NBB301 Final Exam
Erev
EPSPs increase the potential of the membrane, drawing it closer to the membrane's relatively positive ____... If the potential hits the threshold for an AP, then a potential will fire
4πa²
C(in)(sphere) = Cm * _______ 'a' is in cm² Total capacitance (C(in)sphere) is in ohms*cm²
current
Change in conductance and electrochemical driving force on receptor channels' permeable ions drives ______ inward or outward
selectivity
Channel ____________ is a measure of a channel's ability to distinguish between ions and select one ion species
lumbar, sacral
Different regions of the spinal cord controls different regions of the body... The ________ and ______ regions controls our lower extremities
conductance
Ion channel opening increases ___________
open
Ion channels are permeable to ions when [ open / closed ]... They can have selectivity filter for specific ions to move across.. Different ion channels differ in how hard it is to move ions through them (Resistance)
bigger
Ion with larger conductance, or bigger g, will play a [ smaller / bigger ] role in determining Vm(rest)
conformation
Ionotropic Receptor : Gen Mech Flow Chart... NT binds, receptor __________ change, ion flows, NT is removed
extracellular
Ionotropic receptors have two primary functional domains... The first is an _________ site that binds to the NT
glutamic acid decarboxylase
NT ID : GABA is synthesized from glutamate by ________ ____ ____________
1
Macroglia : There is 1 schwann cell(s) for every _ axon
3a
Somatosensory Cortex Brodmann's Areas... Each area carries distinct streams of information... Area _ : deep tissue proprioceptive input
depolarization
Sometimes, in activating the GABA (inhibitory) synapse, the Erev will be GREATER than the action potential... in this circumstance, the IPSP will cause a [ depolarization / hyperpolarization ] of the cell
capacitance
The key physical quantity of capacitors is ____________, which describes how this physical barrier within a system is able to store an electric charge
γ(Vm-Ex)
The magnitude of the current flowing through an ion channel is represented by the equation... I(net) = _________
synchronous
The main EPP is just the summation of multiple ____________ miniature EPPs (mEPPs)... mEPP is cause by the quantal release of 1 packet/vesicle of NT
glutamate
The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
unit charges
The z variable in the Nernst potential represents the sign and how many ____ _______ each ion has... For K+ this is +1, for Na+ this is +1, for Cl- this is -1
basal
There are 2 classes of olfactory support cells : - Sustentacular cells - _____ cell Both secret metabolites and enzymes that help break down dangerous chemicals
calcium
The most common intracellular signal ion is ______
Hyperpolarization
The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction ; Becoming more negative
nose
The nasal side of your visual field is not uniform because your ____ blocks visual input
location
There are 4 main attributes of sensory stimuli that human neural activity can capture... - Modality - _________ (intero- vs extero-) - Intensity - Timing
modality
There are 4 main attributes of sensory stimuli that human neural activity can capture... - _________ (type of stimulus) (mechano-, photo-, chemo-) - Location - Intensity - Timing
on-center
There are two categories of bipolar cells... - _________ bipolar cells - Off-center bipolar cells Both give graded, hyperpolarized responses
chemical
There are two categories of synapses that exist within the nervous system... The more predominant category in the ________ synapse
electrical, chemical
There are two categories of synapses that exist within the nervous system... These two categories are __________ and ________
slowly adapting
There are two classic categories to define the temporal aspect of receptor activation... The first is ______ _______ that detect very little change in firing rate; respond best to unchanging stimuli; detect static position ; generate a more sustained response during a long stimulus
AMPA, NMDA
There are two families of ionotropic receptors... _____ (non-NMDA) receptors and ____ receptors
hormones
Types of Intercellular Molecular Signaling : Endocrine signaling is usually conducted by ___________
explicit
Types of Memory... ________ (declarative) : The conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts
r(a), Ra
You can derive the geometry-DEPENDENT "axial resistance", ____, from geometry-INDEPENDENT "specific axial resistance", ____ using the equation : r(a) = Ra / πa²
r(m), Rm
You can derive the geometry-DEPENDENT "membrane resistance", ____, from geometry-INDEPENDENT "specific membrane resistance", ____ using the equation : r(m) = Rm / 2πa
ionotropic
__________ Receptors : - Direct Effect - No signal amplification - Short activation periods - Directly gated by amino acids within the protein complex
horizontal cell
__________ ____ : Receives glutamate from photoreceptor and then forms INHIBITORY synapses back onto these same presynaptic terminals... It is thus sign-inverting Receives glutamatergic input from its own photoreceptor, transmits GABAergic output back onto adjacent photoreceptor
electrical forces
__________ ______ : Charged objects give rise to an electrical force that can move other electric charges and do work
immediate memory
__________ _______ is the ability to hold something in mind for just a few seconds (short term)
hyperthymesia
highly superior autobiographical memory
endocytosis
After vesicles excrete NTs into the cleft, they are then recycled during ___________... If this didn't happen, the membrane would just become larger and larger and not very energy efficient
nasal, temporal
Axons in _____ part of retina cross over... these axons carry information regarding the ________ visual field
ribosome
Mature, healthy axons are ________ free, so usually NO protein synthesis in the axons unless there is an accident or damage
peptide
NT ID : ______ neurotransmitters - Known to be hormones as well as NTs - Neuropeptides often co-release with small - molecule NTs - Biological activity of peptide NTs depends on amino acid sequence
nicotinic
NT and Receptor ID : Acetylcholine is a calcium dependent NT that has a _________ postsynaptic binding receptor
Na+, K+
NT and Receptor ID : Acetylcholine is a calcium dependent NT that opens channels allowing ___ and __ ions in
does not
NT ID : Glutamate is a nonessential amino acid that [ does / does not ] cross the blood brain barrier
glutaminase
NT ID : Glutamate is synthesized from glutamine with the enzyme __________
glutamine
NT ID : Glutamate is synthesized primarily from __________ (released by glial cells) via glutamate - glutamine cycle
excitatory, inhibitory
Chemical synapses can be broadly placed into two groups based upon the effect in the postsynaptic cell... these two groups are __________ and __________
ionotropic, metabotropic
Chemical synapses exhibit two classes of receptors... ___________ and ____________
excitatory
Chemical synapses that cause the postsynaptic cell to depolarize (rise in charge) is called an __________ synapse
inhibitory
Chemical synapses that cause the postsynaptic cell to hyperpolarize (fall in charge) is called an __________ synapse
0mV
NT and Receptor ID : Acetylcholine is a calcium dependent NT whose postsynaptic binding receptor has an Erev of ___
cervical
Different regions of the spinal cord controls different regions of the body... The ________ region controls upper extremities, neck, and head muscles
direct
Electrical synapses allow for [ direct / indirect ] current flow
joules, J
Energy and work are both measured in ______ ( _ )
GEF, GAP
G-Proteins : Molecular Switches... The on/off state of GTPases are tightly regulated by regulatory proteins, ___ and ___ (these act as CATALYSTS, determining the RATE at which change occurs
long
G-Proteins : Molecular Timers... The rate at which the g-proteins hydrolyzes GTP to GDP (defined by regulatory proteins GEF & GAP) determines how ____ the activation signal will perpetuate
dynamin
G-protein required for release of clathrin-coated vesicles from membrane ; forms to pinch off reformed vesicle from the membrane during endocytosis
reserve pool
Group of synaptic vesicles not currently docked, but which can be moved to the synapse and released if needed
V=I/G
If given conductance, G, instead of resistance, how would you express Ohm's Law?
optic nerve
If structure B, or the right _____ _____ in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the right visual field
top left
If structure F, or the right top portion of the optic radiation, called the meyer's loop, in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the ____ ____ visual field
visual cortex
If structure H, or the right _______ ______ in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the left visual field with a small exception called the macular sparing
feedback
In desensitization/adaptation, an effector or something in the transduction line will ________ and inhibit a previous step, stopping the signal and negating the response
larger
In the cortex, receptive fields are [ smaller / larger ] and more complicated, as higher level stimulus features are represented in single neuron activity ; they are receiving inputs from multiple cells
closed
Na+ & K+ Ion Channels : At the resting membrane potential, both the Na+ and the K+ ion channels are [ open / closed ]
filopodia
New dendritic spines are said to exhibit a _________ like structure... relatively small and small synaptic function
F
Non-NMDA (AMPA) receptors : (T/F) AMPA receptors have the Mg2+ block
Katz
One of the earliest scientists who utilized the neuromuscular junction of frogs to stimulate action potentials in muscles, reading the EPP, was Dr. Bernard ____
crayfish
One of the first examples that was used to characterize electrical synapses were the escape behaviors of ________
mitochondria
Organelle Review : 'Powerhouse of the cell' -Dr. Murugan, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production
lysosome
Organelle Review : An organelle containing digestive enzymes
response
Recap of signal cascade... - Signaling Cell - Signal - Receptor - Target Molecule(s) - ________
contralateral
The _____________ eye is the eye on the opposite side of the body from the LGN
extracellular
The _____________ fluid is what we consider to be our electric ground, which acts as a reference point... All points in this fluid are at the same potential
synaptic plasticity
The ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time, in response to increases or decreases in their activity
exothermic
The action potential is thought of as an [ exothermic / endothermic ] reaction
all or nothing
The action potential is what we call an ___ __ _______ response... This principle states that the strength of a response of a nerve cell or muscle fiber is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus. If a stimulus is above a certain threshold, a nerve or muscle fiber will fire. Essentially, there will either be a full response or there will be no response at all for an individual neuron or muscle fiber
disinhibited
Opioid Neuropeptides : Addiction Endorphins bind to opioid receptors... Opioid-induced disinhibition of VTA DA neurons - At BASELINE, GABA release inhibits VTA DA neurons - Upon OPIOID EXPOSURE, GABA release is inhibited, thus VTA DA neurons are ______________ - Opioid antagonists (Naloxone) commonly used to reverse opioid overdoses
ensemble average
The summation of all the currents through all the channels in a membrane is called an ________ _______
neuromuscular
The synapse that we often use to model any synapse is the _____________ junction
endocrine
Types of Intercellular Molecular Signaling : ________ : Release of signals into the bloodstream ; LONG DISTANCE ; 'Anywhere in the city'
ion channels
Types of later effectors... Can even exist as ___ ________ on the endoplasmic reticulum whose function is to allow calcium out into the cytoplasm
kinases
Types of later effectors... ______ are enzymes that ADD a phosphate group (phosphorylate) to proteins
transcription factors
Types of later effectors... ____________ _______ will modify transcription... main example is CREB
Ohm, Ω
We can measure the resistance value of a material within a system in the SI Unit, ___ ( _ )
superior
We can split up the visual field into quadrants by a horizontal and vertical line... The ________ half is everything above the horizontal line
inferior
We can split up the visual field into quadrants by a horizontal and vertical line... The ________ half is everything below the horizontal line
nasal
We can split up the visual field into quadrants by a horizontal and vertical line... The ________ half is the side to closet to the nose beyond the vertical line
temporal
We can split up the visual field into quadrants by a horizontal and vertical line... The ________ half is the side to closet to the tempal beyond the vertical line
smaller
What makes distinction between slow motor units and fast-fatigable motor units ? Size Principle : Slow motor units have much [ larger / smaller ] diameter motor units than fast-fatigable motor units
fires
When light gets brighter in excitatory center subfield => [ on-center / off-center ] fires
off-center
When light turns OFF in excitatory subfield => [ on-center / off-center ] fires
sum
When observing the integration of signals, the total signal strength is the ___ of the two separate signals
central
While the reception of signals is done within the peripheral system, the perception of these is done within the _____ system (analysis and integration of sensory and motor information)
amino acids
Within the 'small molecule' classification of NTs, there are 3 further classifications... the first is _____ _____ which describe glutamate, GABA, and glycine
biogenic amines
Within the 'small molecule' classification of NTs, there are 3 further classifications... the second is ________ ______ (or NEURO-MODULATORS) like dopamine, serotonin, and epinephrine
purines
Within the 'small molecule' classification of NTs, there are 3 further classifications... the third is _______ like ATP
endoplasmic reticulum
You can produce drastically increased levels of calcium in the cell by... 2) Calcium store in the _________ _________ can give a quick spike in the Ca2+ levels
length constant
You can think of passive signal conductance as TV noise... the further you are from the source, the weaker the amplitude (sound) of the signal will be... the distance this passive conductance travels down an axon is called the _______ ________
conductance
You can use... g(k) = I(k) / (Vm - Ek) ... to solve for the ____________ of potassium in a voltage clamp
unitary potential
You cannot change the number of neurotransmitters in a vesicle (at least not in the experiments we're analyzing), and so the _______ _________ of EPP will always remain the same
membrane potential
You don't need to know how the voltage clamp electrode works, you just need to know that it acts as a way to measure the current that is flowing through the membrane when you're keeping the ________ _______ fixed
NMDA
____ receptors : - Requires glutamate and depolarization to open channel - Slower EPSC (but longer) - Allow Na+, K+, and Ca2+
Brodmann's areas
regions of cortex defined by the relative distribution of cell types across cortical layers (cytoarchitecture)
ESPC
NT and Receptor ID : Glutamate is the most dominant NT in the CNS, and has both an AMPA (non-NMDA) postsynaptic binding receptor and a NMDA postsynaptic binding receptor that both result in an ____
capacitor
A _________ is a device that allows you to accumulate and store excess charges ; This device is generally two conducting plates separated by an insulator
absence, excess
A negative membrane potential is either caused by... - The _______ of positive ions - ______ negative charge
postsynaptic
Criteria of a "NT" : Specific receptors for the substance must be present on the ____________ cell
gap junctions
Electrical Synapses are mediated by ___ _________, or points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins (or 'docking proteins')
fast
Electrical synapses allow for [ fast / slow ] synaptic communication
dorsal horn
How are lower motor neurons organized in the spinal cord ? Sensory input enter the spinal cord through the ______ ____
dorsal root ganglion
How are lower motor neurons organized in the spinal cord ? The cell bodies of sensory neurons are housed in the ______ ____ ________
motor pool
How are muscle fibers connected to motor neurons? A _____ ____ is a collection of ALL alpha motor neurons innervating a single muscle
motor unit
How are muscle fibers connected to motor neurons? A _____ ____ is comprised of an alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates... ( α-motor neuron + muscle fibers )
100
How are muscle fibers connected to motor neurons? Each alpha motor neuron controls many muscle fibers (up to ___ fibers)
alpha motor neuron
How are muscle fibers connected to motor neurons? Each muscle fiber is controlled by exactly 1 motor neuron - called an _____ (α) _____ ______
circular
In the model of a neurite, the cross-section is ________... this is important because the axial resistance, r(a), and membrane resistance, r(m), depends on both geometric factors and geometry independent factors ...
necessity
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect... removing M1 tests its [ necessity / sufficiency ]
end plate
In the neuromuscular junction, the muscle fiber postsynaptic neurons arrange themselves in a structure that resembles a plate... Because of this, any potentials that are evoked in the muscle fibers are referred to as ___ _____ potentials
lower
If you increase the surface area of the membrane, you increase the number of ion channels, and so resistance would be [ lower / higher ]
Q/V
If you know the the electric charge and voltage of a system, capacitance can be calculated by the expression ___
glycine
In mammalian systems, _____ is also very present, but mostly in the spinal cord
glutamate
In mammalian systems, _________ is the most predominant neurotransmitter (75%)
radius
In the equation for total resistance, R(in) = Rm / 4πa², a is the _____ of the sphere
shrink, grow
In the ocular dominance columns of deprived kittens... the deprived ocular columns would [ grow / shrink ] while the dominant ocular columns would [ grow / shrink ]
ligands
In the olfactory system, the odor molecules, or odorants, are what behave as the _______ within the chemical receptor system
glial cells
NT ID : Reuptake by 'Excitatory amino acid transporters' or EAATS... This is a reuptake receptor on ____ ____ that utilize glutamine synthetase to revert glutamate back to glutamine
0mV
NT and Receptor ID : Glutamate is the most dominant NT in the CNS, whose postsynaptic binding receptors have an Erev of ___
active zone
Patch of membrane in the presynaptic terminal where all of the vesicles come in and undergo exocytosis ; aka postsynaptic density
adenylyl cyclase
Pathways to memorize... Dopamine : Step 1 : Dopamine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gi that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein INHIBITS _________ _______ (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : No cAMP Step 5 : No protein kinase A Step 6 : Decreased protein phosphorylation
sum
Quantal release of neurotransmitters was demonstrated in a two-part sequence... First, scientists concluded h=that the postsynaptic electrical response was due ro the ___ of quantal releases
vesicles
Quantal release of neurotransmitters was demonstrated in a two-part sequence... Second, scientists concluded that quantal responses were due ro the release of units of neurotransmitters ( i.e. ________ )
CV
Quick equation check... how we relate the charge (Q) to potential (V) is through the equation : Q = __
ions
Reversal potential for a NT like acetylcholine is determined by the weighted average Erev (chord conductance) of the ____ that Ach receptors are permeable to
-60mV
Reversal potential of chlorine is ≈ ____
parallel, series
Review : Capacitances in ______ add, while capacitances in ________ add reciprocally
inverse
Review : Conductance is the ________ of resistance. Resistance is the measure of the difficulty in moving current between two points within a material, whereas conductance is how easily a current can move through material...
parallel, series
Review : Conductances in ______ add, while conductances in ________ add reciprocally
time
The stereotypical action potential we see is the membrane potential as a function of ____ (also this figure is very helpful)
retinal ganglion cells
The third layer of retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve...
off-center
There are two main classes of ganglion cells - On-center ganglion cells - _________ ganglion cells
antagonists
Types of Muscles : Muscle ___________ oppose the intended movement
cell-impermeable
Types of Signaling Molecules... ____-________ : - Secreted - Bind to external membrane receptors on target cell - Short-lived - Ex: Acetylcholine among other neurotransmitters
electrical energy
_________ ______ is the capacity to do work on charged objects through electrical forces... in biochemistry, this work is done on charged particles (ions) like Na+, K+, Cl-, etc
pigment epithelium
most posterior part of retina; photoreceptors are embedded in it; contains melanin and provides nutrients for the rods/cones
synaptic plasticity
(Malu's Def) ________ __________ : Change in synaptic transmission arising from the same stimulus... Getting the same stimulus in presynaptic neuron and getting a different response in the postsynaptic neuron
100
(Not an FA question, but maybe use for reference?) How fast do action potentials travel down the sciatic nerve, the longest cell in the human body? ___mph
increase, decrease
There are 4 mechanisms of synaptic plasticity... facilitation, augmentation, and post tetanic potentiation all induce an [ increase / decrease ] in synaptic strength while short term depression causes an [ increase / decrease ] in synaptic strength
effects
There is a vast variety of receptors, allowing just one NT to have many different _______
inward
This patch clamp technique shows that we are injecting a negative current, or an [ inward / outward ] current
conductance
This symbol, gamma (γ), is used to represent _____________
intensity
There are 4 main attributes of sensory stimuli that human neural activity can capture... - Modality - Location - _________ (strength of signal) - Timing
30,000
Though the numbers vary by scientists... if you considered the thought that humans have 80,000 genes, just neurons exhibit __,___ of these genes, which leads to incredible neural diversity
6Ω
Three resistors in series have resistances of 1Ω, 2Ω, and 3Ω, respectively. What is the total resistance across this circuit?
