ratio

if something increases by a factor of less than 1, it decreases (from social conflict theory in historical context khan academy)

Migration rate

immigration rate minus emigration rate

Just-world hypothesis

in a "just-world" good things happen to good people, noble are rewarded, evil are punished - can cause victim blaming

generalization

in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response

extinction

in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

punishment

in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; types includes positive and negative punishment

shaping

in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate proximal behaviors until a final desired behavior is achieved

confederates

in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation

palmar grasp reflex

in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months

Babinski reflex

in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out

rooting reflex

in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple

church

in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers

postganglionic neuron

in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ

preganglionic neuron

in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ)

back stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others

front stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

Dissociative amnesia

inability to recall past experience (not caused by a neurological disorder)

false memory

inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion

Drug addiction - mesolimbic reward pathway

included nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial forebrain bundle - dopaminergic pathway

reaction formation

individual deals with an objectionable impulse by behaving in a manner diametrically opposite to that impulse e.g. being super sweet to a group of girls you greatly despise

Negative symptoms

involve the absence of normal or desired behaviour, such as disturbance of affect and avolition (decrease in motivation to perform self-directed purposeful activities)

nonverbal communication

involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words

cultural relativism

judging another culture based on its own cultural standards

repression

keeping that which is painful/anxiety producing from one's conscious mind

infantile amnesia

lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown

Type B personality

laid-back and relaxed

K complex

large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep

latent learning

learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required (learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test)

Endoderm

lining of digestive tract (epithelial cells), lungs, urinary bladder, stomach, colon, liver, pancreas

ethnic enclave

locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity ex. Chinatown

Cross-sectional study

looks at a group of different people at one moment in time

Anhedonia

lost of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities

alpha waves

low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. Alpha waves are the first indicator that a person is read to drift off into sleep

Prefrontal cortex

manages executive function - supervises processes involved with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning

Bipolar I disorder

manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes

biofeedback

means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate)

modeling

mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person; this model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the observer

explicit (or declarative) memory

memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge

semantic memory

memory for factual information

echoic memory

memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds

context effect state-dependent memory

memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place remember things better when in the same mental state as when they were encoded (ex. intoxicated)

chunking

memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall

implicit (procedural) memory

memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things

short-term memory

memory that is limited in duration and in capacity

schemas

mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience

availability heuristic

mental shortcut of making judgments on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily it is available in our memories

heuristics

mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed

meditation

mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness

absolute threshold

minimum intensity of a stimulus we can sense (not necessarily perceive)

attenuation model of selective attention

model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect

elaboration likelihood model

model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument

information processing models

models for cognition that assume that information form the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including, attention, perception, and storage into memory

insomnia

most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep

fundamental movement skills

movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)

polysomnography (PSG)

multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG

ciliary muscle

muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye

optic chiasm

nasal optic nerve fibres cross, lateral fibres continue and meet up with decussated nasal fibres to form the optic tract

social exclusion

negative impact of poverty in which low SES individuals are excluded from mainstream society & social benefits. They may also resort to crimes/rebel to meet their basic needs.

feral children

neglected/abandoned children who grow up without without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized

mirror neurons

neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy

The earlier sleep cycles are predominantly ____________.

non-REM sleep

mores

norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced, mores are general (but not always) formal norms

folkways

norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.)

Folkways

norms that refer to behaviour that is considered polite in particular contexts (shaking hands after a sports match)

Bottom-up processing

object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection - first time we experience something (we don't have anything to compare it to)

obsessions vs compulsions

obsessions = persistent intrusive thoughts and impulses (increase stress) compulsions = repetitive tasks (decrease stress)

projective identification

occurs in close relationships, where one person induces feelings/impulses which are viewed as unacceptable in the other person

Ambivalent attachment

occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully - very distressed when caregiver leaves, but mixed response upon their return

role-strain

occurs when a single status results in conflicting expectation, e.g. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" and also "not gay enough"

Avoidant attachment

occurs when caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child - no preference to stranger or caregiver - little or no distress when caregiver leaves

amalgamation

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

retrograde amnesia

occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded

Attribution substitution

occurs when one must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic ex. A pencil and an eraser cost $1.10 together. If the pencil costs one dollar more than the eraser, how much does the eraser cost? most people answer 10 cents (incorrect)

self-reporting bias

occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers

overgeneralization

occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future

role conflict

occurs when there is a conflict in the society-s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person, e.g. 'male' and 'nurse'

false consensus

occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)

projection bias

occurs when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourself an others

gender bias in medicine

occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness

double-blind study

of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not: a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.

SES (socioeconomic status)

often defined in terms of power; the ability to get other people to do something, property (sum of possessions and income), and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to (but not always) be related in the US society

Schwann cells

one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron

sleep cycle

one of these consists of the progression through sleep stages 1-4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into REM sleep; typically takes about 90 min

self-esteem

one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth

Big five (personality traits) (type and trait perspectives)

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Operant Conditioning a) positive reinforcers b) negative reinforcers

operant conditioning - links voluntary behaviours with consequences - BF Skinner (behaviourism) a) positive reinforcers: increase a behaviour by adding a positive consequence (ex. money) b) negative reinforcers: increase the frequency of a behaviour by removing something unpleasant *reinforcements always increase the frequency of the behaviour*

Hearing

organ of corti bathed in endolymph and composed of thousands of hair cells sense vibrations and relay signal to brainstem via vestibulocochlear nerve - ascend to medial geniculate nucleus then to auditory cortex - or superior olive (sound localization) - or inferior colliculus (startle reflex

coercive organizations

organization in which members do not have a choice in joining

Self-efficacy

our believe in our ability to succeed

acting out

overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behaviore

nociceptors

pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain

authoritarian parenting

parenting style in which parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally in an attempt to control children. his style is demanding and often relies on punishment

permissive parenting

parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children

authoritative parenting

parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children

episodic buffer

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that interacts with information in long-term memory

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are common to all people; cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness

Reciprocal liking

people like others better when they believe the other person likes them

Mere exposure effect/ familiarity effect

people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently

Social facilitation

people tend to perform better on easy tasks in the presence of others - idea that performance is not solely influenced by individual ability

aggregate

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

fundamentalists

people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs

category

people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group

Law of prägnanz

perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

cocktail party effect

phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels "catching" one's attention

cones

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision

rods

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision

Token economies (behaviorist perspective)

positive behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or reinforcers - part of behaviourist perspective

Learning theory

posits that attitudes are developed through forms of learning - direct contact with the object can influence attitudes

Differential association theory

posits that deviance can be learned through interactions with others and argues that deviance provides a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries, encourages unity, within society, and can even promote social change

Labeling theory

posits that labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also that person's self-image

Elaboration likelihood model

posits that there are two ways in which we form attitudes a) central route processing: scrutinizing and analyzing the content of persuasive information (high elaboration) b) peripheral route processing: focus on superficial details of persuasive information (low elaboration)

Fundamental attribution error

posits that we are generally biased in making dispositional attributions rather than situational, especially in negative contexts

Social cognitive theory

postulates that people learn to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviours of others

Socioeconomic status (SES) can be defined in terms of:

power, property, and prestige

Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism

practice of making judgments about other cultures based on values and beliefs of one's own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religions in-group vs out-group (based on favouritism for in-group) cultural relativism: perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with the recognition that the central values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself

Propaganda attempts to to create _____ in others

prejudice

racism

prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race/ethnicity is inferior to another

group pressure (peer pressure)

pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs

Primacy effect

primacy effect: first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions recency effect: sometimes recent information is most important in forming our impressions

Primary group vs secondary grou

primary group: interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members secondary group: interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds (students working on group projects)

meaningful encoding principle

principle that states that experts use prior knowledge in the encoding of new domain-specific information

proactive interference retroactive interference

proactive interference: old information is interfering with new learning retroactive interference: new information causes forgetting of old information (it is what is forgotten that/ interfered with that describes it)

proactive vs reactive social movements

proactive: promote social change reactive: resist social change

fluid intelligence

problem solving - peaks in early adulthood

Adaptation

process by which paiget thought new information was processed - new information is placed into new schemata - occurs through assimilation (classifying new info into existing schemata) or accommodation (modifying existing schemata to encompass the new info)

long-term potentiation

process by which repeated stimulation of a neuron causes a stronger synaptic connection, receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron increase - ie process of how we learn

confabulation

process of creating vivid but fabricated memories (a symptom of Korsakoff's syndrome along with retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia)

Globalization

process of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets

associative learning

process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning

Shaping

process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviours (building up to a more complex task)

encoding specificity principle

proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving, states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding

gate theory of pain

proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain - spinal cord can preferentially forward signals from other modalities (pressure, temp)

mindfulness-based stress reduction

protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety

Delirium

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes (nonpsychological) ex. low pH, infection, low blood sugar, etc

priming

recall is aided by being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

Older adults show minimal decline in ________ but greater decline in __________.

recognition, free recall

electroencephalogram (EEG)

recording of electrical impulses in the brain

electrooculogram (EOG)

recording of eye movements

electromyogram (EMG)

recording of skeletal muscle movements

Anomie

refers to a lack of social norms, or a the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society - anomic conditions in postindustrial modern life have accelerated the decline of social inclusion and, as a result, obstructed opportunities to acquire social capital

McDonaldization

refers to the shift in focus towards efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in these societies

institutional discrimination

refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g. laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the Plessy vs. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans.)