Hebbian law
Underlying mechanism of LTP is _______ ___ (google calls it "Hebb's Rule") Neurons that fire together, wire together
zero
When the capacitor is charged up, current = ____ because you have reached as much charge as you can store for the voltage that you are applying
curare
______ : Nicotinic receptor antagonist ... Prevents neurotransmitters from activating your muscle fibers, causes paralysis (mainly the trachea)
acuity
______ => is a measure of the ability of the eye to distinguish shapes and the details of objects at a given distance
proton pumps
______ _____ become applicable when we have multiple ions that are able to flow in/out of the membrane through channels. If we allow the system to diffuse forever, the concentration gradients will diminish and we will no longer have the chemical driving force necessary to do work...
ligand gated
______ _____ ion channels are membrane protein channels that only open when a chemical (neurotransmitter) released from the presynaptic neuron bind to them
Nernst potential
______ _________ is the membrane electrical potential when the ion (for which you are calculating this value) is at equilibrium
active transporters
______ ____________ are membrane spanning proteins that take ions from one compartment (binds ions), and then actively transports them across the membrane
memory
______ is a consequence of an experience (learning), or 'something that should last a long time'
massed
______ training : training sessions are long in duration and take place over a relatively short period of time
presynaptic
___________ neuron refers to the component of a synapse specialized for transmitter release; upstream at a synapse
propagation
___________ of an action potential is when current from one action potential slows to another segment, charging it up, depolarizing the cell, to potentially a point
intracellular
___________ receptors are located inside the cell rather than on its cell membrane ; activated by CELL-PERMEABLE signaling molecules or 2nd messengers
tetrodotoxin
____________ (TTX) is a poisonous compound present in the ovaries of certain pufferfishes ; powerful neurotoxin ; this compound BLOCKS Na+ channels
contralateral
____________ => Opposite side Ipsilateral => Same Side "The side is relative and usually refers to either an injury or recording site specified by the experiment"
biosynthetic machinery
____________ _________ are used for biosynthesis, or a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where substrates are converted into more complex products in living organisms. In biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified, converted into other compounds, or joined together to form macromolecules. This process often consists of metabolic pathways
physiological
____________ functions of GPCRs : - Sensory signal transduction... detect photons in visual system, detect chemicals in gustatory system, detect odors in olfactory system - Behavior and mood regulation... GPCRs for serotonin, dopamine, GABA, glutamate - Regulate immune system... histamine response - Control autonomic nervous systems... epinephrin/norepinephrine
capacitance
____________ is the measure of a material's ability of storing charge... How much charge a device can hold
permeability
____________ of a membrane is a way of computing/describing how porous the membrane is to certain types of particles that can flow... DOESN'T require charged ions
metabotropic
____________ receptors act through a second messenger system (signal proteins and G proteins)
glutamatergic
A [ glutamatergic / GABAergic ] synapse will exhibit a current in which positive ions flow into the cell, depolarize it, and then flow out of the cell returning it to a resting state
increase
A longer dendritic length constant λ will [ increase / decrease ] the EPSP peak in a postsynaptic mammalian cell
active zone
Calcium mobilizes presynaptic vesicles into the ______ ____, or an area along the axon terminal, near the postsynaptic cell, that is specialized for neurotransmitter release
B
FA : Focusing only on the rod outer segment in the dark, which of these is true... A) There is a constant outward current B) There is a constant inward current C) There is no net current across the membrane
left
If structure E, or the right optic tract in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the ____ visual field
meyer's loop
If structure F, or the right top portion of the optic radiation called the ______ ____ in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the top left visual field
macular sparing
If structure H, or the right visual cortex in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the LEFT visual field with a small exception called the _______ _______
100
If the amplitude of the EPP is 0.05 V, and the amplitude of the highest peak mEPP is 0.5 mV, the number of vesicles released is ___
light, dark
If the center of an ON-center ganglion cell is [ dark / light ], while the surround is [ dark / light ], we will see a robust response in ganglion cell action potentials
failed initiation
If the depolarization induced by the stimulus is not strong enough to elicit an action potential, we call this a ______ _________, where the current flowing out of the leak channels is not enough to trigger the action potential but rather, causes a 'synaptic potential'
inward
If the equilibrium potential is less negative than the voltage gradient... ... aka ( Vm > Ex ) then ions will move [ inward / outward ]
outward
If the equilibrium potential is more negative than the voltage gradient... .... aka ( Vm < Ex ) then ions will move [ inward / outward ]
suppressed
If the light spot falls in an inhibitory subfield, like the center of an off-center ganglion cell, then the off-center ganglion cell is [ fired / suppressed ]
fired
If the light spot matches excitatory subfield, like the center of an on-center ganglion cell, then that cell will be [ fired / suppressed ]
2
If two channels were involved in a patch clamp technique (and open), then you would see _X the current of one ion channel... that is because the conductances would add, and using I = g (Vm - Ex), we can see that it would double
spatially
If two signals happen with too short of a λ, then these events are _________ separate
temporally
If two signals happen with too short of a τ, then these events are __________ separate
proton pumps
If you let a system of multiple permeable ions sit for an extended period of time unchecked, the concentration gradients will somewhat balance, and you will lose the driving forces that many cells require to do work... Because of this, energy is put into the system by way of ______ _____ to reestablish these concentration gradients, to ensure that the driving forces are maintained
battery
In looking at the equation I(net) = γ(Vm-Ex) The Vm is fixed by the membrane charge ( _______ )
0.75
In looking at the parallel circuit at the bottom of the image, if we denote R1 as 2Ω and R2 as 4Ω, then what is the total resistance for this circuit (in decimals)... ____Ω
ohm's
In looking at this equation : Vm(t) = Im * Rm (1 - e^-t/τ) Once we let time go to infinity, then inside the parenthesis just becomes 1, and Vm = Im * Rm , or _____ law
GABA
In mammalian systems, ____ is the 2nd most predominant neurotransmitter (20%)
stretching
In most mechanoreceptors, a tactile stimulus like pressure can physically change the properties of the receptor... for instance, __________ is often the response needed to open the the receptors ion channels
fast
In observing crayfish escape behaviors, we see the importance of electrical synapses and their characteristically ____ transmission speeds
specificity
In order for a receptor to be activated, ____________, or a feature of sensory receptors in which only certain stimuli cause a reaction, must be achieved
λ
In order to exhibit spatial summation, the signals must have a long enough _ in order to ensure signal decay is not enough to separate signals
τ
In order to exhibit temporal summation, the signals must have a long enough _ in order to ensure signal decay is not enough to separate signals
meissner, merkel
In reading braille text, only the ________ and _____ (shortened, just first) mechanoreceptor subtypes faithfully represent the small changes in texture
axodendritic
In reality, ____________ configuration of synapses is not the only one we see... Some axons can synapse onto the soma (axosomatic) of the postsynaptic cell, which we see in inhibitory neurons... Additionally, some axons can synapse onto the axon (axo-axonic) of the postsynaptic cell, which we see in neuromodulators
tug-of-war
In reality, a cell can receive both excitatory and inhibitory signals (currents) at the same time, and would exhibit a sort of ___-__-___
synapsin
In reality, presynaptic vesicles are not free floating... Instead, they come together in a structure called a 'reserve pool' in which vesicles are cross-linked by a protein called _________
outer segments
In rods and cones, the actual sensory transduction is done in the _____ ________
depolarize, hyperpolarize
In step 7 of the chemical synapse transmission, we saw that released neurotransmitters binds to receptors in postsynaptic neuron, which opens postsynaptic channels that then allow ions into that cell... Should these ions be 'excitatory', then the cell will [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ]... should the cell be 'inhibitory', then our cell will [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ]
physiology
In studying sensory systems, if you simply study a stimulus and its resulting perception then you are employing a psychophysics (psychology) view... However, if you are concerned with how a stimulus becomes perception through different neural activities, then you must utilize a __________ view
resting membrane potential
In the Chord Conductance equation (pictured), Vm(rest) represents the _______ ________ __________
2
In the battery/voltage meter example presented in lecture, two batteries (in series) gives X_ the voltage as one battery would give by itself
highest, lowest
In the body, fingers generally have the [ lowest / highest ] spatial resolution, while the back and calves have the [ lowest / highest ] spatial resolution... This most likely has evolutionary reasons, as many tactile actions were done with the face and hands, which is manifested in the higher brain areas (overrepresentation of hands and facial features...)
same
If you have positive ions moving in one direction within a wire, the actual positive current is moving in the [ same / opposite ] direction
spatial resolution
If you have smaller receptive fields, you can more accurately differentiate stimuli in two different location, increasing your _______ __________
increase
If you increase the amount of extracellular Ca2+... the amplitude of the EPPs would [ increase / remain the same / decrease ] because you are increasing the probability of multiple mEPP's opening synchronously
decrease
If you increase the amount of extracellular Ca2+... the number of failures would [ increase / remain the same / decrease ]
remain the same
If you increase the amount of extracellular Ca2+... the size of the unitary potential would [ increase / remain the same / decrease ]
decrease, increase
If you increase the area of a cell, you [ increase / decrease ] resistance and [ increase / decrease ] capacitance
58
If you increase the outside concentration of sodium by a factor of 10, the peak of the action potential goes up by __mV... this is caused by the relationship of the Nernst potential
higher
If you increase the surface area of the membrane, you increase the number of ion channels, and so conductance would be [ lower / higher ]
1/R
If you know the resistance of a material, conductance can be calculated by the expression ___
steady state
In the case of a membrane that is permeable to multiple ions, the nonequilibrium '______ _____' is a phenomenon in which there is no NET current, however, each individual ion can have a net current that offsets with the net current of another ion
conductivity
In the case of charged ions, we can describe that porousness with the concept of ___________, as we can apply a voltage across the membrane and drive a current
NMJ
In the equivalent circuit of the ___... I(epsp) = - ( I (leak) + Icap )
potassium
In the falling phase of the action potential, the membrane potential rapidly hyperpolarizes in an attempt to reach the Nernst potential for __________ (for reference, this value is generally -90mV) as this is a point when this ion becomes HIGHLY PERMEABLE
merkel disk receptors, ruffini corpuscle
Of the 4 mechanoreceptor subtypes (Meissner, ruffini, and pacinian corpuscles, and merkel disk receptor)... __________________ and ______________ are slowly adapting, or are responsible for SHAPE and PRESSURE of touch
necessary
Olfactory : Golf, ACIII, and cAMP are all _________ for odor transduction
cilia
Olfactory Anatomy : Olfactory receptor neurons are bipolar cells and have _____ (villi) on their apical ends ; hairlike structures located in upper portion of nasal passages, receptors for smell
slow
Olfactory Anatomy : The other end (not cilia) of ORNs are axons that go through the cribriform plate on the way to the olfactory bulb... These axons are SMALL in diameter and UNMYELINATED, thus yielding [ fast / slow ] responses
bowman's gland
Olfactory Anatomy : ________ _____ produces mucus that degrdes toxic chemicals
long term
Mature dendritic spines last over a year and are rarely dynamic... This is preferable, as we do not want mature spines to be malleable, or undergo change, so that we can remember things ____ ____
specific odors
Olfactory Bulb : Additionally, the glomerulus also has contributions from tufted cells (~50) and periglomerular cells (~25)... - Thought to sharpen response to ________ _____
sensitivity
Olfactory Bulb : Single glomeruli has dendrites from about 25 mitral cells and about 25,000 receptor axons... Massive convergence... helps with : - ____________ as they can now detect very small stimuli - Subtracting background noise
EAATs
NT ID : Reuptake by 'Excitatory amino acid transporters' or ______... This is a reuptake receptor on GLIAL CELLS that utilize glutamine synthetase to revert glutamate back to glutamine
ESPC
NT and Receptor ID : Acetylcholine is a calcium dependent NT whose postsynaptic binding receptor has an Erev of 0mv, causing an ____
-70mV
NT and Receptor ID : GABA is the main inhibitory NT whose postsynaptic binding receptor has an Erev of ____
IPSC
NT and Receptor ID : GABA is the main inhibitory NT whose postsynaptic binding receptor is GABAa with an Erev of -70mV, resulting in an ____
GABAa
NT and Receptor ID : GABA is the main inhibitory NT whose postsynaptic binding receptor is _____
Cl-
NT and Receptor ID : GABA is the main inhibitory NT, opening channels allowing __ ions in
AMPA, NMDA
NT and Receptor ID : Glutamate is the most dominant NT in the CNS, and has both an ____ (non-NMDA) postsynaptic binding receptor and a ____ postsynaptic binding receptor
Ca2+
NT and Receptor ID : Glutamate is the most dominant NT in the CNS, and its NMDA receptor resulting in not only an ESPC, but ____ release as well
Na+, K+
NT and Receptor ID : Glutamate is the most dominant NT in the CNS, thus having two types of receptors... the first, AMPA, allows ___ and __ ions in
Nernst Potential
Na+ & K+ Ion Channels : During the falling phase of the action potential, the Na+ channels are still inactivated, and the K+ channels remain open... membrane potential is driven towards the _______ ________ of K+
inactivated, open
Na+ & K+ Ion Channels : However, just as fast as the Na+ channels open, they are ____________, and the K+ channels begin to [ open / close ] ... The Na+ channels will remain this way until the membrane potential hits the resting membrane potential (but the activation gate will close in its place)
close, closes
Na+ & K+ Ion Channels : Once the action potential has reached hyperpolarization (refractory period), the K+ channels [ open / close ]... Additionally, the Na+ channel's inactivation gate reopens, however its activation gate [ opens / closes ]
opens, closed
Na+ & K+ Ion Channels : Once you begin the process of depolarization, the Na+ channel [ opens / closes ] while the K+ channel remains [ open / closed ] and so you get a rapid INWARD current
rapidly
Na+ channels open and close very [ rapidly / slowly ]
equilibrium
Nernst potential reflects the membrane voltage (potential) when the system is at ___________... When is the system at equilibrium? - No net current of ions across membrane - No excess charges going out or excess charge coming in - Membrane potential itself is not changing
zero
Net current , or I(net), is equal to I(elec) + I(chem)... At equilibrium, I(net) is equal to ____... At equilibrium, membrane potential does not change => ion's net current across membrane is 0 - No change in ion concentrations - No external energy input
lower
Neural circuitry involved in movement can be divided into subsystems... Spinal cord and brainstem contribute to LOCAL circuitry via _____ motor neurons -You want reactions to be fast, so everything is closeby
basal ganglia
Neural circuitry involved in movement can be divided into subsystems... _____ _______ are responsible for initiating movements and suppressing unwanted ones - (Lesions cause dystonia, or the inability to control movements)
Upper
Neural circuitry involved in movement can be divided into subsystems... _____ motor neurons in the cerebral cortex and brainstem exert descending control
spinal cord
Neural circuitry involved in movement can be divided into subsystems... ______ ____ and brainstem contribute to LOCAL circuitry via lower motor neurons -You want reactions to be fast, so everything is closeby
cerebellum
Neural circuitry involved in movement can be divided into subsystems... _________ reduces motor error to produce finely tuned movements (picking up pencil)
end plate potential
Neuromuscular junction experiments are done by stimulating an action potential in an axon that ends in an endplate... A recording electrode is then placed in the postsynaptic membrane in order to measure the ___ _____ ________... With enough stimulation, the muscle will depolarize to threshold, and an action potential (end plate potential) will fire in the muscle
epithelial
Neurons are derived from __________ cells, and have more or less the same organelles
receptive field
Neurons will only have a response if the stimulus is in the _________ _____
soma
Neuropeptide (large molecules) are synthesized in the ____, and transported to presynaptic terminal via FAST axonal transport
synchronously
Neuropeptide and small molecule neurotransmitters can be co-expressed in one terminal... basically they can be released _____________, but a difference in the release in Ca2+ can change the preference of the NT released...
are not
Neuropeptide vesicles [ are / are not ] recycled
fast axonal
Neuropeptides are brought into vesicles at the axon terminal by ____ ______ transport mechanisms
black
Neuropeptides are stored in dense, ____, core vesicles
receptors
Neurotransmitters, or NTs, exert their effects through _______, which are specific
presynaptic
Neurotransmitters... Criteria : 1) NT must be present in the __________ neuron
Ca2+
Neurotransmitters... Criteria : 2) NT must be released in response to presynaptic depolarization and release must be ____ dependent... - Released in sufficient amounts to exert a defined action on the postsynaptic neuron
postsynaptic
Neurotransmitters... Criteria : 3) Specific receptors for NT must be present on postsynaptic cell... - When NT administered exogenously (antagonist, agonist), molecule mimics action of stimulating the ___________ neuron
cleft
Neurotransmitters... Criteria : A specific mechanism exists to remove molecule from synaptic ____ (reuptake, degredation, etc)
fast
Non-NMDA (AMPA) receptors : Activation of receptors produces [ slow / fast ] EPSCs
0mV
Non-NMDA (AMPA) receptors : Erev (weighted average of Nernst of Na+ and K+= ____
Na+, K+
Non-NMDA (AMPA) receptors : ___ and __ ion channels
longer
Not all voltage gated channels are open for the same amount of time... K+ channels are generally open for much [ shorter / longer ] than Na+ channels... we'll see later that this is due to inactivation gates
resting potential
Now, if we placed on electrode within the extracellular space, and the other just INSIDE the cell, we would see on the voltmeter a potential difference of -60mV... If this cell is at equilibrium, this value is called the _______ _________
-60
Now, if we placed on electrode within the extracellular space, and the other just INSIDE the cell, we would see on the voltmeter a potential difference of ____mV (estimate using the figure)
inward
Now, with the same potassium example as before, we suddenly introduce sodium channels... sodium is higher concentration outside, so the chemical driving force will be driving sodium ions [ inward / outward ] , but the electrical driving force is ALSO pushing sodium this way, as sodium is a positive ion and the potassium flow caused excess positive charge outside the cell... This continues until we find a steady state (Net current = 0)
sign-conserving
OFF-center bipolar cells are [ sign-conserving / sign-inverting]
sign-inverting
ON-center bipolar cells are [ sign-conserving / sign-inverting]
decrease
ON-center ganglion cells show an [ decrease / increase ] in activity when there is an increase in contrast between the center and surround
increase
ON-center ganglion cells show an [ decrease / increase ] in activity when there is an increase in contrast between the center and surround
depth perception
Ocular Dominance Columns : Combining information from both of your eyes (in the striate/PV cortex) is a function that is really important for _____ ________
monocular
Ocular Dominance Columns : In the striate cortex (primary visual cortex), layer 4 has only right OR left field information, but not both... essentially _________
equal
Ocular Dominance Columns : Monocular layer 4 neurons will synapse (diagonally) onto cells in the superficial layers, and their cells are binocular (having information from both eyes), but have varying degrees of responses ... Neurons that are sitting right in the center of a column (A, C, E, G) will behave like a monocular cell Neurons that sit on between columns (B, D, F) will have _____ information from the contra and ipsilateral eyes
focal point
Ocular Dominance Columns : Objects within your _____ _____ are going to have equal contributions from your contra and ipsi eyes, which is why you get a clear, singular image... Objects out of focus will have some error and some uneven distribution of input from your contra and ipsi eyes, which is why you might see two of them
cooperation
Ocular dominance column development outside layer 4 is caused by ___________ between different eye inputs carrying similar patterns of activity, and by competition between inputs carrying dissimilar patterns
competition
Ocular dominance column development outside layer 4 is caused by cooperation between different eye inputs carrying similar patterns of activity, and by ___________ between inputs carrying dissimilar patterns
critical period
Ocular dominance columns are developed during the _______ ______
olfactory cilia
Odorant receptor proteins (GPRCs) are predominantly expressed in the __________ ________
7 transmembrane domains
Odorant receptor proteins have _ _________ ______ (similar to GPRC structures we have discussed previously)
meissner corpuscle, pacinian corpuscle
Of the 4 mechanoreceptor subtypes (Meissner, ruffini, and pacinian corpuscles, and merkel disk receptor)... __________________ and ______________ are rapidly adapting, or are responsible for MOTION and DURATION of touch
increased
Over the course of development, the reversal potential of chlorine becomes even more negative due to [ increased / decreased ] extracellular Cl- concentrations
monosynaptic reflex
Reflex pathway with only one synapse between the sensory and motor neurons (ex: knee-jerk)
ion valance
Regardless of log ratios of log([X+]out/[X+]in), the sign of the Nernst Potential, Ex, will switch depending on the sign of the ___ ______
nodes of ranvier
Region of the axon that houses voltage gated channels... essential for transmission of action potential along the axon
spatial specialization
Regions of the dendrites can exhibit _______ _____________, organizing information into different compartments in order to prioritize certain types of signals
into
Remember : Negative current corresponds to positive ions moving [ into / out of ] the cell through surrounding channels
Q/C
Remember... Vm (potential) = _______ when given charge and capacitance
chemosensory systems
Responsible for detection of chemicals in the environment ; encompasses both the gustatory, taste, and olfactory, smell, senses (and also trigeminal aka irritating/noxious chemicals)
M, P, K
Retinal ganglion cells can be classified by WHERE in the lateral geniculate nucleus these cells project to... - _ ganglion cells - _ ganglion cells - _ ganglion cells Each has its own pathway
rods
Rods vs Cones : ____... - Low Light : Single photon produces measurable change in membrane potential - Moderate-intense light : Response saturates and slow to return to baseline
fovea
Rods vs Cones... Spatial Distribution : There are more rods than cones in every part of the retina EXCEPT for the _____
light
Rods vs Cones: Rods are very good at detecting _____ bc rods can pool together... rods in periphery can detect light, but not give resolution
cones
Rods vs Cones: ____ give better resolution because stimulus only comes from one cone, so the resolution is more specific
rough ER
Routing information in the protein's sequence... a specific signal sequence is recognized by the signal recognition particle on the _____ __... proteins with these sequences may be then converted into Ex : ER or golgi proteins, extracellular proteins, or transmembrane proteins
farad
SI Unit for capacitance
siemens
SI Unit for conductance
amps
SI Unit for current
ohm
SI Unit for resistance
volt
SI Unit for voltage (also membrane potential)
receptors
Scientists can determine what an area of the brain does based on its specific _______
mEPP
Scientists can stimulate motor neurons to produce a transmitted AP that leads to an end plate potential in the muscle fiber... However, spontaneous miniature "EPP"s, aka ____s, have been recorded in the absence of presynaptic stimulation that were initially dismissed as 'noise'
perception
Sensory __________ is constructed.... it is an interpretation of signals, rather than just a snapshot of reality
active binding
Sensory modalities that involve chemical senses, aka chemosensory system, are unusual because they require ______ _______ of chemicals to receptors
pseudounipolar
Sensory neurons (with dorsal root ganglions) are commonly ______________, or the cell body is off to one side of the axon; dendrite and axon are continuous at one side of cell body... In theory, you DO NOT have to have transmission of a signal through the cell body
rapidly
Sensory neurons fall under two broad categories, slowly and rapidly adapting... _______ adapting cells : - Sense motion of objects on skin, firing rate is proportion of speed of motion - DURATION of APs signal duration of MOTION - Motion could be vertical or lateral
slowly
Sensory neurons fall under two broad categories, slowly and rapidly adapting... _______ adapting cells : - Signal pressure and shape of an object by their average firing rate
rapidly
Sensory neurons fall under two broad categories, slowly and rapidly adapting... ________ adapting cells are responsible for the MOTION and DURATION of the stimulus
slowly
Sensory neurons fall under two broad categories, slowly and rapidly adapting... ________ adapting cells are responsible for the SHAPE and PRESSURE of the stimulus
olfactory receptor neurons
Sensory receptor cells embedded in a sheet lining the nose that convert chemical signals from odorants into neural impulses that travel to the brain
axoaxonic
Serotonin forms __________ synapse onto presynaptic sensory neuron of the aplysia
shorter
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At BRIGHT light, influx of Ca2+ 1) increases rhodopsin kinase, so rhodopsin is activated [ shorter / longer ] due to increased arrestin activity
guanylate cyclase
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At BRIGHT light, influx of Ca2+ 2) Increase _________ _______, allowing for the production of increased cGMP levels
longer
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At low (ambient) light, influx of Ca2+ 1) inhibit rhodopsin kinase, so rhodopsin is activated [ shorter / longer ]
guanylate cyclase
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At low (ambient) light, influx of Ca2+ 2) Inhibit _________ _______, inhibiting the production of cGMP levels
2
Somatosensory Cortex Brodmann's Areas... Each area carries distinct streams of information... Area _ : Deep tissue inputs, both pressure and proprioceptive information
1
Somatosensory Cortex Brodmann's Areas... Each area carries distinct streams of information... Area _ : Input from the skin... rapidly adapting
3b
Somatosensory Cortex Brodmann's Areas... Each area carries distinct streams of information... Area _ : cutaneous input (receives from both slowly and rapidly adapting tactile cells)
macular sparing
Sparing of the central or macular region of the visual field... caused by an OVERREPRESENTATION of the macula in the cortex map (macula is devoted to the fovea's visual field)
t-snare
Specialized protein anchored to the presynaptic "target" membrane to bind v-SNAREs to dock vesicles, making them ready for release ('B' & 'C')
v-snare
Specialized protein anchored to vesicles to aid their fusing to the presynaptic membrane to release neurotransmitter (in this figure, it's 'A')
1
Specific membrane resistance is defined as how difficult it is to push ions through a _ cm² sheet of membrane
pumps, capacitors
Step 1 in calculating V(rest) using an equivalent circuit, we drop the currents over ____ and ________
zero
Step 2 in calculating V(rest) using an equivalent circuit; since the system is at steady-state, the sums of currents must equal ____... So I(k) + I(na) + I(ca) + I(cl) = 0
gk*(Vm-Ek)
Step 3 in calculating V(rest) using an equivalent circuit; substitute known terms for unknown... We use the equation, in this example for K+ : I(k) = ___________ Hint : Current equals conductance times electrochemical driving force
Vm
Step 4 in calculating V(rest) using an equivalent circuit; Rearrange and solve... Gna * (Vm - Ena) + Gk * (Vm - Ek) + Gcl * (Vm - Ecl) = 0 __ = [( Gna * Ena ) + ( Gk * Ek ) + ( Gcl * Ecl )] / ( Gna + Gk + Gcl)
concentrations
The 'Ex' is the chemical driving force (nernst potential) that is fixed by ______________
change
The 'Vm' is the membrane potential that is fixed by membrane ______
add
The macroscopic currents seen in whole-cell recordings are a summation of the currents (CURRENTS in parallel ___) through the ensemble of all of the single channels in the cell (in parallel)
modulate
The main role of NTs like acetylcholine, serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and histamine is to _______ neurotransmission involving NTs that are amino acids like glutamate, GABA, and glycine
pyriform
The major higher order output of the olfactory bulb is the ________ cortex, but it also projects to other complex locations
associativity
pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later responses to a weak input
coulomb
SI unit of electric charge
interneurons
NT ID : GABA is commonly found in local circuit ___________
glutamate
NT ID : GABA is synthesized from _________
current
A voltage clamp measures the _______ in a cell
closed
At V(rest) the Na+ voltage gated channels will mostly be [ closed / open ]
conductance
In an Ohm's Law line, the slope of the line is ___________
bloodstream
In the endocrine analogy, what bodily structure represents the 'highway'?
low
Review : High material resistances correlate with a relatively [ high / low ] conductance
false
T/F... All neurons look alike.
axons
_____ are the output of the neuron cell
does
"Long term" sensitization (days) [ does / does not ] require gene expression and protein synthesis
does not
"Short term" sensitization (~1 hr) [ does / does not ] require gene expression and protein synthesis
kinesins
Anterograde movement is carried out by _______ 'drunken sailor'
parallel
A ________ circuit has two or more paths for current to flow through
ground
Circuit Element ID : Reference point to which we compare our system's voltage
presynaptic
Criteria of a "NT" : Present within the ___________ neuron
inverted
Images are _________ and right-left reversed onto the retina
schwann cells
Macroglia : Myelination in PNS
necessity
The fact of being required or indispensable
work/unit charge
Voltage can be defined as ____/____ ______
GABA
Forebrain Neuronal Circuit: 20% of all synapses in the mammalian CNS use ____
excitatory
NT ID : Glutamate is the main ________ NT in mammalian CNS
charge
ΔQ = C (ΔV/Δt) This equation means that if you wish to depolarize the cell (change the membrane potential), you MUST alter the ______ of the cell... generally this occurs from a release of current from the capacitor
RC time constant
τ = R(in) * C(in) This expression is known as the __ _______ ______
67
τ, the time constant, or tau, tells you how long it takes to get to __% of your maximum value (UNITS IN SECONDS)
1
1 quantum is equal to the fusion of _ synaptic vesicle(s)
VGLUT
NT ID : The vesicular transporter for glutamate NTs is called _____
ion exchangers
2 types of active transporters... ___ ________ => Energy from moving one ion against its electrochemical gradient comes from moving another down its chemical gradient
ATPase Pumps
2 types of active transporters... ______ _____ => Acquire energy directly from hydrolysis of ATP
ipRGC
3rd type of photoreceptor... _____ - Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells - A photoreceptor that IS a retinal ganglion cell - Photopigment is melanopsin - A large number of ipRGCs send information to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the 'clock' of the brain for your circadian rhythm
58mV
A linear relationship exists between the membrane potential and the log ([K+]out/[K+]in)... the slope of this linear relationship (at room temp) is ____
GABAergic
A [ glutamatergic / GABAergic ] synapse will exhibit a current in which positive ions flow out of the cell (or negative ions in...) , hyperpolarizing it, and then flow into the cell returning it to a resting state
voltage clamp
A _______ _____ is a technique used to keep the voltage of a system at a set command voltage... If this voltage deviates, you can inject a small amount of current ro counteract current flow in cell (presynaptic)
membrane
A ________ is a lipid bilayer that causes isolation of charges on one side from the other that cannot flow without the presence of ion channels... separation of charges => potential or capacity to do work
repels
A capacitor does not allow positive charges to flow from one plate to the other, as their is an insulator separating the two plates... Instead, positive charge builds up on one side of the capacitor, and this excess charge _____ the positive charge on the other side of the plate, continuing the positive flow of charge
negative
A capacitor does not allow positive charges to flow from one plate to the other, as their is an insulator separating the two plates... Instead, positive charge builds up on one side of the capacitor, and this excess charge repels the positive charge on the other side of the plate, continuing the positive flow of charge... This, however, leaves behind __________ charges that are attracted to the excess buildup on the other side
free nerve endings
A certain class of submodality-specific sensory neurons terminate in receptor endings or ___ _____ ______ that register temperature, pain, and have a high threshold for activation
agonist
A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
sustentacular
A class of olfactory support cells that express Ace2 receptors that are susceptible to COVID... COVID causes the death of these cells, which leads to the degradation of sensory axons and possible loss of olfactory ability
constant
A constant current (slope = 0) will relate to a increasing voltage with ________ slope
negative
A current graph with ALL the possible channels open looks more like what we expect in an action potential with a curved line and everything... If Na+ is rushing into the cell, then the current will be [ negative / positive ]
coincidence detector
A device that senses the co-occurrence of two events... NMDA receptors need both presynaptic release of glutamate and postsynaptic depolarization in order to activate
increase
A force vs distance graph can exhibit the properties of a capacitor by displaying the potential to do work (VOLTAGE) by a positive test charge rod if you moved it from the negative side to the positive side... this representation uses C = A/D and Q = CV ... In altering variables, you can use these equations to see what other variables must change... Ex : If you have the SAME charge, but you INCREASE the distance between the plates, what happens? Well you decreased capacitance by increasing the distance, so that means you must [ increase / decrease ] voltage in order to maintain the charge
inside, outside
A good analogy to consider when thinking about a mammalian cell is that the neuron is like "A banana in a salty milk pool... This means that generally just potassium is higher [ inside / outside ] ... ...while sodium, calcium, and potassium are higher [ inside / outside ]
larger
A greater magnitude in the depolarization of the membrane potential results in a [ smaller / larger ] transient inward (negative) current
antagonist
A molecule that interacts with a receptor protein and produces no cellular effect after binding, and also prevents an "active" ligand from binding.
increase
A more positive Erev for the presynaptic receptors will [ increase / decrease ] the EPSP peak in a postsynaptic mammalian cell
center-surround
A neuron in the visual system that has a "donut-shaped" receptive field. Stimulation in the center of the receptive field has one effect on the cell; stimulation in the surrounding ring has the opposite effect.
below
A neurotransmitter can DEPOLARIZE but still be INHIBITORY if Erev is [ below / above ] the action potential threshold... this is the case with GABA late in development (still not adult)
steady state
A nonequilibrium ______ _____ is characterized by - Sum of net currents = 0 - Membrane potential steady - No change in concentrations - External energy input needed to maintain concentration gradient
K+
A particular cell exhibits a high relative concentration of K+ inside the cell, and a high relative concentration of Na+ outside the cell. The cell contains ion channels that are only permeable to K+. Which ions are not in equilibrium? [ K+ / Na+ / both ]
center
A particular sensory neuron will exhibit the most robust response with the stimulus is in the [ center / periphery ] of its respective receptive field
positive
A positive ion flow from inside to outside reflect a [ positive / negative ] current flow
g-protein
A protein that binds the energy-rich molecule GTP ; A GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell
below
A receptor channel is inhibitory as long as its reversal potential is [ above / below ] the threshold for voltage-gated Na+ channels to open sufficiently to fire an AP
below
A receptor channel is inhibitory as long as its reversal potential is [ below / above ] the threshold for voltage-gated Na+ channels to open sufficiently to fire an action potential
occipital lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information ; located in the 'back' of the brain
aplysia
A sea snail ; used to study how memories can change neurons as they model remarkably well onto mammals
receptive field
A sensory neuron will only fire if the stimulus occurs with the ________ _____ of that sensory neuron... This is important so that you are able to pinpoint exactly where that stimulus is in space
sodium-potassium pump
A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell against their concentration gradients...
AMPA
A subtype of glutamate receptor; a glutamate-gated ion channel that is permeable to Na+ and K+.
SNAP-25
A t-SNARE attached to the plasma membrane via lipid modification ; protein that interacts with the t-snare prior to joining of target and vesicle snares ... it's 'B'
ion channels
A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient ; Can be OPEN or CLOSED (reverse of circuit), and different types of energies cause the opening of the gate including ligands (NT), stretch, heat, voltage
larger
A weak somatosensory stimulus results in small stretching, causing a small (graded) depolarization... A strong somatosensory stimulus results in a large amounts of stretching, causing a large depolarization... A LONG somatosensory stimulus results in the stretched channels being open for longer, resulting in a [ smaller / larger ] depolarization
contra, ipsi
Alignment of Orientation Tuning in a Binocularly Innervated Cortical Neuron... Ocular Dominance Columns : LGN projects to monocular layer 4... Synapses onto higher layers with binocular vision, integrating inputs between the two eyes... Integration is not even however, as different neurons will receive greater input from either the ______ or ____ eye
V1
Alignment of Binocular Input : If a normal individual aims both eyes at a single spot, a slightly different image is projected on each retina Converging these two images is what the __ does during the critical period... This structure integrates these inputs to create binocular vision and depth perception. BUT, the input from one eye will dominate the final perceived image
stochastic
ACh ligand gated nicotinic receptors are ________, or somewhat random when it will open and close
propioception
Ability of the body to sense its position and movement in space ; Position and balance, based on contraction of muscles throughout the body, cognitive
cones
Abnormalities in color vision is caused by missing _____
increased
According to Ohm's Law, if you increase the voltage, you have an [ increased / decreased ] current, or more charges per unit time moving through the ion channel
Ohm's
According to _____ law, the voltage drop across a resistor in a series circuit is directly proportional to the size of the resistor
delay
Because the neuromuscular junction is a chemical synapse, there is a _____ in transmission from presynaptic motor neuron and postsynaptic muscle fiber
brainstem nuclei
Acetylcholine, serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and histamine are all found EXCLUSIVELY within the _______ _____ circuit, however Glutamate and GABA are also found in this region
Erev
Action of NT & NT receptor is to drive the membrane potential towards the postsynaptic receptor's ____
>
Action potential trigger is not necessarily a potential threshold that the membrane has to cross... In actuality, the trigger is when I(na)[in] [ < , = , > ] I(k)[out] through both leak and voltage channels
graded
Action potentials are important for long distance signaling... However, the retina is thin and has short distances and therefore photoreceptors have ______ responses... Only requirement for sensory transduction is that more stimulus = more output
faster
Actions in the forebrain neuronal circuit are [ slower / faster ] acting, more evolved functions than those in the brainstem nuclei
melatonin
Activation of ipRGCs (BY BLUELIGHT) leads to the suppression of ________... messes with circadian rhythm
up
Active Transporters - Sets up and maintain ion gradients - Requires energy - Ions flow [ up / down ] the electrochemical gradient - Slow... several milliseconds for one exchange
up
Active transporters... If (Vm-Ex) is positive, then positive ions will flow from high concentrations to low concentrations... but with an active transporter, if (Vm-Ex) is positive, then the active transporter will try to move positive ion back [ up / down ] the from low potential point to high potential point
frogs
Advantages of the neuromuscular junction... - Simple - Large - Peripherally located The most utilized neuromuscular junction was within _____
sherrington
After Cajal's initial report, __________ later went on to name/coin the term synapse to define the point of communication between the neurons
net current
After the capacitive current adds charge to the membrane, the membrane potential is once again being held steady, meaning there is no ___ _______ in the cell
falling phase
After the peak of the action potential, the membrane begins to repolarize (becoming more negative) in a stage called the _______ _____
resting state
After the refractory period, the potential returns to its original voltage, or the _____ ____
lower, hyperpolarizing
At positive membrane potentials, like 70mV, the current of Na+ into the cell will be [ lower / the same / higher ] as the current of K+ out of the cell, meaning you will observe a [ depolarizing / hyperpolarizing / neither ] cell
dominant
Alignment of Orientation Tuning in a Binocularly Innervated Cortical Neuron... The reason why binocular neurons are able to align during the critical period is due to ocular dominance columns... The _________ eye is favored over its counterpart, and the counterpart's orientation at which it fires is altered so that they fire synchronously
critical period
Alignment of Orientation Tuning in a Binocularly Innervated Cortical Neuron... While the left eye could be firing when perceiving a vertical bar, the right eye could be firing when perceiving a diagonal bar at birth... During the _______ ______, this is tuned where in the neurons tune to respond to inputs in the SAME direction
glomeruli
All ORNs that express the same receptor generally project to one _________
free ribosome
All other proteins from the ones recognized in the Rough ER are instead made by ____ _________... this includes those with special sequences that direct the protein to specific targets (nucleus, mitochondria)... default destination is the cytoplasm
lateral geniculate nucleus
All retinal information is carried by axons of retinal ganglion cells (form optic nerve)... Major target for vision is _______ _________ ________ of the thalamus , which exhibits similar responses as the RGCs
primary visual
All retinal information is carried by axons of retinal ganglion cells (form optic nerve)... Major target for vision is lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, which then sends information to the striate, or _______ _____, cortex
cataracts
An Anthropologist on Mars, Oliver Sacks Childhood __________ removed @ 50 years old.... could physically see, but could not process visual inputs as he did not develop the ability to during the critical period
action potential
An ______ __________ is the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell
afferent
An _________ nerve comes INTO the central nervous system
efferent
An _________ nerve goes AWAY from the central nervous system
activation gate
An __________ ____ is part of the voltage-gated Na+ channel that opens when the membrane voltage reaches threshold
temporal lobe
An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving area for auditory information ; hearing and language
voltage gated channels
An arrow drawn through a circuit resistor designates that the resistors value can change (aka _______ _____ ________)
McGurk Effect
An error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched... Extra info : Citizens of Japan have a reduced effect due to inexperience in looking directly at the speaker
monocular deprivation
An experimental manipulation that deprives one eye of normal vision. - You can control the DEGREE of vision the subject has and DURATION the subject is blind
sensitization
An increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus
energy
At the Nernst potential, or an ion's equilibrium potential, there is no net current flow of that ion across a membrane, and there's no ______ put in to maintain the concentrations that you have (for only 1 permeable ion)
cortical column
Anatomic organization that represents a functional unit six cortical layers deep and approximately 0.5 mm square, perpendicular to the cortical surface ; one of the vertical columns that constitute the basic organization of the cerebral cortex ; vertically interconnected ; Each has similar responses
cribriform plate
Anatomy : The horizontal plate of the ethmoid bone separating the cranial cavity from the nasal cavity Porous, spongey bone that allows neurons to send signals
nasal cavity
Anatomy : Hollow space behind the nose ; provides an opening for odorants to enter
olfactory epithelium
Anatomy : A thin layer of epithelial cells within the nasal cavity that contains the receptors for smell... Additionally, provides - Protection - Moisture/Temperature (important for ligand binding)
optic disk
Anatomy of the Eye : Devoid of photoreceptors ; where RGC (retinal ganglion cell) axons leave the eye
fovea
Anatomy of the Eye : Highest resolution part of the retina ; the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
pupil
Anatomy of the Eye : The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters ; controls light coming in, affects blur
cornea
Anatomy of the Eye : The transparent layer forming the front of the eye; does the majority of the focusing
lens
Anatomy of the Eye : The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina ; does fine adjustments and enables different focal points
retina
Anatomy of the Eye : Where photoreceptors and neural circuitry are (thin tissue at the back of the eye
density
Another factor of receptive fields that improves your spatial resolution is _______... the more dense an area is with receptors, the more accurately differentiate stimuli in two different location
fluorescent dyes
Another initial test for calcium responsibility in presynaptic cells utilized calcium sensitive ___________ ____ that would respond to the Ca2+ due to presynaptic AP... More pink means more Ca2+, but this is only a correlated relationship
voltage-gated
Another very important factor that can open and close ion channels is the membrane potential itself... this is called a _______-_____ channel
bouton
At the end of the axons are the presynaptic terminals or synaptic ______
zero
At the ground, or our reference point, there is ____ potential
kinases
Calcium dependent _______ are required for the mobilization of vesicles to the active zone
fast, slow
Axons exhibit both ____ and ____ transport ; we know this because the distribution of axonal transport was not evenly distributed
negative, inward
Calcium exhibits a [ negative / positive ], [ inward / outward ] current
closed
As the membrane potential changes, we can either use that voltage to gate the activation gate open or closed... At more hyperpolarized membrane potentials, the activation gate will most likely be [ open / closed ]
macroscopic
As you add up the contributions of thousands of individual ion channels in parallel, each one opening and closing randomly, you build up the _________ current, where you really can't see the individual opening and closing of one ion channel or another because they're so many in parallel. Overall probability that at least some of the channels are open is HIGH
add
As you go down the axon, the resistors in series, r(a), ( add / add reciprocally )...
larger
As you increase the membrane potential, the conductance, g, of a sodium gated channel becomes [ larger / smaller ]
more
At V(rest), K+ has a much higher conductance than Na+, so the resting membrane potential will be much closer to the Nernst Potential of K+ than Na+... However, during an action potential, the conductances are changing over time... Na+ is much [ more / less ] conductive than K+, and so the membrane potential will be much closer to the Nernst Potential of Na+ rather than K+
higher, depolarizing
At VERY negative membrane potentials, like -100mV, the current of Na+ into the cell will be [ lower / the same / higher ] as the current of K+ out of the cell, meaning you will observe a [ depolarizing / hyperpolarizing / neither ] cell
closed, open, close
At a hyperpolarized state, the Na+ ion channel is [ closed / open ]... In a sufficiently depolarized state the Na+ channel will [ close / open ], however after the channel has reached maximum depolarization, the Na+ channel will [ close / open ] and remain that way and the current will hold steady
the same, neither
At a membrane potential of 0mV (reversal potential), the current of Na+ into the cell will be [ lower / the same / higher ] as the current of K+ out of the cell, meaning you will observe a [ depolarizing / hyperpolarizing / neither ] cell
some
At equilibrium, the system has no NET current. But with multiple ions, any one of the ions could have ( some / zero ) net current... Using Kirchhoff's circuit law, that we can get a balance between these different types of ions that are going across the membrane so that we can get a net of zero
equal, opposite
At equilibrium, to obtain a net current of 0, the electrical current must be ____ and _______ to the chemical current... I(elec) = -I(chem) OR Vm (membrane potential) = - µ (chemical potential)...