Broca's area

region of the brain located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe. Involved with speech production. Damage to this part of the brain results in Broca's aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally

pineal gland

region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin: a hormone that influences slepp/wake cycles and seasonal functions

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule in which a reward is offered after a set period of time has passed

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior

Thalamus

relay for all senses except smell

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future

prospective memory

remembering to perform a task at some point in the future - elderly people have the most trouble with this type of task

Merkle discs

respond to deep pressure and texture (fire to constant pressure)

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration (fires when pressure is first administered and when it is removed)

Meissner corpuscles

respond to light touch (fire when touch is first administered and when it is removed)

Free nerve endings

respond to pain and temperature

Ruffini endings

respond to stretch (fire to constant pressure); slow-adapting

social recipricity

responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action

Social reproduction

social inequality, especially poverty, that is passed down rom one generation to the next

Demographic transition

specific example of demographic shift (changes in population make up over time) referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system - mortality rates drop first, then birth rates

resource model of attention

states that attention is a limited resource if multiple tasks do not exceed this limit, they can be done simultaneously; if they do, then they interfere with each other and are difficult to do simultaneously

Functional attitudes theory

states that attitudes serve four functions: 1) knowledge: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experience 2) ego-expressive: allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity 3) adaptive: idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed 4) ego-defensive: protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong

implicit personality theory

states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behaviours are related

Weber's law

states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd (just noticeable difference) and the magnitude of the original stimulus - aka a ratio/percent rather than a numerical value (jnd)

Symbolic interactionism

study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols - view symbols as the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another

behavioral genetics

study the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviors

Cognitive appraisal

subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress primary appraisal: evaluation of how stressful the environment or associated threat is secondary appraisal: can the organism cope with the stress, determination of its intensity

Classical conditioning

taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus

Dishibituation

temporary recovery of a response to the original stimulus due to a second stimlus

Reliance on central traits

tendency for people to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver

ossicles

the 3 small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from the sound waves; the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea

social cognition

the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception

divided attention

the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously

eidetic memory

the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics; also called photographic memory

social perception

the ability to understand others in our social world; the initial info. we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions

crude death rate

the annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population

crude birth rate

the annual number of live births per thousand people in a population

general fertility rate

the annual number of live births per thousand women of child-bearing age within the population

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

neuron

the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system; it is a highly specialized cell designed to transmit action potentials

self-efficacy

the belief in one's own competence and effectiveness

internal locus of control

the belief of an individual that she is able to influence outcomes through her own efforts and actions

optimism bias

the belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us

external locus of control

the belief that once does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces

iconic memory

the brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second

fluid intelligence

the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge; it involves the ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic.

latency stage

the fourth of Freud's five psychosexual stages; in this stage, sexual interest subsides and is replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports

reinforcement schedule

the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval

the sensation of hunger is controlled by

the hypothalamus (lateral hypothalamus promotes hunger, ventromedial hypothalamus promotes satiety)

looking-glass self

the idea that a person's sense of self develops from impersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others; according to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them

principle of aggregation

the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act

absolute poverty

the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare

sensory memory

the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; it is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays

mere presence

the most basic level of interaction between individuals; when people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or just minding their own business

optic nerve

the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information; it is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina

personality

the nuanced and complex individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person

replacement level fertility

the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people int he population who die

life expectancy

the number of years that an individual of a certain age can expect to life at present mortality rates

phenotype

the observable characteristics and traits of an organism

scapegoat

the people or group who are unfairly blamed for something, or at whom displaced aggression is directed

social support

the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; supportive resources can be tangible or emotional

relative refractory period

the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)

conformity

the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others

outer ear

the portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal; it is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)

diencephalon

the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus

medulla oblongata

the portion of the hindbrain that controls respiratory rate and blood pressure and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing

social capital

the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility

endogamy

the practice of marrying within a particular group

mindguarding

the pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of unanimity

estrogen

the primary female sex hormone. It stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy

retrieval structure principle

the principle which states that experts develop memory mechanisms (called retrieval structure) to facilitate the retrieval of information stored int he long-term memory; these mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can be later regenerated to retrieve stored information effectively without a lengthy search

selective attention

the process by which one input is selected to focus on out of the field of possibilities in the environment

avoidance learning

the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present

language acquisition

the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native languagek

assimilation

the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group

informational social influence

the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others know something I don't know

encoding

the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system

socialization

the process through which people learn to be proficient members of a society; a lifelong process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture

meninges

the protective connective tissue wrappings of the CNS (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater)

cerebellum

the region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity

negative reinforcement

the removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior

negative punishment

the removal of a positive or rewarding stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior

deception

the research equivalent of lying to participants, frequently used to mislead participants so that they do not learn what the actual purpose of the research may be

dishabituation

the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation

anal stage

the second of Freud's five psychosexual stages, in this stage the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination

residential secgregation

the separation of groups into different neighborhoods, which most often occurs due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or socioeconomic differences; it is NOT based on laws, but rather enduring social patterns, which are attributed to suburbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences

Cognitive dissonance

the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions

social identity

the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like

organ of corti

the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane; the Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials

social reproduction

the structures and activities in a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next; cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs

sociobiology

the study of how biology and evolution have effected human social behavior, primarily it applies Darwin's principle of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors

sociology

the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live

demography

the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration

social epidemiology

the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population

central nervous system

the subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord

Behavior

the sum coordinated responses of organisms to the internal and external stimuli that they experience

Group polarization

the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group (describes behaviour at the individual level, while choice shift describes the behaviour change of a group as a whole)

Social loafing

the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually

mental set

the tendency to approach problems in the same way - framework for thinking about a problem

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute our success to ourself and our failures to others and the external environment

just world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve; when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it

self-reference effect

the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourself, a prediction comes true because the individual accepts something as the truth and receives the feedback about his belief from at least one other person

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

negativity bias

the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences

ethnocentrism

the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture

activation-synthesis theory

the theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful

phallic stage

the third of Freud's psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals

prejudice

the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings that someone holds about a group that are not based on an actual experience; a pre-judgment or biases thinking about a group and its members

object permanence

the understanding that things continue to exist once they're out of sight

latent functions

the unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful (e.g. A newspaper acting as a fly swatter)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition of the DSM (the DSM-5)

norms

the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society; they help define what type of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and benefits; formal _____ are generally written down; laws are examples of formal _____. Informal _____ are generally understood, but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments

circadian rhythm

the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day

social stratification

the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income, among other things

sclera

the white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball

Schachter-Singer Theory

theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of psychological arousal occurs first, and is followed by a conscious, cognitive interpretation/appraisal that allows for the identification of the experiences emotion

Canon-Bard Theory

theory of emotion that asserts that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and collectively lead to the behavioral reaction

James-Lange Theory

theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is the result of physiological and behavioral responses (e.g. forcing a smile makes you feel slightly happy)

Incentive theory

theory of motivation based on gaining rewards and avoiding punishments

Instinct theory

theory of motivation in which humans are driven to do certain behaviours based on evolutionarily programmed instincts (instinct - innate, fixed pattern of behaviour in response to stimuli. It may be consistent throughout life, or it may appear or disappear with time)

Drive reduction theory Primary drives vs secondary drives

theory of motivation that postulates that motivations is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states primary drives are those that motivate us to sustain necessary biological processes. Secondary drives are those that motivate us to fulfill nonbiological (usually emotional) desires

Arousal theory

theory of motivation that postulates that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of arousal - viewed as a curve, in which too much or too little arousal reflects poorly on performance

Gestalt principle a) law of proximity b) law of similarity c) law of good continuation d) subjective contours e) closure

there are ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete a) law of proximity: elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit b) law of similarity: objects that are similar tend to be grouped together c) law of good continuation: objects that appear to follow the same path tend to be grouped together d) subjective contours: perceiving contours and, therefore, shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus e) closure: when a space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as a compete figure

Oedipus complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father who is seen as a rival.

Electra complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

this guy sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs (demonstrated by a pyramid) at the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic element necessary to sustain human life; in order, the rest of the needs include, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization; lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs

frustration-aggression principle

this principle suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggressionk

cortisol

this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body's use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus "sparing" glucose for the brain's use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness

psychoanalytic therapy

this therapy approach uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties

difference threshold (aka the just noticeable difference or JND)

this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time

ascribed status

those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts

achieved status

those statuses that are considered to be due largely to an individual's efforts

escape learning

through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus

ego defense mechanisms

to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop defense ego mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. Ego defense mechanisms are therefore normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes; developed by Sigmund Freud

Which neurotransmitters are theorized to play a role in mania and depression

too much NE and serotonin in a synapse = mania too little Ne and serotonin in a synapse = depression

cognitive psychology

tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviors

primary reinforcers

unconditional consequences that are innately satisfying of desirable; maybe biologically driven

discrimination

unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics (such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, disability)

grey matter

unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short, unmyelinated axons

Correspondent interference theory

used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional (esp unexpected) behaviours performed by another person

working memory

used to do things like math in our heads - few pieces of info in our conscience simultaneously

night terrors

usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning

Vestibule

utricle and saccule are sensitive to linear acceleration - detected by hair cells covered in otoliths that resist motion as body accelerates - bending - signal

social cues

verbal/nonverbal hints guide social interactions

Visual and spatial info are processed in the:

visuospatial sketchpad

Jung's self

was the point of intersection b/w the collective unconsciousness, the personal unconsciousness, and the conscious mind

Cognitive neoassociation model

we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when whenever we are feeling negative emotions (being tired, hungry, sick, frustrated, in pain) ex. riots are more likely to happen on hot days than cold ones - drivers with no AC are more likely to honk and display road rage

self-reference effect

we tend to recall information best when we put it into context of our own lives - a form of semantic encoding (putting info into a meaningful context)

Functional autonomy

when a behaviour continues even though the drive behind the behaviour has ceased

generalized other

when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the ____.

Disconfirmation principle

when a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, it should be discarded - sometimes confirmation bias prevent one from doing so

Halo effect

when judgments of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual - an individual's attractiveness can be seen to produce the halo effect

mood-dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

environmental injustice

when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being

justification of effort

when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort

self-fulfilling prophecy

when stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes

normative social influence

when the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection

fundamental attribution error

when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality on their behavior

five ethnicities model

white, black, Asian, Latino, Native American - some argue an oversimplification of racial categories the enforces socioeconomic inequalities

Preoperational stage

~2 to ~7 years symbolic thinking - ability to pretend egocentism - inability to imagine what another person may think or feel centration - tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon (ex. same quantity of pizza on two plates, but one is cut in two, child will take the one with two)

Dynamic equilibrium

Aspect of functionalism. Complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability. Unhealthy cites are unable to maintain this.

Cohort study

Following a subset of a population over a lifetime

Social movement

Group of people who share an ideology and work together toward a specific set of goals

Divorce rate in America

Has generally increased due to social and religious acceptance, more opportunities for women's autonomy, and lessened financial and legal barriers

Income vs wealth

Income is assets EARNED while wealth is assets already OWNED.

Urbanization

Increase in the proportion of people living in specified urban areas, due to industrialization

Fertility

The production of offspring within a population

reporting bias

(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences

Secondary reinforcer

- a conditioned reinforcer (ex. clicker now associated with the dolphin getting a fish)

Social construction model

- assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions - states that emotions are solely based on the situational context of social interactions

Hierarchy of Salience

- how our identities are organized - we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment

Rooting reflex

- infant turning of the head toward a stimulus that touches its cheek

Moro reflex

- infants react to abrupt movements of the head by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying - normally gone by 4 months

Association area

- integrates inputs from diverse brain regions

Septal Nuclei (limbic system)

- one of primary pleasure centres in the brain

Zone of Proximal development

- refers to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development

projection areas

- sensory processing areas

Factors Affecting Attitude Change

-Behavior change -Characteristics of the message -Characteristics of the target -Social factors

Weber's 5 main characteristic of an ideal bureaucracy

-Division of labor -Hierarchy of organization -Written rules and regulations -Impersonality -Employment based on technical qualifications

Stage 1 Sleep

-Light sleep -The brain emits alpha waves--> consistent with a relaxed state of wakefulness

The components of Emotional Intelligence

-Perceiving emotions -Using and reasoning with emotions -Understanding emotions -Managing emotions

Structures involved in the reward pathway

-Prefrontal cortex -VTA -Nucleus accumbens

Factors Associated with Performance on Multitasking

-Task similarity -Task difficulty -Task practice

Anxiety is characterized by:

-The experience of unwanted fear -A physical manifestation of excessive sympathetic nervous system activation -The frequent experience of excessive responses to stress -Concerns about the future and hypothetical situations

Three ways that behavior may be motivated by social influence

1) Compliance 2) Identification 3) Internalization

Two reasons why group polarization occurs

1) Informational influence 2) Normative influence

golden ratio

1.618:1 (we're attracted to this

What percentage of adults in America suffer from a diagnosable psychological disorder?

26%

Pre operational stage

2nd stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 2-7 years -Children learn to use language -Children think literally and egocentrically here--> unable to take on perspective of others

semicircular canals

3 loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance

Concrete Operational stage

3rd stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 7-11 years -Children develop inductive reasoning -Children learn about conservation of mass

Formal Operational stage

4th stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 11+ -Children develop deductive reasoning -Children start to think theoretically and philosophically -Children can begin to develop post-conventional moral reasoning (Kohlberg's theory!)

How much information can be held in working memory?

5-9 pieces of information (7 +/- 2)

Concrete operational stage

7 to 11 - concrete thinking - can consider perspective of others

Language development: 9 to 12 months: 12 to 18 months: 18 to 20 months: 2 to 3 years: 5 years:

9 to 12 months: babbling 12 to 18 months: about one word per month 18 to 20 months: "explosion of language" and combining words 2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more) 5 years: language rules largely mastered

Episodic buffer

A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory)

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Phonological loop

A component of working memory where we repeat verbal information to help us remember it

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Projection

A defense mechanism that involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts/feelings to another person

Sublimation

A defense mechanism that involves channeling aggressive/sexual energy into positive, constructive activities

Leptin

A hormone released by white adipose tissue to reduce hunger

The later sleep cycles are ____________.

A mixture between REM and non-REM sleep.

five-factor model

A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreableness, and concentiousness, this was developed by Costa and McCrae

Orexin

A neurotransmitter associated with narcolepsy

Biological theory of personality

A person's genome contributes to the formation of personality, and that personality traits differ in the event to which they are influenced by heredity versus environmental factors

Self esteem

A person's overall value judgment of himself. Acts as a mediating factor between self-concept and experience by shaping interpretations of events. High --> positive self concept Low --> negative self concept

Mood

A person's sustained INTERNAL emotion that colors his/her view of life

Identity

A person's view of who they are in terms of both internal factors and social/external factors. Places a larger emphasis on the individual's own perception of self, which contrasts from a "personality".

GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)

A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks.

Motivation

A psychological factor that provides a directional force or reason for behavior

Primary punisher

A punishing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (eg. exposure to extreme temperature). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.

Secondary punisher

A punishing stimulus that requires learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but is just as effective at controlling behavior as primary punishers. Includes fines, scolding, ostracism, and bad grades.

Hypnic jerks

A sensation of falling as you enter stage one sleep

Role strain

A single status results in conflicting expectations

Learned helplessness

A situation that arises where a person learns to not act because they perceive they do not have an internal locus of control, after experiencing an extreme situation

Physical attractiveness stereotype

A specific type of halo effect where people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for personality traits and characteristics

Reference group

A standard measure that people compare themselves to

Hypnosis

A state of relaxation, focused attention and increased willingness to relinquish control over one's actions. Induced through cooperation with a hypnotist or later as self-hypnosis. CANNOT be done against someone's will.

Ascribed status

A status that is assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts (ex. gender, race)

Achieved status

A status that is earned by a person due to the person's individual efforts

Algorithm

A step by step procedure that leads to a definite solution. It is an exhaustive technique but is not always the most efficient

Nicotine

A stimulant that disrupts sleep and suppresses appetite. Also causes muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters.

Caffeine

A stimulant that inhibits adenosine receptors, disrupting sleep.

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not elicit a behavioral response. Can eventually become conditioned response if presented immediately before unconditioned stimuli.

Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a learned response

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that results in an innate behavioral response (a response that is not learned)

Mental set

A tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past but might apply to a current situation.

feature detection theory

A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.

Gestalt psychology

A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts.

Secondary reinforcer

AKA conditioned reinforcers. Require learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but are just as effective at controlling behavior as primary reinforcers. Include money, praise, prestige, and good grades.

Associative learning

AKA conditioning. Refers to learning that involves associations between certain stimuli and specific responses

auditory tube

AKA the Eustachian tube, the auditory tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal

Cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

Relative Deprivation Theory

Actions of groups that are oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. ex. Civil Rights Movements

Role taking

Adopting the role of another person either by imitating behaviors associated with specific social roles or by taking the other person's POV in a social interaction

Advantages and Disadvantages to IQ Tests

Advantages -Simple to administer -Provides scores that are easy to compare -Correlates with academic performance Disadvantages -Less able to predict later career success/advancement -Shows a cultural bias against minorities -Single number score is misleading

Age stratified theory

Age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation

Sensitization

An increase in the responsiveness to a stimulus due to either repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus

Coercive organization

An organization by which its members do not have a choice

Utilitarian organization

An organization where people are paid/rewarded for their efforts

anxiety disorder

Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. In a person with an anxiety disorder, the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning

Exchange Theory

Application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals. Used to study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc. Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action.

What is required for associative learning of non-instinctual behaviors?

Appropriate cognitive processes (higher level brain function)

Operationalization

Approximating the true variables of interests with one that can be measured or tabulated

Reticular formation

Area of the brainstem involved in alertness and arousal

Dispositional attribution

Assigning the cause of an inherent quality or desire (internal locus of control)

State 3 Sleep

Associated with the appearance of delta wave brain emissions, reflecting the transition into deep sleep. Alpha waves are still around, but are less prominent

What determines which sensed stimuli continue to the level of perception?

Attention

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Average is defined at 100. Every 15 points above or below this score represents 1 SD above or below the man.

Avoidance conditioning

Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help avoid the unpleasant stimuli before it occurs.

Escape conditioning

Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help terminate the occurring unpleasant stimuli.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself, one's surroundings, one's thoughts, and one's goals

Prototype willingness model

Behavior is a function of: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, and prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping

Anomie

Breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community

Social anomie

Breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community- society doesn't have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Can be resolved by strengthening social norms and redeveloping group's set of shared norms.

Iconic memory

Brief and fleeting photographic memory

Warning colors

Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious

Top-down processing

Brings the influence of prior knowledge into play to make perception more efficient.