higher, depolarizing
At negative membrane potentials, like -90mV, the current of Na+ into the cell will be [ lower / the same / higher ] as the current of K+ out of the cell, meaning you will observe a [ depolarizing / hyperpolarizing / neither ] cell
causally
Calcium is ________ involved in neurotransmitter release
zero, infinite
Batteries exhibit ____ resistance of current (aka ________ conductance)... They just provide the energy.... Regardless of how much current is flowing through the circuit, they provide the potential difference
leak
Because conductances in parallel add normally, we can add our g(na) and our g(k) to get our effective ____ conductance, or how easily charges can flow through parallel paths
quantum
Based on the existence of mEPP's, scientists postulated that neurotransmitters were released in ______ or packet, each filled with a large, but consistent, amount of transmitters
cis, trans
Before light absorption, retinal in 11-____ conformation... after light, all-____ retinal
=, <, <
Between the 4 mechanoreceptor subtypes, there is a large variation in the size of the receptive fields... With regards to size, the receptive fields of: Meissner corpuscles [ < , = , > ] Merkel disk receptor [ < , = , > ] Ruffini corpuscles [ < , = , > ] Pacinian corpuscles
motion blindness
Bilateral lesions to MT neurons leads to ______ _________... essentially subjects cannot interpret motion, and must use snapshot vision in order to interpret moving information (Gisela Leibold)
amino acids
Brainstem Nuclei : 5% of all synapses use NTs that are NOT _____ _____ like Glutamate and GABA (instead, using acetylcholine, serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and histamine...)
metabotropic
Brainstem Nuclei NTs mostly utilize [ ionotropic / metabotropic ] receptors
lfg
Break card... If you're using the learn function, select 'lfg' to progress
multiples
Bumps in the graph are _________ of the unitary value of just 1 packet/vesicle releasing its neurotransmitters... in a perfect experiment, there would ONLY be peaks at 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, etc
1
By looking at the current figure produced by this patch clamp technique, you can see that [ 1 / 2 / many ] ion channels are involved because of the singular level of current detected... there is no current addition
postsynaptic
CST Step 7 : Transmitter binds to receptor in postsynaptic neuron, which opens ____________ channels that then allow ions into that cell...
number
Ca2+ DOES NOT affect the SIZE of the quantum of transmitter, but rather the average ______ of quanta released
fusion, mobilization
Ca2+ has two effects on small vesicle dynamics... ______ and small vesicle _____________ to plasma membrane
slowly
Calcium current is [ quickly / slowly ] activating
schaffer collaterals
CA3 pyramidal cells to CA1 pyramidal cells ('A' in figure) ; facilitates LTP and the formation of explicit memory
ganglion
CHANGES in luminance in either direction (increases and decreases in contrast) from background are signaled as changes in spiking in difference classes of ________ cells
rewiring
COVID degrades the ability to smell, but not always permanently... However, there is sometimes __________ after lack of use that results in strange perceptions of smell
action potential
CST Step 2 : An ______ _________ invades the presynaptic terminal
calcium
CST Step 3 : Depolarization (from invading action potential) opens voltage gated _______ channels, allowing the ion INTO the presynaptic terminal (step 4)
membrane fusion
CST Step 5 : Calcium causes the vesicles to fuse to the membrane, a process aptly called ________ _____
exocytosis
CST Step 6 : Membrane fusion leads to the vesicle __________, or the fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane and results in the discharge of vesicle content (NEUROTRANSMITTERS) into the synaptic cleft
synaptotagmin
Calcium's second intracellular responsibility, vesicle fusion, is carried out when calcium binds to _____________, changes its conformation, and allows for the vesicle to fuse to the membrane and release neurotransmitters
electrogenic
Capable of generating an electrical current; usually applied to membrane transporters that create electrical currents while translocating ions ; A pump that helps maintain an electrical gradient, such as the Na+ -K+ -ATPase is an ________ pump
farads
Capacitance adds in parallel, so the overall capacitance of the sphere is C(in) = Cm * 4πa² with the unit, ______
doubling
Capacitances in parallel is essentially _________ the area of your capacitor... total capacitance is just the sum of your individual capasitors
1µF/cm^2
Cell membranes generally have a capacitance per unit area of ________ (1 micro Farad per 1 cm square patch)
far away
Challenges of a neuron... The site of protein synthesis can be ( too close / far away ) from the destination
different
Challenges of a neuron... different parts of the cell (axon, dendrites, etc) require _________ proteins
higher
Changes in the potential affects the probability of a channel being open... Higher voltage means a [ lower / higher ] probability of being open
inactivation
Characteristic of a POTASSIUM channel... - Positive (outward) current - Delay in opening - No ____________ before the end of the depolarizing pulse - Channel can close and open multiple times because it does not inactivate
signal amplification
Characteristics of molecular signaling / signal transduction... _______ ____________ amplifies the cell's small signal into a robust response
signal integration
Characteristics of molecular signaling / signal transduction... ________ _________ : interaction of signals from two or more different cell-surface receptors that merge to activate the same response in the cell
specificity
Characteristics of molecular signaling / signal transduction... __________ of ligand-receptor binding
desensitization/adaptation
Characteristics of molecular signaling / signal transduction... _____________________________ : receptor activation triggers a feedback circuit that shuts off the receptor or removes it from the cell surface
slow
Characteristics of motor units : ________ => smaller forces, innervated by smaller motor neurons, resistant to fatigue
fast fatigue-resistant
Characteristics of motor units : _________ => intermediate properties between slow and fast-fatigable units
fast-fatigable
Characteristics of motor units : _________ => larger forces, innervated by larger motor neurons, easily fatigued
myasthenia gravis
Characterized by muscle weakness, especially during sustained activity (affects muscles controlling eyelids and eye movements)... Autoimmune disease : patients have antibodies directed against nAChR at the NMJs => functional receptors decreased at NMJs Essentially... the patients can release ACh, but postsynaptic receptors are not bonding to ACH Treatment : Cholinesterase inhibitors
inward, inward
Chart Time : If a CATION exhibits a negative current... The current flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]... The ion flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]
outward, inward
Chart Time : If a CATION exhibits a positive current... The current flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]... The ion flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]
outward, outward
Chart Time : If a CATION exhibits a positive current... The current flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]... The ion flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]
inward, outward
Chart Time : If an ANION exhibits a negative current... The current flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]... The ion flow will be moving [ inward / outward ]
nernst potential
Check out this cell, with a higher potassium concentration inside than outside. Due to the concentration gradient, K+ ions will flow outward. However, this leaves excess positive charge outside the cell and a overall negatively charged cell, so therefore, positive electrical current will attempt to flow inward. The ______ _________ is the membrane potential that balances the electrical and chemical driving forces
vesicles
Chemical Synapse Transmission Step 1 : Neurotransmitters are synthesized and stored in ________, or small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell; each can hold thousands of neurotransmitters in the 'active zone'
high, low
Chemical driving force takes ions from a location of ____ concentration and tends to moves them towards locations of ___ concentrations
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, these compounds travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
µ, diffusion
Chemical potential, _ , depends on concentration difference that comes from ion transporters... Concentration gradients lead to _________
ammeter
Circuit Element ID : A device used to measure current in a circuit
voltmeter
Circuit Element ID : A device used to measure voltage, or electrical potential energy difference
capacitor
Circuit Element ID : A device used to store an electric charge, consisting of one or more pairs of conductors separated by an insulator
resistor
Circuit Element ID : An electrical device that resists the flow of electrical current ; Potential will drop across this device in a circuit
positive, negative
Circuit Element ID : In the schematics of a battery, the longer end represents the [ negative / positive ] end, while the shorter end represents the [ negative / positive ] end... This is an example of the battery's polarity
closed, open
Circuit Element ID : Switches control the current within a system... The switch on the left represents a(n) [ open / closed ] switch, while the switch on the right represents a(n) [ open / closed ] switch
in parallel
Circuit Element ID : These resistors (bottom example) are referred to as being __ _______
in series
Circuit Element ID : These resistors (top example) are referred to as being __ ______
switch
Circuit Element ID : This break in the circuit controls the current within the system
battery
Circuit Element ID : This element serves as the voltage source
wire
Circuit Element ID : This material is 'ideal' in the sense that it exhibits zero resistance
loops
Circuit elements are arranged into electrical circuit _____ that must be closed in order for current to flow
increase
Closer distance from synapse to cell body will [ increase / decrease ] the EPSP peak in a postsynaptic mammalian cell
independent
Cm ("specific membrane capacitance") is the total capacitance for a unit (patch) of membrane (units are in µFarads / cm²) ... this variable is geometry [ dependent / independent ]
competition
Competition between eye-specific inputs produces ocular dominance columns... - Asynchronous activity from one normal eye and implanted eye compete with each other and lead to formation of ocular dominance columns - Normal development depends on __________ for acquisition of synaptic partners and formation of OCULAR DOMINANCE COLUMNS
diffusion
Concentration differences between intracellular and extracellular fluid => concentration gradient => _________
connexons
Connexins is one part of the pore protein, while _________ is all of these connexins put together
slow
Cons of Diffusion : Extremely ____ process
specificity
Cons of Diffusion : No ______________
ipsilateral
Contralateral => Opposite side ____________ => Same Side "The side is relative and usually refers to either an injury or recording site specified by the experiment"
postsynaptic
Criteria of a "NT" : Specific receptors for the substance must be present on the postsynaptic cell ; You can add agonist (compound that mimics NT) to see if the ____________ receptor expresses the same effect ; You can also add an antagonist to see if the effect is hindered
histology
Criteria of a "NT" : Specific receptors for the substance must be present on the postsynaptic cell ; You can use high-resolution _________, which uses antibodies to target receptors to see if that receptor is in the postsynaptic cell
Ca2+
Criteria of a "NT" : ____ - dependent release after presynaptic depolarization
V1
Critical period for developing vision : Both eyes project to each visual cortex, but at the primary visual area ( __ ), they remain largely segregated into ocular dominance columns
optic chiasm
Crossing over of nasal retina pathways occurs in the _____ ______
amacrine
Crossover inhibition from the ________ cells allow brief hyperpolarization from ON-center bipolar cells to depolarize OFF-center bipolar cells ; the little blip after t2 on the bipolar figures
reversal potential
Current changes membrane potential (depolarize or hyperpolarize) as it is driven towards the receptor channel's ________ _________
membrane
Current flowing across the membrane leak channels is ________ current across the membrane resistance, r(m) or the resistance of a unit area of axon membrane in ohm*cm)
rm
Current flowing across the membrane leak channels is membrane current across the membrane resistance, __ (the resistance of a unit area of axon membrane in ohm*cm)
membrane
Current injected from one end flows to the other and leaks out through the ____________ resistance... this breaks down the membrane into repeating units
axial
Current traveling along the length of the axon or dendrite is ____ current, and it flows across the ____ (same term) resistance, r(a), or the resistance of a unit length of axon of axon core in ohm/cm)
ra
Current traveling along the length of the axon or dendrite is axial current, and flows across the axial resistance, __ (the resistance of a unit length of axon core in ohm/cm)
current
Current will flow "through" the capacitor until it is charged... Capacitive ________ "through" capacitor arises from the changing voltage or charge on the capacitor, not from physical charges moving through the insulator
resistance
How easily ions flow through an ion channel is measured by that channels __________
do not
Currents [ do / do not ] directly travel through a capacitor... When you have a current connected to a capacitor, the current is depositing charge into one of the surfaces at a certain rate. That rate is given by the current (measure of charge movement per unit time). You charge up a capacitor by putting more charges, generally positive, on one plate which results in more negative charges on the other. Charges, generally positive, will then move away from the other plate due to repulsion by positive charge buildup
chemical, electrical
Currents arise from two types of driving forces on a permeable ion, each with its own potential energy... The first is ________ driving force due to the ion's concentration, and the second is __________ driving force due to the ion's charge
neurofilaments
Cytoskeleton : (intermediate) ______________ are abundant, provide structural backbone and normally do not dynamically change (rigid) ; 'like a cell's skeleton and ligaments
microtubules
Cytoskeleton : (largest) ______________ are the intracellular conveyer belt ; have POLARITY ; dynamically grow and shrink
microfilaments
Cytoskeleton : (smallest) Actin ______________ are important for mobility and shape ; Actin is MOST DOMINANT protein ; 'chain-link fence' under plasma membrane ; dynamic
soma, terminal
Cytoskeleton : Axonal microtubules all go from - (____) to + (________) ; dendritic microtubules have mixed orientations ; The positive end is the end that GROWS
increase
Decreasing axial resistance allows positive current to flow more easily down an axon... Decreasing membrane capacitance decreases the amount of charge the membrane can hold, and so depolarization is achieved much more quickly... Both of these effects [ increase / decrease ] the speed at which action potentials propagate
habituation
Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
+, +
Equations : For a SERIES CIRCUIT : Vt = V1 _ V2 _ V3
depolarize
Dark spot in center of ON-center... OFF-center bipolar cell will [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ]
fired
Dark spot in center of ON-center... OFF-center ganglion cell will be [ fired / suppressed ]
hyperpolarize
Dark spot in center of ON-center... ON-center bipolar cell will [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ]
suppressed
Dark spot in center of ON-center... ON-center ganglion cell will be [ fired / suppressed ]
depolarize
Dark spot in center of ON-center... Photoreceptor will [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ]
inverse
Equations : G = 1/6 Conductance is the _______ of resistance
ribosomes
Dendrites are rich in _________, which increases the plasticity , or the ability of the brain to modify its connections or re-wire itself. Without this ability, any brain, not just the human brain, would be unable to develop from infancy through to adulthood or recover from brain injury
protein
Dendrites are rich in ribosomes, which means that _______ synthesis can happen right at the spinehead itself ; brain plasticity... learning
encapsulated nerve endings
Dendrites enclosed in connective tissue capsule for pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations ; innervating specialized mechanoreceptor cells...
axonal arborization
Deprived eyes exhibited less ______ __________ from LGN of V1 after monocular deprivation
far cells
Depth Perception : ___ _____ fire APs to retinal disparities that arise from points beyond the plane of fixation
near cells
Depth Perception : ___ _____ fire APs to retinal disparities that arise from points in front of the plane of fixation
tuned zero cells
Depth Perception : _____ ____ _____ respond selectively to points that lie on the plane of fixation (within the focal point)
timer
Desensitization/adaptation can act as a molecular ____ to determine how long a signal is open
labeled lines
Different modalities are segregated so that different nerves carry the signal that was transduced from different sources of energy
thoracic
Different regions of the spinal cord controls different regions of the body... The ________ region controls our back muscles
elephants
Different species have varying numbers of unique olfactory receptor genes. Surprisingly, (or unsurprisingly... idk what you know) the greatest number of genes expressed are seen in _________
conductance
Different values for the net currents of different ions can completely offset, as the ___________ value for various ions will affect the current of ion flow
work
Displaced positive and negative charges set up the potential to do ____ on other charges via the electric force field
action potential
Dorsal root ganglions have axons that extend into the receptive fields right under the skin's surface... When you place pressure on the receptive field, this will drive the firing of an ______ _________ in the dorsal root ganglion neurons...
aplysia
Dr. Kandel did work with _______ to study habituation/sensitization (Use figure for context)
voltage
Driving force and current are NOT the same thing... Driving force is a measure of the _______, current is a measure of the actual current in coulombs / second
homunculus
Due to the disproportionate representation of primary somatosensory information, we have modeled the __________ man, or what this representation would look like if proportionate to somato-sensitivity
excitatory
During development, the Erev of GABA receptors is above the Action Potential threshold due to a delayed expression of a Cl- transporter (transporter removes Cl- from inside the cell and takes it outside... Because of this, the Erev of GABA > AP Threshold, and therefore this GABA synapse is ________
down
During the falling phase of the action potential, K+ is once again more conductive (or permeable) than Na+, so the membrane potential is pulled [ up / down ] towards the Nernst potential of K+
IR
Equations : Ohm's Law... V = __
longer
EPPs are [ shorter / longer ] than EPC due to capacitance
mitral
Each glomeruli bind to a higher order neuron called a _____ cell before projecting to the brain
unit charge
Each of the charges we see represents a ____ ______, or the charge of one coulomb which is the standard unit of charge. One Coulomb of charge is equal to electrons or protons. One electron is equal to Coulombs. It is defined as the charge transported by a steady current of one ampere in one second. CANNOT SPLIT THIS VALUE... it is the fundamental unit
odorants
Each olfactory receptor neuron, or ORN, expresses only ONE type of receptor, however this receptor can be stimulated by multiple ligand types or multiple types of _________ (there is some specificity, but receptor can interpret different signals)
forgetting curve
Ebbinghaus' ___________ _____ describes the decrease in ability of the brain to retain memory over time... The theory is that humans start losing the memory of learned knowledge over time, in a matter of days or weeks, unless the learned knowledge is consciously reviewed time and again.
high
Edges are easier to see when you have [ low / high ] contrast
charge
Equations : Q = CV _______ is the voltage times capacitance... The units for this, btw, are Coulombs = Farads(Volts)
later effectors
Effectors that occur later than second messengers are called _____ __________... Types Include : - Kinases (phosphorylate) - Ion Channels (indirect) - Phosphatases (dephosphorylate) - Transcription factors
second messengers
Effectors vs Second Messengers : ____________________ are NON-protein components that propagate the signal transduction line (Ca2+ , cyclic nucleotides, lipid membrane components)
effectors
Effectors vs Second Messengers : ____________________ are proteins within the signal transduction line that are being modulated, activated, or deactivated within signal transduction cascade
lipid membrane components
Effectors vs Second Messengers... ____ ________ __________ : Commonly converted into Diacylglycerol (DAG) and IP3
cyclic nucleotides
Effectors vs Second Messengers... ______ __________ : cAMP & cGMP
monocular
Electrical Recordings in left V1 of MD Cats : In cats 'treated' with monocular deprivation' during the critical period, the cat only had functional optical neurons in one eye, exhibiting [ binocular / monocular ] vision, even though both eyes visual systems worked
7
Electrical Recordings in left V1 of Normal Cats : Generally, most cells receive visual inputs from both eyes, but not equally... There are _ categories of neurons within V1 that are separated by their degree of response to inputs from the different eyes Ex : 1 has almost all of its input from the contra (right) eye, and 7 has all of its input from the ipsi (left) eye... 2-6 have varying degrees
binocular, monocular
Electrical Recordings in left V1 of Normal Cats : In normal cats, the ocular dominance histogram will look something like this... not equal but more or less distributed... More neurons had [ binocular / monocular ] vision than [ binocular / monocular ] vision
larger
Electrical Synapse : Connexins are relatively much [ larger / smaller ] than ion channels
hemi-channels
Electrical Synapse : Connexons are the proteins that form the pores connecting cytoplasm of two neurons...The connexons usually consist of six ____-________ on each synaptic side, and these channels bind together to form a passageway for ions and ATP to travel through
connexins
Electrical Synapse : _________ are the membrane proteins present at gap junctions... They allow ions & ATP to freely move across
microfilaments, neurofilaments, microtubules
Elements of the neuronal cytoskeleton are the ______________ (smallest), _____________(intermediate), and ____________ (largest)
schwann cells
Encapsulated nerve endings are enclosed in connective tissue capsule for pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations... The encapsulation itself is comprised of _______ _____
signal amplification
Enzyme cascades amplifies the cell's small signal into a robust response with enzymes and 2nd messengers... At each step in the cascade, the number of activated products is much greater than the previous step
4
Equation for diffusion : t ≈ x^2 / 2D ; x ≈ square root of t Essentially, if you move TWICE the distance, it will take X_ the amount of time
γVm
Equation for electrical current (reminiscent of Ohm's law) I(elec) = ___
γµ
Equation for electrical current : I(chem) = __
decrease
Equations : C = A/D Capacitance is equal to the area of the parallel plates times the distance between these two plates... If you increase the distance between the two plates, the capacitance will [ increase / decrease ]
1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
Equations : For a PARALLEL CIRCUIT : 1/Rt = _____________ (3 resistances)
+, +
Equations : For a PARALLEL CIRCUIT : Ct = C1 _ C2 _ C3
=, =
Equations : For a PARALLEL CIRCUIT : Vt = V1 _ V2 _ V3
1/C1+1/C2+1/C3
Equations : For a SERIES CIRCUIT : 1/Ct = _____________ (3 capacitors)
=, =
Equations : For a SERIES CIRCUIT : It = I1 _ I2 _ I3
+, +
Equations : For a SERIES CIRCUIT : Rt = R1 _ R2 _ R3
electrical, chemical
Equations : I(net) = I(electrical) + I(chemical) __________ current is the flow of charges across the cell membrane is what generates electrical currents... ________ current is the flow of chemical ions across the membrane due to a concentration gradient
electrochemical
Equations : Ix = gx ( Vm - Ex ) Where Ix is the current flow for ion X, gx is the conductance for ion X, Vm is membrane potential, Ex is the Nernst or Equilibrium Potential for ion X, and ( Vm - Ex ) is the _______________ driving force for ion X
Nernst equation
Equations : This is the _______ __________
inhibitory
Erev < AP threshold => __________
excitatory
Erev > AP threshold => __________
Vm
Essentially, as compared to our ground/reference in the extracellular space, the net membrane potential, __ , is calculated as the membrane potential inside - the membrane potential outside
axial, membrane
Even though injected current charges the next segment of the steady-state, the voltage declines over distance because of r(a), the _____ resistance, and r(m) the _________ resistance
Nernst potential
Ex... Electrical membrane potential that exactly opposes net diffusion of an ion due to its concentration gradient
capacitor
Excess charges on the inside and outside of the membrane can pass through ion channels, but they cannot penetrate the membrane itself... Instead, the membrane acts as a _________, storing charge
EPSP
Excitatory postsynaptic potential, or ____, is a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential.
increase, decrease
Excitatory synapses [ increase / decrease ] the probabilities of action potentials firing while inhibitory synapses [ increase / decrease ] them
always
Extracellular Cl- is [ always / only in mature cells ] greater than intracellular Cl-
2-6, equal
FA : A cat has one eye suture closed in adulthood... On an ocular dominance column HISTOGRAM, most cells would be classified as levels ___... Ocular dominance columns would be of roughly _____ width
B
FA : A stroke patient comes into the clinic and you suspect they had a stroke in their medial temporal lobe. Which test would you use to confirm this diagnose? A) Have them write with a pen to see if they remember how to do so B) Present them a list of words and have them recall it 10 minutes later C) Show them a picture of a rabbit and then have them spell the word hare/hair as hare D) Test their reflex pathways (i.e., knee jerk reflex)
negative
FA : Because we know that neurons have a negative resting potential, we can predict that neurons have excess [ positive / negative ] within their cells
add
FA : For 'N' number of ion channels in parallel, each with a conductance, γ, total conductance γ(total) = Nγ ... This is because conductances in parallel just ___... so if you has N number of channels all with the same conductances, just multiply this conductance value by the number of channels (Remember that γ = 1/R...)