Broca's aphasia: Wernicke's aphasia: Conduction aphasia:

Broca's aphasia: inability to produce spoken language - telegraphed speech - aware their speech is lacking Wernicke's aphasia: unaware their speech is lacking (agnosia), paraphasia, word salad Conductive aphasia: severing of arcuate fasciculus - can produce and comprehend language, but cannot repeat back or read out loud

Sleep spindles

Bursts of waves on an EEG distinctive for stage 2 sleep

Ectoderm

CNS, PNS, epidermis, hair, nails, lens of the eye

Telencephalon

Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system

Global inequality

Certain countries hold a majority of the resources. Access to resources among countries seriously impacts social factors such as mortality. The burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population.

McDonaldization

Chains are predicable, uniform, efficient and automated; however, homogeny of the organization leads to loss of originality/creativity

Pheromones

Chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other

Role of culture in cognitive development

Children in Western cultures are generally object-focused, while those raise in Eastern cultures are more relationally focused.

Specialized movement stage

Children learn to combine fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks.

Schizophrenia

Chronic, incapacitating disorder by which a person is out of touch with reality

Panic attack

Classified as a person experiences intense dread, SOB, chest pain, choking sensation, cardiac symptoms

Communism

Classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community

Parasympathetic nervous system synapses where? And what neurotransmitter is used?

Close to the target organ Acetylcholine is used at both synapses

Principle of nearness

Clusters of objects will each be perceived as a distinct group

The components of emotion

Cognition: Personal assessment of the significance of particular situation Physiological: Activation of the autonomic nervous system Behavioral: Urges to act in a certain way NOTE: these components can act in ANY order

Gender schema

Cognitions that constitute the gender identity

Proprioception

Cognitive awareness of of balance/position of body in space.

Serial processing

Cognitive process involving considering each input one at a time

Parallel processing

Cognitive process involving devotion to multiple inputs at once

Psychoanalytic - Collective unconscious Jungian archetypes Persona: Anima: Animus: Shadow:

Collective unconscious: links all humans together Persona: the aspect of our personality we represent to the world Anima: a "man's inner woman" Animus: a "woman's inner man" Shadow: unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness

T-test

Compares mean values of a continuous variable between 2 categories/groups.

ANOVA

Compares mean values of a contributes variable for multiple categories/groups

Obedience vs compliance

Compliance deals with requests made by people without authority Obedience deals with people with authority - people are more likely to obey than comply

Front stage self

Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs in front of an audience. The player know they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience

Aggression

Conflict and competition between individuals. A social behavior

Attribution theory

Conscious and unconscious processes both contribute to the formation of ideas about what caused another person to behave in a particular way

The prefrontal cortex is associated with:

Conscious regulation of emotional states, and CRITICAL in temperament and decision making

Agents of socialization

Consist of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Include family, friends, neighbors, social institutions, consumption of mass media, and environments

Consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness cues

Consistency cues: consistent behaviour over time Consensus cues: matches others' behaviour Distinctiveness cues: uses similar behaviour in similar situations

Three factors impacting attribution of behavior

Consistency--> is the person's behavior typical Distinctiveness--> is the person's behaviors towards everything, or just one thing? Consensus--> are they the only person with that behavior

Feminist Theory

Contemporary approach of looking at work from macro perspective, focusing on stratifications/inequalities in society, particularly women's social roles in education, family, and workforce. Women face DISCRIMINATION, OBJECTIFICATION, OPPRESSION, AND STEREOTYPING. NOT an attempt to replace men.

What is the most rapid way to establish a learned response?

Continuous reinforcement

Beliefs

Convictions or principles that people hold in a culture

Iron law of oligarchy

Criticizes the hierarchal nature of bureaucracy ,stating that people at the top of the hierarchy will inevitably come to value their power over the purpose of the orgnanization

Culture lag

Culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems

The most recent edition of the guidebook for diagnosis of psychological disorders is the:

DSM-V

Situational attribution

Deciding that environmental forces were in control (external locus of control)

Stage 4 Sleep

Deep sleep. Characterized entirely by delta waves on an EEG

Obedience

Describes behavioral changes made in response to a command by an authority figure

Reinforcement schedule

Describes how often and under what conditions a behavior is reinforced

Context effects

Describes how the context in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus

Decay

Describes the fading of a memory. Fate of information in working memory that is not encoded into long term memory. Neurologically, represents wearing of connections that make up the neural network holding a memory.

Long term potentiation

Describes the increase in likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. Repeated stimulation by the presynaptic neuron leads to increase in strength of the excitatory postsynaptic potential--> makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire in response to stimulation by the presynaptic neuron. Can take place via additive influence of multiple inputs.

Latent learning

Describes the manifestation of previously unseen behavior. Somethings s learned by not expressed as can observable behavior until it is required

Reverse discrimination

Discrimination against the majority. Used to describe the negative consequences of affirmative action

Role exit

Disengaging from a role that that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another

Neurodevelopment disorders

Disorders that involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Include intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD

Neurotransmitter associated with additive behaviors

Dopamine

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter sensory and perceptual experience. Most act as agonists.

Barbituates

Drugs that are used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. Act as depressants.

Opiates

Drugs that are used to treat pain and anxiety. NOT depressants--> act on endorphins.

Serial position effect

Encompass the primacy and recency effects that come with trying to remember a list of items

Trust vs Mistrust

Erikson psychosocial crisis resolved in the first year of life. Ability to trust.

Systematic error

Error that shifts all measurements in a standardized way. Decreases accuracy. Can result in bias

Anxiety disorders manifest physically as:

Excessive sympathetic nervous system activation

Mary Ainsworth

Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants

Hyperopia

Farsightedness

Universal emotions include:

Fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness

Vicarious emotions

Feeling the emotions of others as though they are one's own, in order to learn from the successes and mistakes of others through observation

Social class in America is largely determined by ________.

Financial wealth

Social support

Finding help through social connections. A social behavior

Rudimentary movements

First voluntary movements performed by a child

Assimilation

Fitting new information into preexisting schemas

Freud Psychosexual development Stages: Fixation:

Fixation: occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. 1) Oral: libidinal energy centered on the mouth; fixation can lead to excessive dependency (0-1) 2) Anal: Toilet training occurs during this time; fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness (1-3) 3) Phallic: Oedipal or Electra conflict is resolved during this stage (3-5) 4) Latency: Libido is largely sublimated during this stage 5) Genital: begins at puberty; if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationships

Fad

Fleeting behavior that occurs when something becomes incredibly popular very quickly but loses popularity just as quickly

Echoic memory

Fleeting memory for sound

Resource Mobilization Theory

Focus on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources

Gender script

Gender-specific organized information regarding order of actions appropriate to familiar situations

Monarchy

Government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead

The looking glass self

How we see ourselves does not come from who we really are, but rather from how we believe others see us

Social selection

Idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individual in a population

Internalization

Idea/belief/behavior that has be been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity

Looking glass self

Identity develops through interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others. People shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them

Pleasure principle

In psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. The id does so with no logical/moral reasoning, and does not distinguish mental images from external objects.

Insecure attachment

In the presence of their caregiver, infants aren't likely to explore their environment and might cling to their caregiver. If the caregiver leaves, the child will either be extremely distressed or demonstrate indifference to her departure. Occurs when mothers are insensitive or unresponsive

Presbyopia

Inability to accommodate the lens of the eye. Normal part of age.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to encode new memories

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall info previously encoded

Self-serving bias is more prominent in ______________.

Individualistic cultures

Hawthorne Effect

Individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed

Fundamentalists

Individuals who adhere strictly to religious beliefs

Feral children

Individuals who were not raised with human contact or care

Moro reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.

Rooting reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will turn its head towards a stroke of cheek and open its mouth

Secure attachment

Infants will play in the presence of their primary caregiver, but will become distressed when the caregiver leaves the room. Upon the caregiver's return, the child will seek contact with her and is easily consoled

Power

Influence over a community

Short-term memory

Information that is held as items in conscious awareness. Info can be manipulated rather than stored passively (can be applied to real world).

Long-term memory

Information that is maintained outside of conscious awareness and can be called back into working memory when needed. HAS NO LIMIT OF STORAGE

Temperament

Innate, genetically influenced baseline of personality that includes the infant's tendency towards certain patterns of emotions and social interaction

Meditation

Intentional, self-produced state of consciousness induced by relying and systematically shifting attention away from day-to-day concerns

Declarative memory

Involves information that is consciously known

General adaptation syndrome

Involves three distinct stages of stress: 1) Alarm phase--> stress kicks in and heart races 2) Resistance--> fleeing, huddling, a ton of cortisol 3) Exhaustion--> if this doesn't occur, we get tissue damage

The problem with heuristics is that:

It may lead to overgeneralization

Dual coding hypothesis

It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.

White-collar work

Jobs that are professional, administrative, or managerial in nature; defines the middle class

Kohlberg's Theory of Development

Key: Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning. Levels are defined by REASONING for decision, not by what decision is made Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality -Based solely on consideration of anticipated consequences of behavior (reward vs punishment) -No internalization of what's right and wrong Stage 1: Punishment--> avoid punishment Stage 2: Reward---> seek reward Level II: Conventional Morality -Acceptance of conventional definitions of what is right and wrong -Stage 3: Social disapproval--> avoid social disapproval -Stage 4: Rule following --> duty to obey rules established Level III: Post-conventional morality (few people reach this stage) -Internal ethical guidelines, with rules being useful but malleable guidelines Stage 5: Social contract --> wants to ensure greatest good for greatest number of people Stage 6: Universal ethics --> ensures universal justice

What is typically used to treat Parkinson's patients

L-dopa--> precursor to dopamine that is able to pass the blood-brain barrier (unlike dopamine)

Learning theory of language development

Language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning--> continuing interaction with environmental reinforcement

Mass hysteria

Large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time

Macrosociology

Large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities and statistical data. Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economy

Secondary groups

Larger, more impersonal groups that may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time. Serve INSTRUMENTAL functions

Learning-performance distinction

Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things

Observational learning

Learning through observation (and imitation) of others' behaviors. Very important in childhood.