Nγ
FA : For 'N' number of ion channels in parallel, each with a conductance, γ, total conductance γ(total) = ___
action potentials
FA : Given an Rm of 6000 ohm*cm² and an Ra of 30 ohm*cm, we would need an axon radius, a, of 1m for a length constant of 100cm... This is NOT practical, which is why we need _____ ________ to propagate signals
1m
FA : Given an Rm of 6000 ohm*cm² and an Ra of 30 ohm*cm, what axon radius, a, is needed for a length constant of 100cm ? _______
picoCoulombs
FA : Go back and practice FA2 from Lecture 5, calculating the excess charge on the membrane with a voltage of -60mV.... Type in the units once completed => 18 ___________
inside
FA : If a hypothetical neuron's membrane has an ion channel that is permeable to Br-, and an EBr- = +20mV, is the concentration of Br- LARGER inside or outside of the cell? _______
<
FA : If a hypothetical neuron's membrane has an ion channel that is permeable to Br-, and an EBr- = +20mV, the concentration of Br- has to be larger inside the cell... The rational behind this is you need the Nernst potential to have the same sign as the membrane potential, +20mV... Bromine has a valance charge of -1, so you need a negative log([Br-]out/[Br-]in) to offset this... The way you get a negative log is to have a ratio [ <, =, > ] 1, so you need more bromine INSIDE the cell than outside
F
FA : If a norepinephrine GPCR has a mutation which causes it to be hyperactive, what are some signal-transduction specific therapeutic interventions that you could create to treat this mutation... A) PKA, or protein kinase A, Regulatory Site Inhibitors B) Exogenous Dopamine C) GAP Inhibitors D) GEF Inhibitors E) B & D F) A, B, & D G) All of the Above
positive
FA : If we are looking at JUST the sodium concentrations for this cell, the concentration difference is driving this chemical potential arising from concentration gradient is driving sodium ions inside the cell... This builds up excess [ positive / negative ] charge, and the electric potential to do work from this electric field increases, and it wants to drive positive ions out of the cell, and so you get electric current flowing from inside to outside
inside, outside
FA : If we are looking at JUST the sodium concentrations for this cell, there is more outside concentration than inside concentration... The current due to the electrical driving force will flow from [ inside / outside ] to [ inside / outside ] the cell
A
FA : If we are looking at slowly adapting neurons, what happens for an even larger strength (greater pressure) of a long duration stimulus? A) More spikes per unit time B) Less spikes per unit time C) No change in spikes per unit time (hint... greater pressure => rapid regenerating of AP)
B
FA : In certain disease states, NMDA dysfunction leads to excitotoxic influx of Ca2+ which can lead to memory related deficits... What would be a potential therapeutic method? A) Administer a NMDA agonist B) Administer a NMDA antagonist C) Atrophy the hippocampus D) Administer PKA inhibitor
equal, opposite
FA : In looking at the graph on the right, at 0mV ( the resting potential ), the Na+ and K+ currents are _____ in magnitude and flowing in ________ directions
E
FA : Inhibiting NMDAR and the subsequent decrease in Ca2+ entry will lead to... A) Decreased CAMKIIA activity B) Decreased PKA activity C) Increased AMPA trafficking to synapse D) Decreased AMPA trafficking to synapse E) A, B, and D F) A and D
decrease
FA : Lowering the extracellular concentration of Ca2+ around the neuromuscular junction would when stimulating presynaptically would [ increase / decrease ] the amount of vesicles undergoing exocytosis
synapsin
FA : More depression is observed after the size of the reserve pool is reduced by impairing _________ function in the presynaptic terminal... This compound keeps vesicle in the reserve pool, so if you affect this, more vesicles will go to the active zone and be depleted faster
axon, dendrite
FA : The more predominant synapse configuration is [ axon / dendrite ] to [ axon / dendrite ]
0.0001mM
FA : What extracellular concentration of Ca2+ is needed for a Nernst potential of -116mV if the intracellular concentration is 1mM (No scientific notation)
C
FA : Which letter graph represents the reversal potential?
F
FA: [ T / F ] Given what we see in the data for membrane voltage, does light cause this photoreceptor to fire an action potential
cadmium
Finally, scientists wanted to test if calcium was necessary for NT release... they used _______ as a Ca2+ channel blocker and recorded any potential postsynaptic currents...
was not
Finally, scientists wanted to test if calcium was necessary for NT release... they used cadmium as a Ca2+ channel blocker and recorded any potential postsynaptic currents... They found that there [ was / was not ] a postsynaptic current, proving that calcium was responsible for NT release and signal propagation
currents
For 1 permeable ion, membrane potential at rest arises from an equilibrium where there is a balance between ________ driven by these forces
does not
For 1 permeable ion, membrane potential at rest arises from an equilibrium where there is a balance between currents driven by these forces that [ does / does not ] require work to maintain through ion pumps
πa²
For CIRCULAR Cross-Section of CYLINDRICAL axon : area => _____
2πa
For CIRCULAR Cross-Section of CYLINDRICAL axon : circumference => _____
anions
For [ cations / anions ] the physical flow of these ions is in the opposite direction of the positive current flow
cations
For [ cations / anions ] the physical flow of these ions is in the same direction of the positive current flow
nernst potential
For a system with 1 permeable ion, we can reach equilibrium without adding any additional energy... The point at which we reach equilibrium is when the electrical driving force, membrane potential (Vm), is equal to the ______ __________, which reflects the concentration gradient's driving force
outward, inward
For current direction, if the current value you calculated value from... ... I(current)1 = G1 ( Vm - E1 ) ... ... is positive, then you current moves [ inward / outward ] ... is negative, then your current moves [ inward / outward ]
nonequilibrium
For many permeable ions, membrane potential at rest arises from a ______________ 'steady state' between currents associated with different permeable ions
does
For many permeable ions, membrane potential at rest arises from a nonequilibrium steady state between currents associated with different permeable ions, and [ does / does not ] require work to maintain through ion pumps
outside
For the orientation of the 'leak' battery, we look to the resting membrane potential... the resting membrane potential is ~-70mV, which is reflected in the fact that the battery has the positive end of the terminal facing [ inside / outside ]
glutamate
Forebrain Neuronal Circuit: 75% of all synapses in the mammalian CNS use _________
glycine
Forebrain Neuronal Circuit: In the spinal cord, GABA is replaced by _______ as the inhibitory NT
quantal
From this experiment, scientists concluded that neurotransmitter release was _______
GTPases
G-Proteins : Molecular Switches... Cells utilize ________ (g-proteins as molecular switches to control nearly all cellular processes
receptor
GPCR is the ________ portion of a metabotropic receptor system
7-trans-membrane
GPCRs are ligand binding, with a _-____-_____ domain, and a C-terminal responsible for binding with the G-protein
ionotropic
Ganglion cells have [ metabotropic / ionotropic ] receptors
hyperpolarize
Ganglion cells will fire action potentials in response to the signal center by its respective bipolar cells... Light stimuli will [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ] OFF-center bipolar cells so OFF-center ganglion cells will NOT fire action potentials
depolarize
Ganglion cells will fire action potentials in response to the signal center by its respective bipolar cells... Light stimuli will [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ] ON-center bipolar cells so ON-center ganglion cells will fire action potentials
concentrations
In looking at the equation I(net) = γ(Vm-Ex) The Ex (Nernst) is fixed by ______________
neutral
Generally, if you are looking deep within either the extracellular fluid or the intracellular fluid, you will find that these spaces are charge _______... It is only on the surfaces of the membranes that we find our separation of charges
large
Generally, macro end plate potentials result in [ small / large ] depolarizations
outward
Generally, the K+ channels exhibit a positive outward current and the physical flow of K+ ions is outward... Generally, the Na+ channels exhibit a positive inward current and the physical flow of Na+ ions is inward. Generally, Cl- channels exhibit a positive inward current and the physical flow of Cl- ions is [ inward / outward ]
M
Generally, to make the numbers easy to understand, the practical resistance of materials will be given as _Ω's
retronasal
Generally, when eating, odor molecules are released from the food and bind to receptors within the olfactory system... These odorants would be considered as to following the [ orthonasal / retronasal ] pathway
2.5nS
Given... g(Na+) = 0.5 nS g(K+) = 2 nS Ena = 40mV Ek = -50mV What is the effective Gleak ?
-32mV
Given... g(Na+) = 0.5 nS g(K+) = 2 nS Ena = 40mV Ek = -50mV What is the resting membrane potential, Vm
microglia
Glia : ________ are derived from macrophages of the immune system
microglia
Glia : ________ are mobilized by injury, infection or illness... they expand in injuries and eat up what is released from dying cells
mitotic
Glial cells are _______, meaning they can split and be able to generate additional glial cells and they will change shape...
depolarizes
How does sodium affect the peak of a cell... When we hit a certain threshold voltage, voltage gated Na+ channels will open, allowing a huge influx of Na+ ions into the cell... this influx [ depolarizes / hyperpolarizes ] the cell, which we see in the rapidly rising membrane potential
efficiency
Hebbian Law (aka Hebb's Rule) : Increases in activity at a synapse enhance _________ of communication at that synapse
hippocampus
Henry Molaison had his temporal lobe removed as a cure for his epilepsy, however the subsequent loss of his _________ resulted in is inability to form new explicit memories
increased
High frequency stimulation, or a tetanus, leads to [ increased / decreased ] synaptic strength
increase
Higher density in postsynaptic receptors at the synapse will [ increase / decrease ] the EPSP peak in a postsynaptic mammalian cell
axons
Hodgkin & Huxley did their experiments on invertebrate squids because they exhibited 'giant' (1mm) _____ that ran along the axis of the squid
voltage clamp
Hodgkin & Huxley... State of knowledge in 1939 : - No understanding of ionic conductance underlying action potential - No understanding of ion channel gating - _______ _____ invented during this work
clustered
How are lower motor neurons organized ? Motor neurons for a SINGLE muscle are _________ together in the ventral horn of the spinal cord
ventral horn
How are lower motor neurons organized in the spinal cord ? Motor neurons are located within the _______ ____ of the spinal cord
motor column
How are muscle fibers connected to motor neurons? A _____ ______ is a collection of motor pools that innervate a particular muscle group ( i.e. back muscles, extremities, etc.)
rabies virus
How can we experimentally determine where motor neurons are in the spinal cord for each muscle? Inject rodents with modified ______ _____ that can only transmit through 1 synapse (can only go from muscle to alpha motor neuron that controls it... Virus has fluorescent protein that can be used to track the virus... The virus will be transmitted retrograde from muscle cell to alpha motor neuron... You can then section different parts of the spinal cord to stain and find the fluorescent protein
retrograde
How can we experimentally determine where motor neurons are in the spinal cord for each muscle? Inject rodents with modified rabies virus that can only transmit through 1 synapse (can only go from muscle to alpha motor neuron that controls it... Virus has fluorescent protein that can be used to track the virus... The virus will be transmitted __________ from muscle cell to alpha motor neuron... You can then section different parts of the spinal cord to stain and find the fluorescent protein
electrical recording
How do we study visual system plasticity ? (What experimental manipulations must we make?) 1) Monocular deprivation with __________ _________ (from V1) - Measures cellular ocular dominance (individual neurons)
cellular
How do we study visual system plasticity ? (What experimental manipulations must we make?) 1) Monocular deprivation with electrical recording (from V1) - Measures _________ ocular dominance (individual neurons)
radioactive tracer injections
How do we study visual system plasticity ? (What experimental manipulations must we make?) 2) Monocular deprivation with __________ _________ _________ ( into retina ) - Measures anatomical ocular dominance
anatomical
How do we study visual system plasticity ? (What experimental manipulations must we make?) 2) Monocular deprivation with radioactive tracer injections ( into retina ) - Measures __________ ocular dominance
long term potentiation
How does the hippocampus facilitate memory formation? ____ ____ ___________
bars
Hubel and Wiesel ... Orientation Tuning : When conducting their tuning procedure using black dots, they were not getting much response... However, the edge of the projector slide would cause the desired retinal response... This accidental observation is how these two scientists discovered the cortex's receptive field's preference for ____ of light over dots
more
Human olfactory systems are much [ more / less ] advanced in comparison to their gustatory systems... We have tenfold more receptors for smells than we do for our 5 broad taste categories (sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami)... And so in reality, much of what we think is a 'taste' is actually an activation of olfactory receptors when we release odorants while chewing...
fewer, fewer
Humans and primates in general have lost much of the relative sophistication in the ability to process olfactory stimuli... We are very visual/auditory creatures... However, humans CAN track scents at low concentrations if forced to... As displayed by the diagram, humans can follow scent tracks fairly well, and given training, they exhibit [ fewer / greater ] deviations from the track in a [ lesser / greater ] amount of time
ozone
Humans and primates in general have lost much of the relative sophistication in the ability to process olfactory stimuli... We are very visual/auditory creatures... However, humans have high sensitivity to some odors ( generally odors that are irritating and/or fatal, such as _____ )
sign-inverting
Hyperpolarization in photoreceptor caused by lack of glutamate causes depolarization in bipolar cell
sign-conserving
Hyperpolarization in photoreceptor caused by lack of glutamate causes hyperpolarization in bipolar cell
changing
I = C(dV/dt) In order for there to be a current through a capacitor, the membrane voltage has to be changing in time... If the voltage is not changing in time, then there is ____ current across the capacitor part of the lipid bilayer
charge
I(cap) = dQ/dt or rate of change of ______ across the membrane over time
right visual field
If structure B, or the right optic nerve in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the _____ ______ _____
optic chiasm
If structure C, or the _____ _______ (crossing over point) in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the temporal visual field
temporal
If structure C, or the optic chiasm (crossing over point) in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the ________ visual field
optic tract
If structure E, or the right _____ ______ in the figure is legioned, then the subject will lose all of the left visual field
patch clamp
IMPORTANT BECAUSE OPPOSITE... If you use e. phys mechanisms (_____ _____) to inject a positive current, you depolarize the cell... https://terpconnect.umd.edu/~rpayne/neuron/simchap3.htm (checkout this website for confirmation...
negative
IPSPs decrease the potential of the membrane, drawing it closer to the membrane's relatively _______ Erev... If the Erev is actually higher than the resting membrane, then the IPSP will act like an EPSP, BUT ITS STILL AN IPSP
positive
If Dr. Liu asks to 'Draw the Current', you draw the direction of effective _________ charge flow... If he says to "Draw the direction of ion flow", cations will be in the same direction and anions will be in opposite directions
7.9E-5, outward
If K+ has a conductance of 10 µS, a Vm of -67.1 mV, and an Ek of -75 mV, calculate its current : ________ (use 'E' notation convention from calculator), and state whether this current will be flowing [ inward / outward ]
correlated
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect, if we observe M1 & E at the same time, then we can say that they are [ correlated / causal ]
necessary
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect... If M1 does not occur and E does not occur, then we can say that M1 is [ necessary / not necessary ]
not necessary
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect... If M1 does not occur and E occurs, then we can say that M1 is [ necessary / not necessary ]
causally
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect... If M1 is necessary AND sufficient, then M1 occurring is ________ equivalent to E occurring
not sufficient
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect... If M1 occurs and E does not occur, then we can say that M1 is [ sufficient / not sufficient ]
sufficient
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect... If M1 occurs and E occurs, then we can say that M1 is [ sufficient / not sufficient ]
sufficiency
If M1 represents a variable, and E represents an effect... making M1 happen tests its [ necessity / sufficiency ]
slower, repolarization
If Na+ and K+ were necessary for postsynaptic end plate potentials, then blocking their channels using TTX and TEA would result in NO EPP... However there was still an EPP, proving that calcium was responsible... Calcium channels activate much [ quicker / slower ] than Na+ channels, and in this instance they are open for much longer because the K+ channels responsible for ___________ had been blocked
not necessary
If Na+ and K+ were necessary for postsynaptic end plate potentials, then blocking their channels using TTX and TEA would result in NO EPP... However, there WAS a postsynaptic potential, so this proves that Na+ and K+ were [ necessary / not necessary ] for EPPs
suppressed
If a dark spot falls on an excitatory subfield, like the center of an on-center ganglion cell, then that cell will be [ fired / suppressed ]
fired
If a dark spot falls on an inhibitory subfield, like the center of an off-center ganglion cell, then that cell will be [ fired / suppressed ]
decrease
If a photoreceptor is hyperpolarized with light (graded response, not an AP), there is a resulting [ decrease / increase ] in glutamate release
protein
If crushed or damaged, axon is populated with ribosomes from the schwann cells to allow axons to produce new _______ and regenerate
negative, positive
If our membrane is polarized, meaning that there is an electric potential across the membrane (aka membrane potential ≠ 0), then there is a net [ positive / negative ] charge inside the membrane and a net [ positive / negative ] charge outside the membrane
outward, positive, inside, inward
If we are looking at JUST the potassium concentrations for this cell, there is more inside concentration than outside concentration... Chemical driving force would want to drive K+ ions [ inward / outward ]... In doing so you end up with excess [ positive / negative ] charges outside the cell... Because of this, the electric driving force would want to push positive charges [ inside / outside ] the cell so electrical CURRENT is [ inward / outward ]
inside, positive
If we are looking at JUST the sodium concentrations for this cell, there is more outside concentration than inside concentration... So the concentration gradient will try to drive sodium [ inside / outside ] the cell, but as you do this, you get an excess [ positive / negative ] charge inside relative to the outside... This potential difference gives you the potential to do work (voltage) because now the membrane potential is not zero
Nernst potential
If we are looking at JUST the sodium concentrations for this cell, there is more outside concentration than inside concentration... There will be a flow of sodium ions inside the cell until the electrical driving force, membrane potential, just cancels out the chemical potential, Ex (______ _________), that gives rise to the concentration gradient
increase
If we increase the amount of charge on the plates of the capacitor when completing a test charge, we have to put in more force to move the rod from one side to the other, over the same distance. The capacitance will stay the same, but the potential difference will [ increase / decrease ]
increase
If we increase the area of the capacitor plates but keep the voltage constant, we will [ increase / decrease ] the capacitance, as C = A/D ... Hint : The total charge that can be stored is now larger
decrease
If we increase the distance between the capacitor plates but keep the voltage constant, we will [ increase / decrease ] the capacitance, as C = A/D ... This can be seen in the myelination of axons
steady state
If we inject current into a cell, eventually the membrane potential will plateau... this plateau is where the Vm levels off at when a ______ _____ is reached (no net current)
uniformly
If we inject positive current into a spherical cell, it will spread _________ from the neuron center and current will head outward
transporters
If we let the net currents of K+ and Na+ go on forever and ever, eventually we will reduce the concentration of K+ inside the cell and increase the concentration of sodium inside the cell, and that would be REALLY bad for the cell... So we maintain the concentration gradient by using ____________
equilibrium
If we look at a current vs Vm graph, we can see that the slope of the graph is equal to the conductance of the channel... Where the line hits the x-axis, or where -Ex = Vm, we have reached ___________
0
If we placed one electrode within the extracellular space, and the other just OUTSIDE of the cell, we would see on the voltmeter a potential difference of ____mV
61, mV
If you are at room temperature, you use 58 for your Nernst Potential equation... At 'physiological' temperature (37 degrees Celsius) , use __... The answer for your calculated nernst potential will be in __
ion channels
If you are wondering the relevance in studying parallel circuitry, parallel resistors is exactly what you have when you observe ___ ________ in the membrane in which ions can flow through one vs another in parallel
A
If you begin with a light falling in the center of an on-center ganglion cell and you... Do nothing The resulting response rate (ganglion AP) will be... A) Very high, all excitatory and little inhibitory B) Still excitatory, but inhibition is significant C) Activity is suppressed passed even the 'spontaneous level of activity' D) Suppressed, but beginning to recover E) Baseline... spontaneous
B
If you begin with a light falling in the center of an on-center ganglion cell and you... Move the light so that it is distributed evenly between the center and the surround The resulting response rate (ganglion AP) will be... A) Very high, all excitatory and little inhibitory B) Still excitatory, but inhibition is significant C) Activity is suppressed passed even the 'spontaneous level of activity' D) Suppressed, but beginning to recover E) Baseline... spontaneous
D
If you begin with a light falling in the center of an on-center ganglion cell and you... Move the light so that it is distributed evenly between the surround and out of the receptive field The resulting response rate (ganglion AP) will be... A) Very high, all excitatory and little inhibitory B) Still excitatory, but inhibition is significant C) Activity is suppressed passed even the 'spontaneous level of activity' D) Suppressed, but beginning to recover E) Baseline... spontaneous
E
If you begin with a light falling in the center of an on-center ganglion cell and you... Move the light so that it is out of the receptive field The resulting response rate (ganglion AP) will be... A) Very high, all excitatory and little inhibitory B) Still excitatory, but inhibition is significant C) Activity is suppressed passed even the 'spontaneous level of activity' D) Suppressed, but beginning to recover E) Baseline... spontaneous
C
If you begin with a light falling in the center of an on-center ganglion cell and you... Move the light so that only the surround is illuminated The resulting response rate (ganglion AP) will be... A) Very high, all excitatory and little inhibitory B) Still excitatory, but inhibition is significant C) Activity is suppressed passed even the 'spontaneous level of activity' D) Suppressed, but beginning to recover E) Baseline... spontaneous
opposite
If you have a positive current through an ion channel (outward), but the actual charge carriers through that channel are negative anions, then the physical direction of those anions will be [ equal / opposite ] to the direction of our current
Q=CV
If you have capacitance and voltage, you can calculate the amount of potential charge stored by using the equation... _____
opposite
If you have negative ions (or electrons) moving in one direction within a wire, the actual positive current is moving in the [ same / opposite ] direction
contrast
If you remove the ________ between the center and the surround, the actions of each will become less significant... Such as going from a light just in the center to a light in center AND surround... On-center ganglion cells will fire less and OFF-center ganglion cells will be suppressed less... You can figure this out w/o memorizing, you just have to think about it a little
high, low
If you take opposite charges, + and -, and separate them in space, this creates the potential to do work as they travel from levels of [ high / low ] concentration to [ high / low ] concentration
negative
If you take the log10 of any fraction less than 1, then you will have a [ positive / negative ] answer
patch clamp
If you use e. phys mechanisms (_____ _____) to inject a negative current, you hyperpolarize the cell... https://terpconnect.umd.edu/~rpayne/neuron/simchap3.htm (checkout this website for confirmation...