Broca's area

Located in the frontal lobe. Primarily involved in speech production. People who are damaged in this area cannot produce language but understand it normally.

Activity theory

Looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Lost social interactions (work, certain activities) need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged

Manifest vs latent functions

Manifest functions: deliberate actions that serve to help a given system Latent functions: unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions

Encoding of information into long-term memory is guided by :

Meaning

What level of stress is optimal for performance?

Medium level of arousal

Social loafing

Members a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder

Semantic memory

Memory of words and phrases (remembering simple facts)

Schemas

Mental representations or frameworks of the world

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution. They are timesaving but can potentially lead problem solving efforts astray

Meritocracy vs Plutocracy

Meritocracy: based on intellectual talent and achievement, and is a means for a person to advance up a social ladder Plutocracy: rule by the upper class (some argue that motivation, strong work ethic, drive, and mastery of skills no longer offers opportunities for advancement in the US, therefore it is not a meritocracy, but a plutocracy)

Biological basis of empathy

Mirror neurons are responsible

filter model

Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent)

Sexual selection

Natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex

Sympathetic nervous system synapses where? And uses what neurotransmitter?

Near the spine between T1 and L2/L3 preganglionic neurons release ACh, and postganglionic - NE

Principle of similarity

Objects with a shared feature (shape) will likewise be perceived as a single group

Marginal porverty

Occurs when person lacks stable employment

Disengagement Theory

Older adults and society separate, assume that they become more self-absorbed as they age. Considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well

Parasomnias: include?

Parasomnias: abnormal movements or behaviours during sleep night terrors and sleep walking

Schizoid personality disorder

Person is a loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships with anyone

Traditional authority

Power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice

Charismatic authority

Power due to persuasion (eg. MLK)

Population projections

Predict changes in populations by examining current data

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Presence of others improves performance on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks. AKA people perform best when they are moderately aroused

Proactive interference

Previously held knowledge prevents successful retrieval of more newly learned information . Occurs when information that is newly learned is similar to that in older memories.

Learning occurs more quickly through what type of stimuli?

Primary stimuli ---> learning is quicker if it's biologically relevant

Primary versus secondary deviance

Primary: no big consequences Secondary: more serious consequences

Reflexive movements

Primitive, involuntary movements of infants that serve to prime the neuromuscular system and form the basis for more complex movements later in life.

Means-end analysis

Problem solving method where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal

Intuition

Problem solving using personal perception or feeling rather than logic. Aka the "gut feeling". Time saving but potentially flawed.

Binding problem

Problem with feature detection theory regarding how all of different aspects of feature detection are assembled together and related to a single object. This problem is solved by visual attention.

Illness experience

Process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Can change a person's self identity

Models

Provide an approximation (physical/conceptual representation) of a scientific phenomenon that cannot be observed directly

Humanistic therapy

Provides an environment that will help clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional reactions, so they can learn and grow from their experiences. Personal growth through self-insight is the goal, achieved through active listening and unconditional positive regard

Libido

Psychoanalytic concept--> it is the life instinct that drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure

Somatoform disroders

Psychological disorders characterized by bodily symptoms

Prospective memory

Remembering to do things in the future

Negative punishment

Removal of a desired stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA removes stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior

Negative reinforcement

Removal of an unpleasant stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA takes away stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior

Harlow, Harry, and Margaret

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social defecits

Diffusion of responsibility

Responsible for bystander effect. People in a large, anonymous crowd are less likely to feel accountable for the outcome of a situation or to feel responsibility to take action

Dishabituation

Results when a repeated stimulus is removed

State-dependent cues

Retrieval cues that are related to the state you were in when you learned the information.

Urban renewal

Revamping old parts of cities to become better. Can lead to gentrification.

Sanctions

Rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

Role conflict: Role strain Role exit

Role conflict: difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles Role strain: difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role Role exit: dropping of one identity for another

Representativeness heuristic

Rule of thumb where people look for the most representative answer, such as if a person matches a prototype. Essentially seeing the most likely/probable answer as the correct answer

Hidden curriculum

School curricula transmits cultural ideals beyond the stated goal of the institution. Encompasses the unspoken aims of education (teaching children to conform to social expectations)

Hyperglobalist perspective

Sees it as a new age in human history: countries become interdependent and nation-states themselves are less important

Sense organs differ in __________.

Sensitivity

Foraging behavior

Set of behaviors through which animals obtain food. A social behavior. Animals optimize this to maximize the energy available through food and to minimize the energy expenditure involved in obtaining it.

Dementia

Severe loss of cognitive ability beyond what would be expected from normal aging.

Cyclothymic disorder

Similar to bipolar disorder but the moods ar else extreme

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking

Exchange mobility

Social classes maintain a relatively static number of people

Institutional discrimination

Social institutions employ policies that differentiate people based on social grouping

Ethnicity

Socially defined concept referring to whether or not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry

Conversion disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person experiences a change in sensory/motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, but seems affected by psychological factors

Somatization disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person experiences a variety of physical symptoms over an extended period of time. The person needs to have many somatic symptoms (pain, GI stress, sexual stress, and neurological)

Body dysmorphic disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person is preoccupied with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance

Pain disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person suffers clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors

Mindguarding

Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group

Mirror neurons

Specialized nerve cells which fire both when a person is completing an action and when the person observes someone else completing the same action. Critical for observational learning (learning by imitation), and responsible for vicarious emotions

Egalitarian family

Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in negotiation when making decisions

Diffusion

Spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another

Spacing

Spreading out studying to shorter periods for greater encoding of information

Social institutions

Stable hierarchical systems that bring order to interpersonal interactions, structuring society. Examples are government/economy, education, religion, family, and health/medicine. Provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society, and mediate social behavior between people.

Master status

Status that dominates the others and determines the individual's general position in society

Stereotypes vs prejudice vs discrination

Stereotypes: occur when attitudes or impressions are made based on limited and superficial information about a person or group (cognitive) Prejudice: defined as an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience (affective) Discrimination: when prejudice attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others (behavioural)

Self-handicapping

Strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

Histrionic personality disorder

Strongly desires to be center of attention, and seeks to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior. Dramatic emotional affect with shallow actual emotions, with vague speech

Vygotsky's Theory of Development

Studied the role that social interaction plays in development of cognition. Current developmental level: tasks that a child can perform w/o help from others Zone of proximal development: range of abilities b/t current & potential developmental level. Consists of all of the skills that can be accomplished with help Potential developmental level: The most advanced takes that a child can do with guidance from more knowledgable people

Bumps on the back of the midbrain:

Superior colliculi: visual sensory info relay Inferior colliculi: auditory sensory info relay

State capitalism

System in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations

Token economy

System of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior. Reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers

Marijuana

THC binds cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors - increases GABA activity and dopamine activity - stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen

The parietal lobe is associated with:

Tactile information (somatosensory information)

Teacher expectancy

Teachers treat students differently according to preconceived ideas about their capabilities. Influences students' achievements

Systematic desensitization

Teaching an individual to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Works great with phobias

Twin studies

Tease out the effects of the genetic and environmental influences of a trait, by determining the degree to which genetic inheritance influences it

Shadowing

Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard

Traditionalism

Tendency to follow authority. Shown to be common in twins

Functional fixedness

Tendency to view objects as having only a single function. Can be useful but also stifles creativity depending on context

Androgyny vs undifferentiated

Terms of gender identity Androgyny - scoring highly on both masculine and feminine scales Undifferentiated - scoring low on both scores of masculine and feminine scales

Symbols

Terms, concepts, or items that represent specific meanings by accepted convention. Meanings ascribed to symbols are determined by social norms and cultural values.

Neural plasticity

The ability of the brain's networks of neurons and their synapses to change. Allows adaptation to chaining life circumstances as well as memory formation (memory can be stored as changes to networks of neurons)

Deductive reasoning

The ability to apply general concepts to specific situations

Crystallized intelligence

The ability to think logically using specific, previously learned knowledge which remains stable throughout adulthood

Fluid intelligence

The ability to think logically without the need for previously learned knowledge. Peaks in young adulthood and then declines

Intelligence

The ability to understand and reason with complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, and learn from experience

Inductive reasoning

The ability to use specific situations to forming general concepts

General fertility rate

The annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age

Stereotype threat

The anxiety and resulting impaired performance that a person may experience when confronted with negative stereotype about a group to which he belongs or when he feels his performance may confirm a negative stereotype about his group. Can cause stereotypes to become self-fulfilling prophecies

Optimism bias

The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's group is of central importance. Includes the tendency to judge the practices by other groups by one's own cultural standards

Class consciousness

The beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.

Weber's Law

The change in a stimulus required to meet the difference threshold is a certain fraction of the originally presented stimulus. The fraction is constant for each sense but differs based on the original stimulus and what sense we are using.