mucus
If you've ever had a cold, you'll know that that _____ blocks the receptors in both the orthonasal and retronasal pathways, which is why you can't smell very well and food generally tastes bland
inward
If, using a current generator, we inject negative current into the cell (drawing positive charges out of the cell), the NET membrane current will exhibit a current moving [ inward / outward ], however the cell itself is hyperpolarizing
outward
If, using a current generator, we inject positive current into the cell, the NET membrane current will exhibit a current moving [ inward / outward ], however the cell itself is depolarizing
I(cap)+I(ionic)
Im (membrane current) is split into 2 parts... I(cap) => Current going into capacitor I(ionic) => Current going into ion channels Im = ___________
right-left reversed
Images are inverted and ____________________ onto the retina
resistor
Imagine an example of a capacitor and resistor in parallel... As you charge up the capacitor, current will begin to start flowing over the ______ at an exponential increase that matches the exponential decrease in current exhibited by the capacitor
capacitor, resistor
Imagine an example of a capacitor and resistor in parallel... Once the capacitor is charged, NO current will flow across the [ resistor / capacitor ] so all of the current will be flowing across the [ resistor / capacitor ]
capacitor
Imagine an example of a capacitor and resistor in parallel... When you first close the circuit, allowing current to flow through, you have a maximum amount of current flowing solely across the [ capacitor / resistor ]
circuits
In NBB301, we liken cellular membrane to ________ to allow us to better understand the electrical qualities of biological systems, in which membranes are analogous with capacitors, ion channels with resistors, and ion concentrations with batteries
excess charge
In Q = C(Vm)... C is the membrane capacitance... V is the membrane potential... Q is the ______ ______
great
In a chemical synapse, the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron are NOT FUSED... They are separated by a relatively [ great / small ] distance
larger
In a demonstration of optical perception, we learned that objects within the horizon often appear [ smaller / the same / larger ] in size than objects closer to you
top
In a drawing, even though most activation gates are actually at the bottom of a channel, you should draw the gate at the [ bottom / top ]
decreases
In a low calcium concentration, the probability of multiple packets opening at the same time ( causing a summative EPP ) [ decreases / increases ] at every potential amplitude... bumps in the graph are multiples of the unitary values... LOOK AT THIS FIGURE
low
In a low calcium concentration, the probability of one packet (vesicle) releasing its transmitters is [ low / high ]
inside
In a normal mammalian cell, we have a higher concentration of chloride ions inside the cell than outside the cell... Chloride is a negatively charged ion, therefore the Ecl (Nernst Potential, chlorine) will be a negative value. Because of this, the negative terminal of the battery in our circuit model should be closer to the [ inside / outside ] of the cell
outside
In a normal mammalian cell, we have a higher concentration of sodium ions outside the cell than outside the cell... Sodium is a positively charged ion, therefore the Ena (Nernst Potential, sodium) will be a positive value. Because of this, the negative terminal of the battery in our circuit model should be closer to the [ inside / outside ] of the cell
5
In a parallel circuit, if 5 amps of current flows out of the battery, then _ amps of current will flow into the battery
no net flux
In a steady state condition, there is ( no flux / no net flux ) of charge, including all permeable ions
small, large
In a steady state equilibrium, the current of Na+ ions moving into the cell and the current of K+ ions moving out of the cell is equal and opposite, so NO net current. However, that does not mean that the driving forces are equal and opposite... K+ has a very large conductance, and so its respective driving force will be [ large / small ]... Na+ has a very low conductance, and so its respective driving force will be [ large / small ]... They will still have the SAME current
-58
In looking at the equation I(net) = γ (Vm-Ex) If you have a Nernst potential, Ex, of -58mV wanting to push K+ out of the cell, then you need a battery voltage (membrane potential) of ___mV in order to maintain equilibrium, or no net current... Hint : I(net) = γ (____- (-58mV))
zero
In looking at the equation I(net) = γ(Vm-Ex) At equilibrium, Vm = -Ex , so that portion will be zero, making the net current ____
net
In a steady state equilibrium, the current of Na+ ions moving into the cell and the current of K+ ions moving out of the cell is equal and opposite, so NO net current. However, that does not mean that the driving forces are equal and opposite... The conductance values for each ion are different, meaning that they differ on how easily they can pass through ion channels. Therefore, the same driving force exerted on ions with different conductances will lead to [ net / no net ] current... this is a weird example but it translates i think
amacrine
In addition to the vertical circuit, you have two classes of interneurons... - Horizontal cells - ________ cells Both inhibitory
horizontal
In addition to the vertical circuit, you have two classes of interneurons... - __________ cells - Amacrine cells Both inhibitory
both
In an ON-center ganglion cell, if ____ the center and surround are dark, you won't see much of a response...
small
In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron are NOT FUSED... They are separated by a relatively [ great / small ] distance
potential
In an ideal wire, there is no loss of energy, no heat created, and no potential drop... Therefore, if an ideal wire is uninterrupted by resistors, then two points anywhere on the wire will have the exact same ________, or voltage
4V
In applying Kirchoff's 1st law, the positive voltage provided by the battery must equal the sum of the voltage drops across resistors... So if a battery provides 10V of potential, and the first of two resistors has a resistance of 5Ω and a voltage drop of 6V, what will be the voltage drop across the second resistor?
directly
In chemical synapses, the current flows outside the cell... However, in an electrical synapse, the current flows [ directly / indirectly ] to the postsynaptic neuron
bicep
In closing the arm angle, you require : -Contraction of the flexor muscle ( agonist => _____ ) -Relaxing of the extensor muscle ( antagonist => tricep)
tricep
In closing the arm angle, you require : -Contraction of the flexor muscle ( agonist => bicep ) -Relaxing of the extensor muscle ( antagonist => _____ )
delay
In electrical synapse transmission, we essentially see no _____ in the response of the postsynaptic neuron after the presynaptic neuron transmitted its own signal... The BRIEF (0.1ms, in contrast to the 1-5ms delay in chemical synapses) delay we sometimes see is caused by the time it takes for the current to reach the recording electrode, while the actual transmission is essentially instantaneous
negative
In general, EPCs ( end plate currents ) are negative at potentials that are more [ negative / positive ] than the reversal potential
positive
In general, EPCs ( end plate currents ) are positive, or OUTWARD at potentials that are more [ negative / positive ] than the reversal potential
depolarizes
In general, the membrane [ depolarizes / hyperpolarizes ] at potentials that are more NEGATIVE than the reversal potential
hyperpolarizes
In general, the membrane [ depolarizes / hyperpolarizes ] at potentials that are more POSITIVE than the reversal potential
monocular
In humans the LGN is normally described as having six distinctive layers... Layers 1, 4, and 6 are inputs from the contralateral eye... Layers 2, 3, and 5 are inputs from the ipsilateral eye... So at the level of the lateral geniculate nucleus, responses are ________ , single LGNs are encoding information only from one eye
separation of charges
In lecture 3, we were shown the example of a balloon collecting negative charges from a wool sweater. This _________ __ _______ created an effective electrical potential difference that had the ability to do work, and the balloon moved from one side of the room towards the sweater (electrostatic attraction)
battery
In lecture, we are introduced to the idea that an electrical circuit is much like a hydraulic system... The _______ can be thought of like a pump that creates constant pressure in the water system ; The voltage is much like the pressure ; A resistor is much like a constriction in the pipe that lowers the pressure
charge neutral
In looking at a patch of membrane, if we circle a random space in either the extracellular or intracellular space, we would observe the same number of positive ions as we do negative ions, making these spaces essentially _____ ______... the electrical differences caused by separation of charge happens at the surface of the membrane
zero
In looking at the Nernst potential equation, if you have the same potential outside the cell, [X]o = 1, as you do inside the cell, [X]i = 1, the log of 1/1 is 0, so you would get a Nernst potential of ___
negative
In looking at the Nernst potential equation, if you increase the concentration of an ion inside the cell, you decrease the log ratio of log([X+]out/[X+]in) to less than 1, and the log will therefore be [ positive / negative ]
positive
In looking at the Nernst potential equation, if you increase the concentration of an ion outside the cell, you increase the log ratio of log([X+]out/[X+]in) to greater than 1, and the log will therefore be [ positive / negative ]
positive, outward
In looking at the equation I(net) = γ (Vm-Ex) If you have a Nernst potential, Ex, of -58mV wanting to push K+ out of the cell, and you turned the battery off (no membrane potential), then you will have a [ positive / negative ] current going [ inward / outward ] Hint : I(net) = γ (0 - (-58mV))
negative, inward
In looking at the equation I(net) = γ (Vm-Ex) If you have a Nernst potential, Ex, of -58mV wanting to push K+ out of the cell, and you turned the battery to 2Ex (Vm = -116mV), then you will have a [ positive / negative ] current going [ inward / outward ] Hint : I(net) = γ (-116 - (-58mV))
>
In the propagation of an action potential, the positive current leaving one segment charges up the capacitor of an adjacent segment... this raises the membrane potential because of this equation ΔQ = CΔV and the depolarization could open more Na+ channels until I(na) [ < , = , > ] I(k), which would trigger another action potential
short
In the right figure, we see a transient, aka [ short / long ] lasting, inward current just after the capacitive current is complete... then we get a delayed outward current...
white
In this anatomical monocular deprivation figure, areas of the V1 cortex marked radioactive tracer exhibit [ black / white ] streaking... In the experiment, the OPEN eye was injected, and so the open eye's dominance is represented by greater white streaking
open
In this anatomical monocular deprivation figure, areas of the V1 cortex marked radioactive tracer exhibit white streaking... In the experiment, the [ deprived / open ] eye was injected represented by greater white streaking
black
In this anatomical monocular deprivation figure, areas of the V1 cortex marked radioactive tracer exhibit white streaking... In the experiment, the open eye was injected represented by greater white streaking... If instead the deprived eye was injected, there would be a greater observation of [ black / white ] streaking, as the strong eye without tracer will dominate
farther
In this figure is the equation for the length constant, or a mathematical constant used to quantify the distance that a graded electric potential will travel along a neurite via passive electrical conduction. The greater the value of the length constant, the [ shorter / farther ] the potential will travel...
smaller
In this figure is the equation for the length constant... The larger the axial resistance (harder to push current down the axon), the [ smaller / larger ] the length constant is... More of the current will actually be flowing out the membrane
larger
In this figure is the equation for the length constant... The smaller the axial resistance (easier to push current down the axon), the [ smaller / larger ] the length constant is... Less of the current will leak out the membrane
A
In this figure, letter _ can only be seen by the left eye
B
In this figure, letter _ is seen by the nasal retina in the left eye and the temporal retina in the right eye
nasal, temporal
In this figure, letter c is seen by the _____ retina in the left eye and the ________ retina in the right eye
explicit
In this test of the necessity of the hippocampus for ________ memory formation, mice were placed in different locations within a murky water environment with a non-moving trap door... Wild type mice could remember where the trapdoor was and would quickly leave... Mice undergoing a hippocampal lesion would wander around until eventually finding the trapdoor even after multiple trials...
coulomb, farad, volt
In using either C = Q / V or Q = CV , these variables have specific units assigned to them... The unit of charge is _____, the unit of capacitance is _____, and the unit of voltage is ____
<
In utilizing the Nernst Potential, if you have a z < 0, and Xi < Xo , then Ex ( < , =, > ) 0
>
In utilizing the Nernst Potential, if you have a z < 0, and Xi > Xo , then Ex ( < , =, > ) 0
>
In utilizing the Nernst Potential, if you have a z > 0, and Xi < Xo , then Ex ( < , =, > ) 0
<
In utilizing the Nernst Potential, if you have a z > 0, and Xi > Xo , then Ex ( < , =, > ) 0
greater
Increasing odor concentrations recruits a [ lesser / greater ] amount of glomeruli, resulting in a larger response
multiple
Individual ORNs can be sensitive/specific to [ a single / multiple ] stimuli However, there are consistent relationships between classes of odorants and the responses they elicit in individual ORNs... Receptors are looking for specific features in the ligands, and only bind with these specific features
unidirectional
Information flow through neurons is (generally) ______________... dendrites receive inputs, and axons propagate signal to other cells
IPSP
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential, or ____, is a slight hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell, moving the membrane potential of that cell further from threshold.
uniformly
Injected current spreads _________ from a spherical cell
population code
Instead of information being conveyed by single nerve cells or a small group of cells, it is conveyed in the activity across a whole __________ ____ - a lot of cells... We see that receptive fields often overlap, and so a single stimuli can cause an effect in many separate neurons
synaptobrevin
Integral membrane protein in synaptic vesicles that forms a complex with syntaxin responsible for exocytosis... it's 'A'
syntaxin
Integral membrane protein in the plasma membrane that binds synaptobrevin and synaptotagmin in a calcium dependent fashion during exocytosis... it's 'C'
electrical, chemical
Interim Summary... For 1 permeable ion, membrane at rest is a balance of _________ vs _______ driving forces on the ion
membrane potential
Interim Summary... Nernst potential for an ion is the value of the ________ _________ when that permeable ion is at equilibrium across the membrane (determined by the ratio of outside:inside ion concentrations
ion concentration
Interim Summary... The chemical driving force is the chemical potential across the membrane arising from ___ _____________ differences
separation of charge
Interim Summary... The electrical driving force is the electrical potential across the membrane arising from __________ __ _____
soma
Intracellular components of ____ (cell body) and dendrites are very similar w/ ER, ribosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria. Axon restricts protein synthesis machinery
Rm
Intrinsic membrane properties (leak channel density, e.g.) are captured by the "specific membrane resistance", __ This is the resistance of a given patch of membrane, measured in ohms*cm²
Ra
Intrinsic resistive properties of the cytoplasm are captured by the "specific axial resistance", __ : The resistance of a given axial pathlength of cytoplasm measured in ohms*cm
down
Ion Channels - Uses the electrochemical gradient set up by the transporters - Does NOT require energy - Ions flow [ up / down ] the electrochemical gradient - Fast! Thousands of ions / millisecond
membrane-spanning
Ionotropic receptors have two primary functional domains... The second is a ________-________ domain that forms the ion channel - Consists of protein subunits that contribute to the pore of ion channel
amplitude
It can be difficult to record large action potentials in the muscle, as when this AP is triggered, the muscle contracts and moves the electrode... therefore, they lowered the extracellular Ca2+ levels to lower the ________ of the AP
circuit
Just as we did in the previous module, we can use a ______ to represent our ligand gated channels...
reversal potential
Just as we did in the previous module, we can use a circuit to represent our ligand gated channels... The circuit battery represents the ______ ________, which depends upon the concentrations of the ions in and out of the cell
membrane
Just as we did in the previous module, we can use a circuit to represent our ligand gated channels... The circuit capacitor represents the cell ________
extracellular fluid
Just as we did in the previous module, we can use a circuit to represent our ligand gated channels... The circuit ground (reference) represents the _________ ____, which provides an orientation to the circuit
conductive
Just as we did in the previous module, we can use a circuit to represent our ligand gated channels... The circuit resistor represents the channels __________ properties
bound, unbound
Just as we did in the previous module, we can use a circuit to represent our ligand gated channels... The circuit switch represents whether the channel is open (NT is _____) or closed (NT is ________)
inward
Just look at the top figure... This figure is a current (I) vs membrane potential (Vm) graph... Any decrease in the membrane potential (moving left on the x-axis) mean Vm - Ex will become more negative, leading to a negative current that would move [ inward / outward ]
outward
Just look at the top figure... This figure is a current (I) vs membrane potential (Vm) graph... Any increase in the membrane potential (moving right on the x-axis) would make Vm - Ex more positive, leading to a positive current that would move [ inward / outward ]
x
Just look at the top figure... This figure is a current (I) vs membrane potential (Vm) graph... The Nernst potential for any ion will be on the _-axis, as this means Ex = Vm and therefore we have no current (equilibrium)
capacitor
Just to sure up some terms... Ionic current (Ii) is current that flows through the ion channels... Capacitance current (Icap) is current that flows through the ________ and charges it
do not
K+ channels [ do / do not ] have an inactivation gate
zero
Kirchoff's 1st Law : Voltage Law... The voltages around a closed path in a circuit must sum to ____ ; the voltage drops being negative (following the current through a resistor), while the gains are positive (going through a battery from the negative to the positive terminal)
voltage
Kirchoff's 1st Law : ________ Law... Statement of the 'Conservation of Energy' and the meaning of the potential. Since every point in a circuit has a unique value of the potential, traveling around the circuit, through any path must bring you back to the potential
zero
Kirchoff's 2nd Law : Current Law... Statement of the "Conservation of mass" or current conservation. No creation or destruction of charges. If all charges had been defined as entering the node (or all exiting the node), then the sum of the currents would be ____
current
Kirchoff's 2nd Law : _______ Law... The sum of the currents entering a node must equal the sum of the currents exiting a node
induction
LTP ______ phase : - Produces the immediate effect of Ca2+ entering the postsynaptic cell - Blocking NMDARs with antagonist or injecting Ca2+ chelators into the postsynaptic terminal will block LTP from happening - Thus, NMDARs and Ca2+ are necessary for LTP to occur
expression
LTP ______ phase : Calcium activates kinases...