Personality

The characteristics that make a person different from others and may be predictive of behaviors. Considered the individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person.

Working memory

The combination of storing and activity using short term memory. Info is encoded here through auditory representation (you hear the info you may have initially processed as visual info).

Situational approach to explaining behaviors

The concept of enduring personality traits is fatally flawed because of variations in behavior that occur across different situations. Still allows stability in personality, however, because people behavior according to their interpretations of situations.

The nuclear family

The concept of family in which one man and one woman live together with their children; most common concept of family in the US. Consists of DIRECT blood relations.

Cognitive dissonance theory

The conflict between internal attitudes and external behaviors. People have an inherent desire to avoid the internal discomfort associated with a mismatch b/t the two. ASSUMES people have a self-concept of consistency and honesty --> will not occur in people who do not view themselves as honest and consistent

Bottom-up processing

The construction of perceptions from individual pieces of information provided by sensory processing

Sensation

The conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals that are transferred through the nervous system by neurons. This is a PHYSICAL process.

Recognition

The correct identification of information that is presented. An easier form of retrieval.

Mortality

The death rate within a population.

Alertness

The default state of consciousness--> most people are generally alert when awake

Social potency trait

The degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations

Trait versus state controversery

The degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or due to the situation itself.

Culture shock

The discomfort and ensuring reevaluation of personal cultural assumptions when an individual experiences a culture different from her own

Social facts

The elements that serve some function in society, such as the laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society.

Environmental justice

The equal treatment of all people regardless of race, gender, or other social grouping with regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards

Religiosity

The extent of influence of religion in a person's life

Conduction aphasia

The inability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted

The blind spot

The location on the retina where the optic nerve connects. It has no cones or rods, so images projected there are not visible.

Attenuation Model

The mind has an attenuator which is able to turn down unattended sensory input rather than eliminating it.

Rehearsal

The repetition of a phonetic representation. A process used to maintain information in working memory.

Recall

The retrieval of memory from scratch. A harder form of retrieval.

Peer pressure

The social influence exerted by one's peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to their own behaviors

Divided attention

The splitting of perceptual resources between multiple stimuli or behaviors. Results in the stimuli receiving less attention than if they were focused on individually.

Acquisition

The stage of learning over which a conditioned response to a new stimulus is established

Stress

The strain that is experienced when an organism's equilibrium is disrupted and it must adapt

Memory consolidation

The strengthening of the neural network that represents a memory

Behaviorism

The study of external observable behaviors (as opposed to internal motivaitons/thoughts)

Sociobiology

The study of how biology and evolution have affected human behavior. Applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors. Additionally, argues that biological predisposition is influenced by social factors, and that the origins of culture lie in human evolution.

Naroclepsy

The takeover of waking life by REM that occurs without warning

Conformity

The tendency of individuals to CHANGE their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors to align with group norms. Necessary for the smooth functioning of social communities

Social facilitation

The tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched. Usually most pronounced for tasks at which the performer is highly practiced or skilled

People with longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be:

Thrill seekers

Central traits

Traits such as honesty, sociability, and shyness. Less dominant traits

Vehicular control

Type of experimental control that determines what experimental group does without the directly desired impact

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of others base don their membership in a specific social group. Its effects are mediated by factors such as power, prestige, and class. THINK: it is an ACTION

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to

Drives

Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism

Elimination disorder

Urination/defecation at inappropriate times

The occipital lobe is associated with:

Visual information

Identification

When people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual

Frustration-aggression principle

When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, the frustration can trigger anger, leading to aggression

Frustration Aggression principle

When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger and lead to aggression

According to humanistic theory, when is an individual's personality healthy?

When the individual's actual self, ideal self, and perceived self (self-concept) overlap (are the same)

False consensus bias

When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

Projection bias

When we assume others share the same beliefs we do

Informational social influence

When we conform because we feel others are more knowledgable than us, because we think they know something we don't

Construct validity

Whether a tool is measuring what it is intended to measure

Is conformity necessary for a society to function smoothly?

Yes

Recency bias

Your most recent actions are important--> people place emphasis on your more recent actions/performances

negative feedback

a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a result which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the result within tightly controlled bounds

social institutions

a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people; they provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society and mediate social behavior between people

Habituation

a decrease in response due to continued exposure to a stimulus

personal identity

a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes

ecclesia

a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions

endocrine gland

a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood

Type II error

a false negative, the incorrect acceptance of a null hypothesis

Type I error

a false positive, the incorrect rejection of a null hypothesis

hallucination

a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)

polygamy

a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

monogamy

a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other

exocrine gland

a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands

society

a group of people who share a culture and live /interact with each other within a definable area

in-group

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are

out-group

a group that an individual does not belong to

secondary group

a larger and more impersonal group than a primary group which usually interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time; these groups serve pragmatic needs

illusory correlation

a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. )

mood

a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life

affect

a person's visible emotion in the moment

multiculturalism

a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy; also called pluralism

groupthink

a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one

social dysfunction

a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society

dendrite

a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites

dysthymic disorder

a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. A person with dysthymic disorder has felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode

body dysmorphic diorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia

depersonalization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside

histrionic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by accumulation of money or worthless objects

dissociative amnesia

a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or traums

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

a psychological disorder characterized by obsessions (repeated intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety); compulsions (repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring or both

major depressive disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks

panic disorder

a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or spontaneous, "occuring frequently" and unexpectedly

cyclothymic disorder

a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. A person with cyclothymic disorder has experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years

residual-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms

attachment theory

a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)

humanistic psychology

a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology

proprioceptor

a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts

photoreceptor

a receptor that responds to light

reciprocal determinism

a reciprocal interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors

reflex arc

a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement

cult (aka a new religious movement)

a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

exogamy

a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

decoy

a research technique often used as part of deception, generally to intentionally mislead or confuse participants

neobehaviorism

a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments

critical theory

a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities; it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society

Social exclusion

a sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society

baroreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure

mechanoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as shape changes, being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others

psychological disorder/illness or mental illness

a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

class system

a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)

meritocracy

a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort

matriarchy

a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures

patriarchy

a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family

ethnicity

a socially defined concept referring to whether of not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry

physical attractiveness stereotype

a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive

algorithm

a step-by-step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving

progesterone

a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy

self-handicapping

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

phobia

a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety of a full panic attack

language

a symbolic system that is codified for communication

endocrine system

a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood

matrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage

rehearsal

a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory

functional fixedness

a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

recency effect

a tendency to recall the last item presented in a list

confirmation bias

a tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion

Drive Reduction Theory

a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior

cognitive dissonance theory

a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done.

game theory

a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population

electrical synapse

a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques

humanistic psychotherapy

a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon maladaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dispositional factors than does psychoanalysis

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Social mobility Intragenerational vs. Intergenerational

ability to move up or done from one class to another Intragenerational: changes within social status happen within a person's lifetime Intergenerational: changes are from parents to children

psychosexual stages

acc. to Freud's psychoanalytical theory, individuals progress through 5 psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure; the 5 stages are: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stages, the latent stage, and the genital stage

psychological fixation

acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage

libido

according to psychoanalytic theory, it is the life instinct which drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure

death instinct

according to psychoanalytic theory, the death instinct drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others

behaviorism

according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people being as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities

habit

action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

Social action

actions and behaviours that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around

A sleepy, relaxed state of awakeness will show what type of wave on an EEG?

alpha waves

operant conditioning

also known as 'instrumental conditioning'; a form of associate learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency

basal nuceli

also known as basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement

food desert

an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find

priming

an effect of implicit memory whereby exposure to a given stimulus "primes" or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus

normative organization

an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals

conditioned stimulus

an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present

overconfidence

an overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments

social phobia

an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom

drive

an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. Drives can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium

instrumental conditioning

another term for operant conditioning

mental retardation

another way of saying intellectual disability

synaptic pruning

as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered

linguistic relativity hypothesis

asserts when the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world

dramaturgical approach

assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective

Stereotype content model

attempts to classify stereotypes based on two binary criteria, warmth and competence 4 categories: Paternalistic - low status, not competitive (elderly, housewives, disabled) Admiration stereotype - high status, not competitive (in-group, close allies) Contemptuous stereotype - low status, competitive (welfare recipients, poor people) Envious stereotype - high status, competitive (Asians, Jews, feminists)

Game theory Evolutionary stable strategy

attempts to explain decision-making behaviour, players define the game Evolutionary stable strategy: when an EES is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising

reflex

automatic behaviors that occur without thinking

self-consciousness

awareness of oneself

consciousness

awareness of self, internal states, and the environment

A weak argument will be effective in changing attitudes through a) central route b) peripheral route or c) both

b--> weak arguments only work through peripheral route

Conflict theory

based on work of Karl Marx - focuses on how power differentials are created how they contribute to the maintenance of social order

Prodromal phase of schizophrenia

before diagnosis, phase is exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behaviour, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences

aggression

behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. In sociology, aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group

self-enhancement

behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others

instinct

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation

behavioural factors, personal factors, and environmental factors

Positive symptoms

behaviours, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behaviour (for schizophrenia - delusions & hallucinations, disorganized thought, and catatonic behaviour)

hypothalamus

brain structure located above the brainstem that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep; it is also involved in the physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased HR

hippocampus

brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia

dyssomnias

broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

self-concept (self-identity)

broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influence by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas

rapid eye movement (REM)

bursts of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep

A strong argument will be effective in changing attitudes through a) central route b) peripheral route or c) both

c--> both

Sleep deprivation

can occur after just one night of no sleep or from many nights of poor quality sleep - when permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation will exhibit REM rebound, earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep

Amphetamines

cause increased release of dopamine, NE, and serotonin at the synapse and decrease their reuptake

Sensory adaptation

change over time in responsiveness to the sensory system to a constant stimulus

Riots

characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes

Dissociative fuge

characterized by sudden travel or change in normal day-to-day activities and occurs in some cases with dissociative amnesia

Conversion disorder

characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory function

olfactory receptors

chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that respons to odor chemicals

gustatory receptors

chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food

Disorganized Attachment

children with this show no clear pattern of behaviour in response to a caregiver's absence or presence, instead show a mix of dif behaviours (avoidance, seeming dazed, frozen, confused, rocking) - may be a red flag for abuse

depressant

class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates

intellectual disability

classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation

episodic memory

clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, also called flashbulb memories

Karl Marx

closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology

Pygmalion effect

closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.

central route

cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument

peripheral route

cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator

B.F. Skinner

coined the term "operant conditioning"; he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior

cyclothymic disorder

combination of hypomania episodes and periods of dysthymia

Type A personality

competitive and compulsive

Sleep stages and EEG waves associated

complete cycle of stages lasts ~ 90 minutes Stage 1: theta waves Stage 2: theta waves, sleep spindles, and k complexes Stage 3 and 4: delta waves - slow wave sleep (associated with cognitive recovery, memory consolidation [declarative], and increased GH release) - predominates at the beginning of the night REM: predominates later in the night

Stereotype threat

concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group - may hinder performance and create a self-fulfilling prophecy

Solomon Asch

conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions

Conscious, preconscious, unconscious (Freud)

conscious: currently aware of preconscious: aren't currently aware of unconscious: repressed

Mortality rate

deaths per 1000 per year

Cocaine

decreases reuptake of dopamine, NE, and serotonin (dif mechanism) - anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties

dysthymia

depressed mood that isn't sever enough to meet the criteria for a major depressive episode

intragenerational mobility

describes the differences in social classes between different members of the same generation

Jean Piaget

developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children

Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia:

disturbance of affect, blunting (severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression), flat affect, inappropriate affect (might laugh hysterically while describing someones death)

Humanistic perspective

emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward happiness and self-realization

Robber's cave experiment

experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases

in regard to emotion, what is the difference b/w explicit and implicit memories

explicit memory is the story of the event: what happened, where it occurred, who was involved, how it made you feel - medial temporal lobe implicit memory corresponds to the actual sensation and retrieval makes one feel the emotion - amygdala

Albert Bandura

famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning

Ivan Pavlov

famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell

Fertility rate vs birth rate

fertility rate: children per woman per lifetime birth rate: children per 1000 people per year

foot-in-the-door technique door-in-the-face technique lowball technique (compliance techniques)

foot-in-the-door technique: ask a small request followed by another one door-in-the-face technique: ask a large request, followed by a smaller request (often the true goal) lowball technique: requestor gets an initial commitment that turns out to be greater than the commitment first or previously agreed upon

general intelligence

foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities

nodes of ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons; action potentials can jump from node to node; thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction)

Extrapyramidal motor system

gathers information about body position - proprioception and carries to CNS

primary groups

groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages within person, in long-term, emotional ways

Bipolar II disorder

has hypomania with at least one major depressive episode

Somatic symptom disorder

have at least one somatic symptom but have disproportionate concerns about its seriousness

dynamic equilibrium

in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability

serial position effect

includes the primacy and recency effect; when information is presented serially in a list format, individuals are more likely to recall the first and the last items presented

Bystander effect

individuals are less likely to intervene and help when others are present - likelihood and timeliness of response is inversely related to the number of bystanders

Depersonalization/derealization disorder

individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings (derealization)

self-serving bias

individuals will view their own success based on internal factors and their failures on external factors

spacing effect

information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning

long-term memory

information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity

language acquisition device

innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood as hypothesized by Noam Chomsky

positive punishment

introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior

Wernicke's area

language comprehension (temporal lobe)

crystallized intelligence

learned skills and knowledge - peaks in late middle adulthood

HIppocampus

learning and memory - long term memory consolidation

nonassociative learning

learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events; two types are habituation and sensitization

latent learning

learning that occurs without a reward, but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

Self-fulfilling prophecy

making what one expects to happen, happen

penis-envy

occurs during phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis

phonological loop

part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory

The genetic contribution to depression is:

polygenic

classical conditioning

process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them

Variable-ratio schedule

reinforce a behaviour after a varying # of performances of the behaviour - works the fastest (compared to fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, or variable-interval) - also most resistant to extinction - Very Rapid and Very Resistant to extinction

recognition

retrieving information from memory with the use of cues such as a multiple choice format

recall

retrieving information from memory; free _____ involves retrieval without any cues, whereas cued _____ prompts retrieval with a cue

positive reinforcement

reward immediately following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior; e.g. praise

sanctions

rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

Heuristics

rules of thumb

Secure attachment

seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore knowing that he or she has a secure base to return to - will prefer a caregiver over a stranger - distress when caregiver leaves

Locus of control

self evaluation that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with an internal locus of control see their successes and failures as a result of their own characteristics and actions, while those with an external locus of control perceive outside factors as having more of an influence in their lives

Semicircular canals

sensitive to rotational accleration - sensed in the ampulla by hair cells

hair cells

sensory receptors found in the inner ear, cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration used for balance

Cultural syndrome

shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviours among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme - influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotons

noise trial

signal is not presented

Catch trial

signal is presented

Mesoderm

skeletal muscle, bones, circulatory system, connective tissue, adipose tissue, dermis

narcolepsy

sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 min

sleep apnea

sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep and may wake up gasping for breath

The more sensitive the sense organ, the __________ the Weber fraction required for detection of the stimulus.

smaller

Broca's area

speech production (frontal lobe)

formal operational stage

starts at 11 - ability to think logically about abstract ideas

Iron law of oligarchy

states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group

nucleus accumbens

structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior

hypnotism

structured social interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go, individuals that have gone through this may be more susceptible to accepting suggestions

reticular formation (aka reticular activating system or RAS)

structures in the brainstem that are important for alertness and arousal as in wakefulness

Functionalism

study of the structure and function of each part of society and how they fit together.

insecure attachment

style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs; in Einsworth's experiments, these infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother; they may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room

insight learning

sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; the aha moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways

Diencephalon

thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland

empathy

the ability to identify with others' emotions

social mobility

the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

retention interval

the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled

self-schemas

the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves

race

the biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual, wand includes the following U.S> census categories: white, black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander

optic disc

the blind spot of the eye; this is where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve; there are no photoreceptors here

soma

the cell body of a neuron

cornea

the clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil

impression management or self-presention

the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others; this is achieved by controlling the amount of type of information or the social interaction

beliefs

the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold

cochlea

the curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials

choroid

the darkly-pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between the sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer)

mortality

the death rate in a population

face validity

the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims to a casual observer, the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to the test participants

construct validity

the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring, the appropriateness of inferences made on the basis of observations or measurements (often test scores), specifically whether a test measures the intended variable

Normative conformity

the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection

identity formation (individuation)

the development of a distinct individual personality

parasympathetic nervous sytem

the division of the autonomic nervous system known as the "resting and digesting" system. it causes a general decrease in body activities such as heart rate, and blood pressure and an increase in blood flow to the GI tract and an increase in digestive function; because the paraganglionic neurons all originate from either the brain or the sacram, it is also known as the craniosacral system

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches

social facts

the elements that serve some function in society such as laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and roles that make up a society

incongruity

the emotional result when the real self falls short of ideal self

acetylcholinesterase

the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft

religiosity

the extent that religion influences a person's life

global inequality

the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population

Social stigma

the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society ex. mental illness has been stigmatized in american society

bystander effect

the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around

oral stage

the first Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing

basilar membrane

the flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch

depth of processing

the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered

social behaviorism

the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others

functional fixedness

the inability to consider to use an object in a nontraditional manner

retina

the innermost layer of the eyeball; it is made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells

manifest function

the intended or obvious consequences of a social structure

corpus callosum

the largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

organic amnesia

the loss of memory due to biological factors such as brain disorders, tumors, strokes, degenerative diseases, or any other of a multitude of other disruptions of neurological function

belief perseverance

the maintenance of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary

oval window

the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear

representativeness heuristic

the mental shortcut where one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things

Alzheimer's Disease

the most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia

depolarization

the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential

acetylcholine (ACh)

the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system

norepinephrine (NE)

the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the post-ganglionic organ-level (synapse)

cultural capital

the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility

functionalism/ structural functionalism

the oldest of the main theories of sociology, which conceptualized society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose (Prominent theorists include Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Auguste Comte, Davis and Moore, Robert Merton, almond and Powell)

master status

the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society (e.g. occupation, disability, role, etc)

effector

the organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron

adrenal cortex

the outer region of the adrenal gland. The adrenal cortex produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress and aldosterone in response to low BP or low blood osmolarity

social facilitation effect

the phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple well-learned tasks better when other people are present

group polarization

the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was

mere-exposure effect

the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them sometimes repeatedly; e.g. listening to a song sounds better the second time; also called familiarity principle

social loafing

the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable

hypophysis

the pituitary gland

healthcare disparities

the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and qualities of healthcare in different social groups

midbrain

the portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes

integrative reminiscence

the process by which older people may take stock of their lives and come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts

role exit

the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on a new role

relearning

the process of learning material that was originally learnt

Prestige

the relative value assigned to something within a particular society

Stage 1 sleep is dominated by:

theta waves

Sapire-Whorf hypothesis

this hypothesis asserts that people understands their world through language and that language in turn shapes how people experience their world

behavioral therapy

this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction

The primary sense of humans is:

vision

Identity shift effect

when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group

Mores

wildly observed norms

Emile Durkheim

-Father of sociology, pioneer of modern social research and established the field as separate and distinct from psychology and politics -Major proponent of functionalism -Argued that modern society was more complex than primitive societies because they were all similar, shared a common language. Even when people were dissimilar, they relied on each other to make society function.