stabilization
LTP __________ phase : The most important in creating long term memory... Delineates whether you remember something for a few days vs years
induction, expression, stabilization
LTP can be divided into three phases : ______, ______ ('early phase'), and _____ ('late phase')
Ca2+
LTP creates the greater EPSP by inserting more AMPA receptors, allowing for a greater amount of ____ into the cell which results in greater depolarization
glutamate
LTP expression phase : - Additional AMPA receptors inserted - Larger response to _________
AMPA
LTP expression phase : Calcium activates kinases... - Calmodulin kinase II (CAMKII) - Protein Kinase A (PKA) These two kinases have a downstream effect that results in the insertion of additional ____ receptors, which allows for greater opportunity for receptor binding, greater Ca2+ influx, and therefore a higher potential
CAMKII, PKA
LTP expression phase : Calcium activates kinases... - Calmodulin kinase II (______) - Protein Kinase A (___)
NMDAR, Ca2+
LTP is mediated by _____ activity and influx of ____ into the postsynaptic neuron as well as Ca2+ related protein kinases
protein
LTP stabilization phase : mRNA and ________ synthesis
CREB
LTP stabilization phase : After Ca2+ influx activates PKA, this kinase activates ____a cellular transcription factor. It binds to certain DNA sequences called cAMP response elements, thereby increasing the transcription of the genes that induce protein synthesis
stable
LTP stabilization phase : The reason we call it the stabilization phase is because in observing a graph of the membrane's EPSP amplitude, protein synthesis results in a _____ elevated EPSP that is not seen in the graph of a cell in which protein synthesis is inhibited
4
Lateral geniculate (LGNs) inputs terminate at layer _ neurons in the primary visual cortex, then project onto a higher-order cortex
conductance
Leak channels... - Constitutively open with FIXED conductance, Gleak - Has a reversal potential of Eleak, depending on the ___________ of different ions - I(leak) = Gleak (Vm - Eleak)
larger
Mature dendritic spines are much [ smaller / larger ] than new spines
inhibitory
NT ID : GABA, or gamma-aminobutyric acid , is the main __________ NT in the mammalian brain
Erev
Ligand Gated Channels - Only open when ligand binds - Has a reversal potential of ____, depending on the conductance of different ions - I epsp = G epsp (Vm - Erev)
postsynaptic
Ligand-binding gates open [ presynaptic / postsynaptic ] receptor ion channels
rhodopsin
Light Adaptation : If you are hit with an extremely bright light, you will hit the max photoreceptor response at about -70mV, but you won't be able to make much of anything... So, adaptation can limit the amplification of photons by _________, bringing the response down to a less hyperpolarized state Because of this, if you are hit with an even brighter stimulus, you will be able to detect it
amplification
Light Adaptation : In low light => Low number of photons => each photon has to exhibit a huge amount of amplification In high light => HIGH number of photons => We must limit _____________ in order to maintain visual system
hyperpolarizes
Light [ depolarizes / hyperpolarizes ] photoreceptor cells
low
Localized increase in Ca2+ concentration is caused by [ high / low ] frequency action potentials
small molecule
Localized increase in Ca2+ concentration results in the preferential release of [ small molecule / neuropeptide / both ] NT release
37
Looking at just e^-t/τ when t = τ, then this is e^-1, which is also __% of the maximum value when discharging
+
Looking at the figure on the right, when Vm is + , current is ( + / 0 / - )
-
Looking at the figure on the right, when Vm is - , current is ( + / 0 / - )
0
Looking at the figure on the right, when Vm is 0 , current is ( + / 0 / - )
depolarization
Loss or reduction of negative membrane potential ; Becoming more positive
slow
Low muscle force : Recruitment of ____ motor units Intermediate muscle force : Recruitment of slow and fast fatigue-resistant motor units High muscle force : Recruitment of all three motor units... slow, fast fatigue-resistant and fast fatigable
γ(Vm-Ex)
MEMORIZE : I(net) = ________
bi-
MOST electrical synapses are [ uni- / bi- ] directional, meaning they can flow from either presynaptic to postsynaptic or postsynaptic to presynaptic... Additionally, transmission speed is the SAME either direction
extrastriatory
MT and V4 neurons are within _____________ regions that V1 axons project to... Essentially... Retina=>LGN=>V1=>MT/V4
nodes of ranvier
Macroglia : Between schwann cells are short unmyelinated segments called _____ __ _______ (gaps) where action potential is regenerated
astrocytes
Macroglia : Maintain the fluid environment surrounding neurons (regulate ion and glucose concentrations, take up excess neurotransmitters
oligodendrocytes
Macroglia : Myelination in the CNS... these structures surround and support neuronal cell bodies
astrocytes
Macroglia : Regulate an support endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier... Structural support/scaffolding
schwann cells
Macroglia : Structure that provides an insulating wrap around axons... Help propagate action potentials faster from one position to another
many
Macroglia : There is 1 oligodendrocyte to ____ axons ... Hint : 'Oli' => 'Poly'
schwann cells
Macroglia are divided into 3 main structures... _______ _____ are macroglia that participate in the PERIPHERAL nervous system
oligodendrocytes, astrocytes
Macroglia are divided into 3 main structures... ________________ and __________ are macroglia that participate in the CENTRAL nervous system
synaptic strength
Major contribution of Dr. Kandel was to utilize simple system of Aplysia to demonstrate that changes in _______ _______ was at the core of the learned behavior
balance
Many cells in visual cortex remain responsive to inputs from both eyes after BINOCULAR deprivation... this shows that development of proper circuitry depends on ________ of inputs from two eyes
spines
Many dendrites have units called ______, that act as the 'contact point' in the synapse ; receiving end of information ; comes in contact with an axonal bouton
voltage, pH
Many things modulate whether connexons are open or closed... For example, some connexon channels are _______ gated while some are modulated by __
membrane
Mapping out electrical circuits back onto the biology... our electrical capacitors are most analogous with the cell _________
ion channels
Mapping out electrical circuits back onto the biology... our electrical resistors are most analogous with ___ ________
GATs
NT ID : GABA reuptake is done by co-transporters called ____ that exist on glial cells and the presynaptic neuron
decrease
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... Facilitation : The 2nd postsynaptic response is larger than the 1st postsynaptic response due to the elevated Ca2+ levels ... If we were to space out the presynaptic potentials, excess Ca2+ would _______, so the increase in the 2nd postsynaptic response would diminish...
fast, slow
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... Facilitation : The 2nd postsynaptic response is larger than the 1st postsynaptic response due to the elevated Ca2+ levels ... The process to bring this Ca2+ into the cell is VERY [ slow / fast ] , however, the process to remove this excess Ca2+ from the cell is relatively [ slow / fast ]
augmentation
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... In SUPER LOW concentrations of [Ca2+] we ONLY see __________ in effect because each tetanus signal only releases a small amount of NT, so the reserve pool is not depleted
kinases
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... Post-tetanic potentiation happens instead of short term depression sometimes even with the same prolonged tetanus because other players other than Ca2+ are involved... For instance, ________ can be activated to phosphorylate more synapsin
decrease
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... Short term (synaptic) depression : If you lower the Ca2+ levels in the presynaptic neuron, you actually will [ increase / decrease ] the depression effect as there is less Ca2+, so less NT release, so less vesicle depletion
baseline
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... Short term (synaptic) depression : If you stop the tetanus (high frequency pulses), the postsynaptic response should return to ________
vesicle
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... Short term (synaptic) depression : This occurs when a high frequency tetanus does not allow time for the replenishing of _______ levels in the reserve pool
short term depression
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... _____ ____ (synaptic) _________ : Decline in neurotransmitter release during sustained activity... Tetanus TIMESCALE : Few Seconds
augmentation
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... __________ is the rapid initial increase in postsynaptic response causes by the high frequency tetanus... It's not easily seen in the high calcium concentration figures, but much more visibly seen in the low [Ca2+] figures
augmentation
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... ___________ : Initial increase... Increases the probability of releasing synaptic vesicles during sustained activity ; An increase in synaptic potential amplitude produced by repetitive stimulation TIMESCALE : Few Seconds
facilitation
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... ___________ : rapid increase in synaptic strength that occurs when two or more action potentials invade the presynaptic terminal within a few milliseconds TIMESCALE : Few Milliseconds
post-tetanic potentiation
Mechanisms of short term synaptic plasticity... ____________ _____________ : Increase in NT after sustained activity TIMESCALE : Seconds to Minutes
ruffini corpuscle
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : Dermis ; respond to stretch (fire to constant pressure)
merkel disk receptor
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : Receptor cell in the stratum basale of the epidermis that responds to the sense of touch; epidermal cell functions as touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings
meissner corpuscle
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : Respond to light touch in the dermis (fire when touch is first administered and when it is removed) LOW Threshold... Sensitive to small changes
pacinian corpuscle
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : Subcutaneous ; Respond to deep pressure and vibration
pacinian corpuscle
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : ___________ __________ (deep, rapidly adapting) - Innervated by one DRG neuron - Fire in response to HIGH frequency vibration of an object or rapid deep pressure on skin - Higher threshold and larger receptive field
ruffini corpuscle
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : ___________ __________ (deep, slowly adapting) - Innervated by one DRG neurons - Sensitive to stretching of skin by digit or limb movements
meissner corpuscle
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : ___________ __________ (shallow, rapidly adapting) - Innervated by one or more DRG neurons - Most common of glabrous skin - Transduce info about LOW frequency vibrations, e.g. textured object moved across the skin
merkel disk receptor
Mechanoreceptor Subtype : _____________________ (shallow, slowly adapting) - Innervated by one or more DRG neurons - Produce sensation of light pressure - Provide info about shapes and edges and rough textures - HIGHEST SPATIAL RESOLUTION!!! can differentiate very small changes in pressure
fingertips
Meissner corpuscles have the highest density of receptive fields, but both meissner corpuscles and merkel disk receptors have a very high density in the __________. This is why this area has high discriminatory abilities in textures
polarity, magnitude
Membrane potential affects both the _______ and the ________ of responsive EPCs
stabilization
Memory consolidation... Involves long term "_____________" of synaptic changes, due to : - Gene expression - New protein synthesis - morphological changes
fingerprint
Merkel cells (a shallow mechanoreceptor subtype) are concentrated in the ridges that form your __________
g-proteins
Metabotropic receptors usually activate ___________, modulating ion channels through intracellular effector enzymes and second messengers
V1
Method 1 : Monocular Deprivation and Electrical Recording 1) Suture closed one eye of a kitten early in life 2) Let animal mature to adulthood (past critical period) 3) Remove sutures 4) Take electrophysiological recordings from cells in __ as the cat is exposed to a visual stimulus (bar of light)
V1
Method 2 : Monocular Deprivation and Radioactive Amino Acid Injections 1) Suture closed one eye of a kitten early in life 2) Let animal mature to adulthood (past critical period) 3) Remove sutures 4) Inject radioactive amino acid tracer into one eye 5) Tracer is transported along visual pathway to labek synaptic terminals in __ specific to the injected eye 6) Visualize tracer using autoradiography
proteins
Method 2 : Monocular Deprivation and Radioactive Amino Acid Injections (Anatomical) 1) Retina reuptakes and incorporates radioactive amino acids into ________ 2) Anterograde axonal transport to the thalamus 3) Anterograde axonal transport to the cortex (V1)
necessary
Mg2+ is _________ to keep NMDA channels closed
action potential
Microelectrodes can also be used to inject currents into cells while additional electrodes measure the potential difference... If we inject enough positive ions, we will reach a stage where we get to the threshold for eliciting an ______ _________
positive
Microelectrodes can also be used to inject currents into cells while additional electrodes measure the potential difference... To depolarize the cell, or to make it more positive, this electrode must 'inject positive current', which actually means it is adding ________ ions
positive
Microelectrodes can also be used to inject currents into cells while additional electrodes measure the potential difference... To hyperpolarize the cell, or to make it more negative, this electrode must 'inject negative current', which actually means it is removing ________ ions
acetylcholinesterase
Modulatory NT ID : Acetylcholine is degraded by _____________________ in synaptic clefts... rapid and robust degradation
both
Modulatory NT ID : Acetylcholine is found in the [ CNS / PNS / both ]
acetyl CoA, choline
Modulatory NT ID : Acetylcholine is synthesized from _______ ___ and ______ by choline acetyltransferase
choline acetyltransferase
Modulatory NT ID : Acetylcholine is synthesized from acetyl CoA and choline by ______ ________________
nicotinic
Modulatory NT ID : Acetylcholine utilizes an ionotropic ________ receptor
CNS
Modulatory NT ID : [ CNS / PNS ] Acetylcholine is utilized in attention and arousal
PNS
Modulatory NT ID : [ CNS / PNS ] Acetylcholine is utilized in the neuromuscular junction
increase
Modulatory NT ID : Dopamine (DA) Compulsive drug use occurs despite serious negative consequences - Physical and psychological dependence Addictive effects often involve activation of DA receptors ... - Midbrain DA system (VTA => NAc Nucleus accumbens) - Ultimate effect : [ increase / decrease ] in synaptic DA since cocaine interferes with reuptake of DA by DA transporter DAR
serotonin
Modulatory NT ID : ___________ - Chemical name : 5 - hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) - Modulatory neurotransmitter known to play key roles in regulating arousal, mood, sleep and cognition - Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors commonly prescribed for depression ; however, not always effective
epinephrine
Modulatory NT ID : ___________ Best known as a hormone, released into blood from the adrenal gland Also a NT, but of limited importance in CNS
norepinephrine
Modulatory NT ID : ___________ Modulatory neurotransmitter known to play key roles in regulating sleep and wakefullness, mood, attention, stress, and memory Acts on metabotropic receptors (α- and β- adrenergic receptors)
dopamine
Modulatory NT ID : ___________ (DA) - Modulatory neurotransmitter known to play key roles in regulating mood, cognition, movement, and reward pathways - Involved in the etiology of schizophrenia and Parkinson's and drug abuse - Acts on metabotropic receptors
substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area
Modulatory NT ID : dopamine Synthesized / found in the _________ ____ and ________ ________ ____
medullary epinephrine neurons
Modulatory NT ID : epinephrine Synthesized / found in the __________ ___________ _______
locus coeruleus
Modulatory NT ID : norepinephrine Synthesized / found in the ____ _________
naphe nuclei
Modulatory NT ID : serotonin Synthesized / found in the _____ ______
signal transduction
Molecular signaling occurs via a process called _____ __________
loss of function
Monocular Deprivation : Example of a ' ____ __ _______ ' experiment - Proves necessity of activity of the covered eyes to maintain normal function
necessity
Monocular Deprivation : Example of a ' loss of function ' experiment - Proves _________ of activity of the covered eyes to maintain normal function
no
Monocular deprivation given to adult cats, after critical period, has [ greater / no ] effect on the response of V1 cells
greater
More calcium, more vesicle fusing, more quanta released, [ lesser / greater ] EPP
high
More diffused in Ca2+ concentration is caused by [ high / low ] frequency action potentials
both
More diffused increase in Ca2+ concentration results in the preferential release of [ small molecule / neuropeptide / both ] NT release
mechanisms
Multiple short term ___________ of synaptic plasticity can interact in complex ways...
interneurons
Muscle Reflex (SIMPLIFIED, better, cooler) : 1) Additional weight causes passive stretch 2) Sensory afferents detect stretch in the muscle spindle 3) Alpha motor neurons excite the agonist (flexor) 4) Inhibitory ____________ inhibits alpha motor neurons to allow antagonist (extensor) muscle to relax
increasing
Myelination : By [ increasing / decreasing ] Rm due to insulating myelin, more ions can charge membrane (capacitor) instead of leak through membrane, increasing the length constant λ -aka, Rm is higher, so current would rather flow down axon or charge capacitor instead of leaking in the membrane
nodes of ranvier
Myelination : Voltage-dependent Na+ channels found only at _____ __ _______
decreases
Myelination [ increases / decreases ] Cm, and thus reduces charging time constant, τ
gamma-aminobutyric acid
NT ID : GABA, or _____-____________ ____ , is the main inhibitory NT in the mammalian brain
Cooperation
NMDA Receptors Mediate ____________ : NMDA receptors LOVE synchronous firing... NMDA receptors detect local correlated synaptic activity and modify signaling in the postsynaptic cell (via increased intracellular Ca2+)
MK 801
NMDA antagonists and potential therapeutics... __ ___ : - NMDA antagonist - Can potentially treat disorders associated with NMDA excitotoxicity such as stroke, traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases (i.e. Alzheimer's)
ketamine
NMDA antagonists and potential therapeutics... ________ : - NMDA antagonist - Used as antidepressant in treatment resistant patients - Targets NMDA hyperactivation
depolarized
NMDA receptors : At [ depolarized / hyperpolarized ] potentials, Mg2+ block is removed and current can pass through
Na+, K+, Ca2+
NMDA receptors : ___, __, AND ____ ion channels
Mg2+ block
NMDA receptors : ____ _____ keeps channel closed at hyperpolarized potentials (blocks current)
coincidence detector
NMDA receptors : ____________ ________... Opening channel requires ligand and membrane depolarization
mix
NMJ vs CNS CNS : Mostly [ excitatory / inhibitory / mix ] inputs
lots of
NMJ vs CNS CNS : [ 1 / lots of ] presynaptic input(s) per 1 action potential in the postsynaptic cell
variety
NMJ vs CNS CNS : _______ of neurotransmitters and NT receptors
100
NMJ vs CNS CNS : ___s of presynaptic neuronal terminals per 1 postsynaptic cell
excitatory
NMJ vs CNS NMJ : Mostly [ excitatory / inhibitory / mix ] inputs
1
NMJ vs CNS NMJ : _ AP in presynaptic motor neuron produces 1 AP in postsynaptic muscle fiber
1
NMJ vs CNS NMJ : _ NT per 1 NT receptor
1
NMJ vs CNS NMJ : _ presynaptic terminal (motor neuron) per postsynaptic muscle fiber
granule
Olfactory Bulb : _______ cells => innermost layer of the olfactory bulb... These cells synapse onto the basal dendrites of mitral cells... They laterally inhibit mitral cells and play a role in shaping SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY
Golf
Olfactory molecular mechanism... very similar to GPRC mechs we've done before... 1) Odorant molecule binds to receptor protein 2) G-protein ( ____ ) activates 3) Adenyl cyclase III activates 4) cAMP activates 5) Na+/Ca2+ channels are opened Calcium has two jobs... - Pushes chlorine out (depolarizes) - Opens voltage gated Na+ channels (depolarizes) Study the figure for comprehension
bloodhounds
Olfactory sophistication varies across species... Humans have olfactory receptor neuron counts in the modest millions while ___________ have ORN counts up to a few billions... Rats have a greater ratio of surface area dedicated to its olfactory bulb than exhibited by humans... Humans and primates in general have lost much of the relative sophistication in the ability to process olfactory stimuli... We are very visual/auditory creatures
taste
Olfactory system in humans plays a major role in _____ perception... This is why if you've ever had a bad cold, and lost the ability to smell, you generally don't want to eat
level
On the current figure depicted, you can tell that there is just 1 ion channel involved, because there is only 1 _____ of current being measured
<
Once activating the GABA (inhibitory) synapse, this will MOST LIKELY exhibit a hyperpolarizing event... This happens when Erev [ < , = , > ] AP
summation
Once activating the glutamate (excitatory) synapse, if the EPSP goes beyond the threshold, then an action potential will fire... Often times, one is not enough to generate an AP, and instead, a ________ of EPSP is required
sodium
Once initiated, the peak of the action potential rapidly depolarizes in an attempt to reach the Nernst potential for ______ (for reference, this value is generally +55mV) as this is a point when this ion becomes HIGHLY PERMEABLE
ion channels
Once the voltage is clamped, current is just due to flow through ___ _________... I(ion) = g(ion) * (Vm - Eion) But think : How does this explain the transient/delayed currents ?
endorphins
Opioid Neuropeptides : Addiction __________ bind to opioid receptors... Opioid-induced disinhibition of VTA DA neurons - At BASELINE, GABA release inhibits VTA DA neurons - Upon OPIOID EXPOSURE, GABA release is inhibited, thus VTA DA neurons are disinhibited - Opioid antagonists (Naloxone) commonly used to reverse opioid overdoses
endoplasmic reticulum
Organelle Review : A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which PROTEINS and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another.