Brute facts vs Institutional Facts

-Part of WEAK social constructionism -Brute facts are physical realities that exist outside of human input -Institutional facts only exist as a function of society's structures and beliefs

Demographic transition

A demographic change that takes place over time

Exogamy

A requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

Religion as a social institution

Acts as an organized structure of behaviors and social interactions that addresses the spiritual needs of society. From a functionalist standpoint, can create social cohesion/dissent, social change/control, and provide believers with meaning and purpose.

Quantified demographic parameters include:

Age, gender, nationality, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, SES, immigration status, education level

Health disparity

Aka health inequity. Differences in health and healthcare that occur between groups of people

Polygamy

An individual married to more than one individual

Social capital

An individual's social networks and connects that may confer economic or personal benefits

Period study

Examining the number of offspring produced during a specific time period

Caste system

Hierarchy of society is strictly defined, position is inherited, and movement or marriage between castes is prohibited

Manifest functions

Intended and obvious consequences of a social structure

Absolute poverty

Lack of essential resources (food, shelter, clothing, hygiene). More extreme form of poverty

Intragenerational mobility

Movement of a young person from a lower social class to a higher social class through merit (achieving the "American dream")

Material culture

Objects involved in a certain way of life

Blue-collar work

Occupations that require skilled or unskilled manual labor

People in higher social class tend to have more:

Power, Privilege, and Prestige

Patrilineal descent

Preference for paternal relations in the kin group

Education as a social institution

Provides a formal structure during childhood and the transition to adulthood, and an opportunity to instruct youth on social norms, expectations for behavior, knowledge, and skills needed to operate within society. Its manifest function is to systematically pass down knowledge and give status to those who have been educated. Its latent function is socialization, serving as agents of change, and maintaining social control. Serves to reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities. Experience educational segregation because of differential funding of schools based on residential segregation.

Government/economy as a social institution

Provides order to a society through the services it provides and the making and enforcement of law

Theories

Provides the conceptual framework for understanding objects of study

Social dysfunction

Social process that has undesirable consequences, reducing the stability of society

Meritocracy

Society in which advancement is based solely on the abilities and achievements of the individual

Immigration

The influx of new people to a specific area; increases population size

Upward mobility

The movement of an individual up the class hierarchy. Achieved through education, marriage, career, or financial success

Emigration

The outflow of people to other areas; reduces population size

Migration

The relocation of people from one place to another; influences population size

Cultural capital

The set of non-monetary social factors that contribute to social mobility. Examples include dress, accent, vernacular, manners, education, cultural knowledge, intellectual pursits

Society

Two or more individuals living together in a definable area and/or sharing elements of a culture. A society can encompass multiple cultures.

Spatial inequality

Unequal access to resources and variable quantity of life within a population or geographical distribution. Can be affected by income, unemployment, and unequal access to resources. Influences health by affecting access to healthcare

Poverty

an insufficiency of material goods, monetary wealth, and access to resources

Sect

A religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society. Formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions. Membership may be by birth or through conversion.

Dramaturgical approach

Assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage, where people choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbal and nonverbally to others. Critics say this research may not be objective, ad that theory is focused too narrowly on symbolic interaction.

Biomedical approach to health and illness

Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context.

Biopsychosocial approach to health and illness

Illness is determined by a variety of influences, rather than a single cause. The causes and effects of illness can be examined at multiple levels in the life of an individual, and no single level provides the whole picture. Collecting info about psychosocial context is key to the understanding of physical health and illness.

Globalization

Increasing amount of interaction and integration on the international scale through exchange of products, services, ideas and information

Relative poverty

Social inequality in which people are relatively poor compared to other members of society in which they live

Endogamy

The practice of marrying within a particular group

Social construct

A concept or practice that is construct of a group. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value in nature.

Ecclesia

A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions

Cult/New religious movement

A religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Many major world religions originated as cults.

Family

A set of people related by blood, marriage, adoption, or some other agreed-upon relationship that signifies some responsibility to each other. Serves five functions: -Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behavior -Protection -Socialization -Affection and companionship -Social status

Social group

A subset of a population that maintains social interactions. Alternatively, includes a collection of shared experiences that create a group identity among a set of individuals

Religion

A system of beliefs that affects how people make sense of their experiences and provides a framework for questions about life, death, and the purpose of existence

Church

A type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the large society. Membership teds to occur by birth, but most churches allow people to join. Can be tied to the state or independent of it.

Culture

All of the beliefs, assumptions, objects, behaviors, and processes that make up a shared way of life. Has a pervasive effect on worldview.

Isolation

Also known as social exclusion. Describes how impoverished people are often excluded from opportunities available to others.

Family as a social institution

Creates a social group in which to procreate, rear children, pass on cultural knowledge, and cooperate to better meet life's challenge

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Defines the economic and social position of a person in terms of income, wealth, education, and occupation

Nonmaterial culture

Encompasses the elements of cultures that are not physical. Includes shared ideas, knowledge, assumptions, values, and beliefs that unify a group of people.

Social norms

Expectations that govern what behavior is acceptable within a group. Social interactions help define a culture by establishing these

Max Weber

Father of sociology. Argued that in a capitalist society inequalities would lead to conflict, but that there would be more than one source of conflict. Argued that there were several factors that moderated people's reaction to inequality.

Karl Marx

Father of sociology. Associated with Conflict Theory. Looked at the economic conflict between different social classes, and argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production. Believed that capitalism would ultimately lead to self-destruction of society due to internal tensions.

Functionalism

Founder: Emile Durkheim Macrosocial perspective -Factions of society work together to maintain stability. Society is a system that consists of different components working together, with distinct institutions that contribute to functioning. Seeks to understand what different structures in society contribute to society at large. When disruptions occur, the interacting systems respond to get back to a stable state. Explains societal stability but NOT societal change (assumes stability is the ideal)

Conflict Theory

Founder: Karl Marx Macrosocial perspective Views society in terms of competing groups that act according to their own self-interests, rather than according to the need for societal equilibrium. Society is a competition for limited resources. Explains societal changes but NOT societal societal stability (assumes stability is undesirable to societal groups that are oppressed) Views human actions in terms of larger forces of inequality, but leaves motivations choices of individuals unexamined. Ignores the non-forceful ways in which people reach agreement, and approaches society more from those who lack power. Tends to be too economically focused.

Health/medicine as a social institution

Fulfills the need for healthcare in an organized manner, with beliefs about diseases and approaches to healing varying between societies and cultures

Social constructionism

Human actors actively construct their "reality", rather than discovering a reality that has inherent validity, through their social interactions. The beliefs and shared understandings of individuals create social realities. In the context of illness, there is a gap b/t the biological reality of a medical condition and the societally created meaning of the condition. (ex. changing conceptualizations of mental illness results in changes to the DSM). It is a dynamic, ongoing process.

Bilateral descent

Kin groups that involve both maternal and paternal relations

Symbolic interactionism

Micro social perspective. Focuses on the smaller scale interactions between individuals in small groups. Through social interactions, individuals develop shared meanings and labels for various symbols. Allows for human agency in creating and changing meaning in society, rather than society acting upon the individual. Meaning can change with a single interaction, so addresses subjective meanings. Humans ascribe meaning to things, act based on those meanings, use language to generate meaning through social interaction, and modify meanings through thought processes. However, ignores larger societal forces that shape people's lives.

Polyandry

More than one man married to one woman

Symbolic culture

Non-material culture that consists of the elements of culture that only have meaning in the mind. Based on a shared system of collective beliefs in the form of symbols. Includes the meanings ascribed to rituals, gestures, and objects.

Assisted marriage

Parents provide children with possible mates, out of which the child can choose

Matrilineal descent

Preference for maternal relations in the kin group

Ludwig Gumplowicz

Proposed that society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups.

Demographics

Statistics used to examine the nature of a specific population by quantifying subsets of that population. They are a statistical snapshot in time, and do not capture the ever-changing nature of society.

Social class

System of stratification that groups members of society according to similarities in social standing. Multifaceted, and tied to status within a community and power

Downward mobility

The movement of an individual down the class hierarchy. Due to unemployment, underemployment, reduced household income, lack of education, or health issues

Socialization

The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture. It is the way that children learn the culture into which they have been born

Sociology

The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live. Attempts to understand the behavior of GROUPS.

Language

The use of symbols to represent ideas

Latent functions

Unintended or less recognizable consequence of a social structure. Can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful

Upper vs lower class families

Upper class families have concerns related to continuing a larger family tradition and properly training children, while lower class families are focused on completing the everyday tasks necessary for survival. Upper class parents are more permissive/authoritative, while lower class parents are more authoritarian.