Golgi apparatus
Organelle Review : A system of membranes that modifies and packages PROTEINS for export by the cell
ribosomes
Organelle Review : Site of PROTEIN synthesis
lateral geniculate nucleus
Organization of the primary visual projection to primary visual cortex... Brodmann's Area 17 = V1 = Striate cortex This is where the axons from the _______ __________ _______ terminate
V1
Organization of the primary visual projection to primary visual cortex... Brodmann's Area 17 = __ = Striate cortex This is where the axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus terminate
V1
Orientation Tuning : __ neurons have really precise responses to bars of light, and that they had preferences towards certain orientations of the bar In the figure, we can see that these neurons prefer when the bar is vertical Spike Rate => Number of spikes per unit of time
tuning curve
Orientation ______ _____ is a model of the spike rate as a function of the stimulus orientation
ligands
Other factors that can affect the probability of an ion channel being open or closed is the attachment of neurotransmitter _______ that bind onto the ion channel
optic disk
Our 'blind spot' is caused by the _____ ____
3a
Out of the 4 brodmann's areas we discussed (1, 2, 3a, and 3b), the one that receives/transmits the majority of the information is _ ... A lesion in this region would result in dramatic deficits in tactile sensation
current
Outside-out patch clamp... the pipette suction provides a tight patch so you can measure _______... the suction is enough to break the membrane, and anneal it so the extracellular fluid remains extracellular
glutamate
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) Presynaptic depolarization 2) Release of __________ 3) Glutamate binds to AMPAR and NMDAR 4) ONLY AMPAR opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) Postsynaptic depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR Mg2+ block 7) Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx 8) LTP triggered
LTP
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) Presynaptic depolarization 2) Release of glutamate 3) Glutamate binds to AMPAR and NMDAR 4) ONLY AMPAR opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) Postsynaptic depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR Mg2+ block 7) Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx 8) ___ triggered
Ca2+
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) Presynaptic depolarization 2) Release of glutamate 3) Glutamate binds to AMPAR and NMDAR 4) ONLY AMPAR opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) Postsynaptic depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR Mg2+ block 7) Postsynaptic ____ influx 8) LTP triggered
Mg2+
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) Presynaptic depolarization 2) Release of glutamate 3) Glutamate binds to AMPAR and NMDAR 4) ONLY AMPAR opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) Postsynaptic depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR ____ block 7) Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx 8) LTP triggered
Postsynaptic
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) Presynaptic depolarization 2) Release of glutamate 3) Glutamate binds to AMPAR and NMDAR 4) ONLY AMPAR opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) _________ depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR Mg2+ block 7) Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx 8) LTP triggered
AMPAR
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) Presynaptic depolarization 2) Release of glutamate 3) Glutamate binds to AMPAR and NMDAR 4) ONLY _____ opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) Postsynaptic depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR Mg2+ block 7) Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx 8) LTP triggered
AMPAR, NMDAR
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) Presynaptic depolarization 2) Release of glutamate 3) Glutamate binds to _____ and _____ 4) ONLY AMPAR opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) Postsynaptic depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR Mg2+ block 7) Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx 8) LTP triggered
presynaptic
Overview of Molecular Steps for LTP Induction... 1) ___________ depolarization 2) Release of glutamate 3) Glutamate binds to AMPAR and NMDAR 4) ONLY AMPAR opens, which causes a Na+ influx 5) Postsynaptic depolarization 6) Removal of NMDAR Mg2+ block 7) Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx 8) LTP triggered
work
Overview of the membrane at rest... No stimulation... No change over time... No external net ____ being done on the system, so it is sitting stable over time
CREB
PKA, or Protein Kinase A, can also go into the nucleus to activate ____, which increases protein transcription... Increases in Ca2+ can gave the same effect, as can activation of other kinases, so if one pathway is lost the others can modulate
decreased
Pathways to memorize... Dopamine : Step 1 : Dopamine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gi that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein INHIBITS adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : No cAMP Step 5 : No protein kinase A Step 6 : ___________ protein phosphorylation
Gi
Pathways to memorize... Dopamine : Step 1 : Dopamine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as __ that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein INHIBITS adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : No cAMP Step 5 : No protein kinase A Step 6 : Decreased protein phosphorylation
dopamine
Pathways to memorize... Dopamine : Step 1 : _________ binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gi that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein INHIBITS adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : No cAMP Step 5 : No protein kinase A Step 6 : Decreased protein phosphorylation
phospholipase C
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates ______________ _ (1st effector molecule) Step 4.1 : This enzyme converts PIP2 to DAG Step 5.1 : This activator activates the later effector, protein kinase C Step 6.1 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
protein kinase C
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.1 : This enzyme converts PIP2 to DAG Step 5.1 : This activator activates the later effector, _______ ______ _ Step 6.1 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
increased
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.1 : This enzyme converts PIP2 to DAG Step 5.1 : This activator activates the later effector, protein kinase C Step 6.1 : The activation of this later effector results in ________ protein phosphorylation
PIP2, DAG
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.1 : This enzyme converts ____ to ___ Step 5.1 : This activator activates the later effector, protein kinase C Step 6.1 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
Ca2+
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.2 : This enzyme converts PIP2 to IP3 Step 5.2 : This activator induces Ca2+ release from ER stores Step 6.2 : This release means that ____ binding proteins are activated
Ca2+
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.2 : This enzyme converts PIP2 to IP3 Step 5.2 : This activator induces ____ release from ER stores Step 6.2 : This release means that Ca2+ binding proteins are activated
PIP2, IP3
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.2 : This enzyme converts ____ to ___ Step 5.2 : This activator induces Ca2+ release from ER stores Step 6.2 : This release means that Ca2+ binding proteins are activated
Gq
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : Glutamate binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as __ that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.1 : This enzyme converts PIP2 to DAG Step 5.1 : This activator activates the later effector, protein kinase C Step 6.1 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
glutamate
Pathways to memorize... Glutamate : Step 1 : _________ binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gq that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates phospholipase C (1st effector molecule) Step 4.1 : This enzyme converts PIP2 to DAG Step 5.1 : This activator activates the later effector, protein kinase C Step 6.1 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
adenylyl cyclase
Pathways to memorize... Norepinephrine : Step 1 : Norepinephrine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gs that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates ________ _______ (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : This first effector molecule converts ATP into cAMP Step 5 : This cyclic nucleotide activates later effector, protein kinase A Step 6 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
cAMP
Pathways to memorize... Norepinephrine : Step 1 : Norepinephrine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gs that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : This first effector molecule converts ATP into _____ Step 5 : This cyclic nucleotide activates later effector, protein kinase A Step 6 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
protein kinase A
Pathways to memorize... Norepinephrine : Step 1 : Norepinephrine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gs that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : This first effector molecule converts ATP into cAMP Step 5 : This cyclic nucleotide activates later effector, _______ _____ _ Step 6 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
increased
Pathways to memorize... Norepinephrine : Step 1 : Norepinephrine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gs that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : This first effector molecule converts ATP into cAMP Step 5 : This cyclic nucleotide activates later effector, protein kinase A Step 6 : The activation of this later effector results in __________ protein phosphorylation
Gs
Pathways to memorize... Norepinephrine : Step 1 : Norepinephrine binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as __ that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : This first effector molecule converts ATP into cAMP Step 5 : This cyclic nucleotide activates later effector, protein kinase A Step 6 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
charge
Q = (Cin) (Vm) (To calculate the electrical ______ in a circuit that does not have resistors/at a steady state)
norepinephrine
Pathways to memorize... Norepinephrine : Step 1 : ________________ binds to the GPCR receptor Step 2 : GPCR is coupled to a g-protein known as Gs that is activated Step 3 : Activated g-protein activates adenylyl cyclase (1st effector molecule) Step 4 : This first effector molecule converts ATP into cAMP Step 5 : This cyclic nucleotide activates later effector, protein kinase A Step 6 : The activation of this later effector results in increased protein phosphorylation
does not
Phosphorylation [ does / does not ] always mean activation
higher
Photoreceptors (Dark) : Between the outer and inner segments of a photoreceptor, the conductance of Na+ in is much [ lower / higher ] than the conductance of K+ out, keeping our resting membrane potential @ -40mV ; That being said, the CURRENTS are EQUAL and OPPOSITE
glutamate
Photoreceptors (Dark) : Constant release of _________ in the dark at terminals causes a higher resting membrane potential
depolarization
Photoreceptors (Dark) : In the dark, cGMP binds to ion channels causing them to open, causing an inward current of Na+ and Ca2+ and a resulting _______________ in the outer segment of the photoreceptor cells
cGMP
Photoreceptors (Dark) : In the outer segment of photoreceptors in the dark, ____ binds to ions channels causing them to open, letting in Na+ and Ca2+
hyperpolarization
Photoreceptors (Dark) : The depolarization of the inner segment of photoreceptors from open Na+ channels causes outward current from our leak K+ channels, resulting in a slight _______________ of the inner segment
glutamate
Photoreceptors (Dark) : The depolarized (-40mV) state keeps Ca2+ channels open at presynaptic terminals... This influx of Ca2+ keeps _________ release steady
amplification
Photoreceptors (Light) : 1 photon can actually lead to a LARGE hyperpolarization due to the phenomenon of _____________, where in 1 photon activates 1 rhodopsin which activates 800 transducin which activates 800 total PDE which hydrolyzes 4800 total cGMP which closes ≈ 200 channels or 1mV
cis, trans
Photoreceptors (Light) : A photon travels into the outer segment and hits the rhodopsin GPCR in the disk... the light causes all ____ retinal to undergo a conformational change to ____ retinal, and an opsin split off
transducin
Photoreceptors (Light) : After opsin detaches from the retinal, it interacts with heterotrimeric G-PROTEIN __________
rhodopsin
Photoreceptors (Light) : If rhodopsin starts the cascade, to stop amplification we should stop __________
GMP
Photoreceptors (Light) : Phosphodiesterase (PDE) breaks down cGMP to ___
arrestin
Photoreceptors (Light) : To STOP amplification... Rhodopsin kinase phosphorylates rhodopsin, allowing _________ to bind, preventing activated rhodopsin from binding transducin
rhodopsin kinase
Photoreceptors (Light) : To STOP amplification... _________ ______ phosphorylates rhodopsin, allowing arrestin to bind, preventing activated rhodopsin from binding transducin
inward
Photoreceptors (Light) : cGMP has broken down to GMP... Decreasing cCMP levels => decreases the amount of open Na+/Ca2+ channels Closing the Na+/Ca2+ channels reduces the [ inward / outward ] current causing an even greater hyperpolarized state
glutamate
Photoreceptors (Light) : cGMP has broken down to GMP... Decreasing cCMP levels => decreases the amount of open Na+/Ca2+ channels Closing the Na+/Ca2+ channels reduces the [ inward / outward ] current causing an even greater hyperpolarized state Less voltage gated Ca2+ channels open => Less neurotransmitter release => less _________ signal
decreases
Photoreceptors (Light) : cGMP has broken down to GMP... Decreasing cCMP levels => [ decreases / increases ] the amount of open Na+/Ca2+ channels
hyperpolarization
Photoreceptors (Light) : cGMP has broken down to GMP... K+ channels are still open, resulting in a _________________
PDE
Photoreceptors (Light) : using a GTP, the alpha subunit of transducin dissociates and activates ___ or phosphodiesterase
negative
Physiologist's Convention : Vm = V(in) - V(out) V(out) is reference, so generally 0 Neurons have a ________ resting membrane potential... V(rest) is typically between -80mV and -60mV
outward, inward
Physiologist's convention... Vm (membrane potential) = Vin - Vout ; Vout is reference... Positive value currents flow [ inward / outward ] through channel, while negative value currents flow [ inward / outward through channel
permeabilities
Pictured is the Goldman Hodgkin Katz Equation, but because permeabilities are difficult to measure we can use conductance's instead in another equation...
driving force
Polarity and magnitude of I (epc) depends on ______ ____ (Vm - Erev)
resolution
Population codes are important for allowing a broader view of the sensory scene around us... the denser the innervation of the sensory surface is (the more receptive fields you have), the better the _________ of the stimulus is
parietal lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position ; functions include processing information about touch (somatosensation)
coulomb/second
Positive current is the movement of positive charges throughout a system ; Rate of moment of charge across a plane ; etc... Current is measured in Amps (A), which can be expressed in a rate as _______________
outward
Positive value currents move [ inward / outward ] through channel
acetylcholine
Postsynaptic Signaling at the NMJ... Step 1 : A finite amount of neurotransmitter, ____________, is released via Ca2+ mediated vesicle fusion in response to an AP reaching the presynaptic terminal
increases
Postsynaptic Signaling at the NMJ... Step 2 : ACh in the cleft binds to receptors, which directly open ion channels, or [ decreases / increases ] conductance, allowing nonspecific cations to flow in/out of the postsynaptic cell
nonspecific cations
Postsynaptic Signaling at the NMJ... Step 3 : The current caused by ___________ _______ flowing into the cell causes a postsynaptic membrane voltage response, represented by the equation I = g(Vm-Ex)
cleft
Postsynaptic Signaling at the NMJ... Step 4 : ACh is cleared from the synaptic _____
slower, longer
Potassium gated channels open much [ slower / faster ] than sodium gated channels... additionally, they stay open for [ shorter / longer ] amounts of time
photoreceptors
Primary sensory neuron of the visual system... Where light is transduced into electrical signals
neuron doctrine
Proposed by Cajal ; A scientific theory in neurobiology that stated that the nervous system is composed of discrete individual cells
reticular theory
Proposed by Golgi ; A scientific theory in neurobiology (disproven) that stated that everything in the nervous system, including the brain, is made up of a single interlinking continuous network... compare with Neuron Doctrine.
evenly
Pros of Diffusion : For proteins to be distributed ______
energy
Pros of Diffusion : Simple diffusion does not require ______
early, late
Protein synthesis is not necessary for [ early / late ] phase LTP whereas protein synthesis is a critical component of [ early / late ] phase LTP
clathrin
Protein that coats the inward-facing surface of the plasma membrane and assists in the formation of specialized structures, like coated pits, for endocytosis
higher
R(in) ohms = Ra(L/A) A => Cross section area L => Length Essentially, this is total resistance is equal to the geometry independent factor of membrane resistance multiplied by length over the cross section area... As you lengthen the axial distance, this results in a greater distance to push ions through.... this leads to a [ lower / higher ] resistance
lower
R(in) ohms = Ra(L/A) A => Cross section area L => Length Essentially, this is total resistance is equal to the geometry independent factor of membrane resistance multiplied by length over the cross section area... The wider the surface area, the more parallel paths there are, and the [ lower / higher ] the resistance
lower
R(in) ohms = Rm(1/A) A => Surface area Essentially, this is total resistance is equal to the geometry independent factor of membrane resistance multiplied by 1 over the surface area of the cross-section... The larger the surface area, the [ lower / higher ] the total resistance
4πa²
R(in)(sphere) = Rm / _______ 'a' is in cm² Total resistance (R(in)sphere) is in ohms
strong
Real World Application of Monocular Deprivation : If children exhibit dominance in one eyes, therapists can block the [ strong / weak ] eye to let the other eye catch up and strengthen... Dominant eye remains dominant eye
amino acid
Receptors are specific for NTs and the ions... This specificity is based on _____ ____ sequence in binding site and channel
NMDAR
Receptors associated with LTP... _____ : - Ionotropic glutamate receptor - BOTH ligand and voltage gated - Influx of Na+ and Ca2+ - Coincidence detector
AMPAR
Receptors associated with LTP... _____ : - Ionotropic glutamate receptor - Influx of Na+
motion
Retinal ganglion cells can be classified by WHERE in the lateral geniculate nucleus these cells project to... Lesion of the magnocellular pathway has NO effect on visual activity and color perception... However, it impairs the ability to perceive rapidly changing stimuli, aka ______
color, acuity
Retinal ganglion cells can be classified by WHERE in the lateral geniculate nucleus these cells project to... Lesion of the parvocellular pathway has NO effect on motion perception... However, it impairs _____ perception and ______
koniocellular
Retinal ganglion cells can be classified by WHERE in the lateral geniculate nucleus these cells project to... Very little is known about the ____________ pathway as it is interspersed between the other 2... Maybe it's for short wavelength inputs? Maybe more ancient in evolutionary history?
magnocellular
Retinal ganglion cells can be classified by WHERE in the lateral geniculate nucleus these cells project to... ______________ ganglion cells have large diameters with large diameter axons that allow for faster transduction times ; terminate on layers 1 and 2 in the LGN with the same name
parvocellular
Retinal ganglion cells can be classified by WHERE in the lateral geniculate nucleus these cells project to... ______________ ganglion cells have small diameters with small diameter axons that do not allow for faster transduction times ; terminate on layers 3-6 in the LGN with the same name
fovea
Retinotopic map is conserved in visual cortex, and magnified (overrepresented) at the _____ Because of this, if you have a stroke that damages the macular region of the cortex, even if a portion is intact you will still retain macula function
dyneins
Retrograde movement is carried out by _______
stochastic
Review : Ion Channels... - Can be Open/Closed - Can have selectivity filter for specific ions to move across - Permeable to ions when Open - Opening/Closing is a __________ process, meaning that it is entirely probabilistic.... different factors, including time, can change the probability of being open
series, parallel
Review : Resistances in ______ add, while resistances in ________ add reciprocally
capacitance
Review : ___________ is a much different concept than R and C... This term is instead about storing charge.
RC time constant
Right now, just know that the voltage across a capacitor is not instantaneous, and it takes time to charge... The time it takes to build 63.2% of its final charge is called the __ ____ ________
independent
Rm ("specific membrane resistance") is the total resistance for a unit (patch) of membrane (units are in ohms*cm2)... this variable is geometry [ dependent / independent ]
rod
Rods vs Cones : Rod and cone circuits eventually combine onto ganglion cells... ____ circuit : 15-30 connect downstream to bipolar cell
cone
Rods vs Cones : Rod and cone circuits eventually combine onto ganglion cells... ____ circuit : In fovea, 1:1 connection between itself and bipolar cell
cones
Rods vs Cones : ____... - Low Light : Single photon DOES NOT produce measurable change in membrane potential - Moderate-intense light : relatively RAPID return to baseline - Fast recovery (even often displays an overshoot)
increases
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At low (ambient) light, influx of Ca2+ 3) Increases affinity of cGMP channels for cGMP, which [ decreases / increases ] the reuptake of cGMP
decreases
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At low (ambient) light, influx of Ca2+ 3) Inhibit affinity of cGMP channels for cGMP, which [ decreases / increases ] the reuptake of cGMP
decreases
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At low (ambient) light, influx of Ca2+ Essentially... Decreased Ca2+ [ decreases / increases ] the amplification effect of each photon
increases
Setting Sensitivity... Ca2+ inhibits 3 processes... Decreased Ca2+ disinhibits those processes... At low (ambient) light, influx of Ca2+ Essentially... Increased Ca2+ [ decreases / increases ] the amplification effect of each photon
inhibition, decreasing
Should membrane-bound syntaxin were cleaved, this would result in the [ facilitation / inhibition ] of vesicle fusion, therefore [ increasing, decreasing ] neurotransmitter release
left
Should you lower the external Na+ concentrations, then predominantly K+ would be flowing through its respective ion channels... this shifts the graph to the [ left / right ]
right
Should you raise the external K+ concentrations, this graph would shift to the [ left / right ]
ligand
Signal Transduction : Step 1... Signaling cell releases a signal, or ______
receptor
Signal Transduction : Step 2... Signal cell, or ligand, binds to a ________
target molecules
Signal Transduction : Step 3... An active receptor can activate _____ ________, including effector proteins, second messengers, and later effectors
response
Signal Transduction : Step 4... Signal cascade of target molecules activates desired ________ from the signal
does not
Signal amplification [ does / does not ] occur in every transduction line
voltage
Since current is the flow of charge (how many charges per unit time go across a surface), if we take the derivative of charge (Q) with respect to time, we end up with current... Current through a capacitor is the rate of change of _______...
glomeruli
Sites in the brain's olfactory bulb where signals from the smell receptors CONVERGE
glabrous skin
Skin that does not contain hair; found on the fingers/palms of the hands and the soles of the feet... Popular for mechanoreceptor studies
clear
Small molecule neurotransmitters are generally stored in small, _____ vesicles
glomeruli
Small structures in the olfactory bulb that receive signals from similar olfactory receptor neurons... One function of this structure is to collect information about a small group of odorants ; Unit where olfactory processing happens
decrease, decrease
So, one way to increase the speed of propagation of an action potential is to [ increase / decrease ] axial resistance and [ increase / decrease ] membrane capacitance
negative, positive
Sodium channels exhibit a [ positive / negative ] current while potassium channels exhibit a [ positive / negative ] current
inward
Sodium exhibits a negative current value... negative currents flow from outside to inside. THIS CURRENT IS STILL POSITIVE SLOW, just different directions. Therefore, the flow of the physical Na+ will be [ inward / outward ]
SNARE
Soluble NSF Attachment Proteins, or _____, proteins are required for vesicle docking and fusion
imprinting
Subject rapidly learns the characteristics of some stimulus (one type of critical period learning) ; Experience acting upon innate circuitry A primitive example of this is exhibited in some young animals follow as they form an attachment to the first moving object they see and hear ; Konrad Lorenz
subthreshold
Summation of postsynaptic potentials : Each PSP => generally ___________
cell body
Summation of postsynaptic potentials : Summation occurs in ____ ____
time, space
Summation of postsynaptic potentials : Summation occurs in ____ and _____
soma
Summation of postsynaptic potentials : Vast majority of inhibitory inputs (synapses) are found in the ____
tug-of-war
Summation of postsynaptic potentials : ___-__-___ between EPSP and IPSP
axon hillock
Summation of postsynaptic potentials : ____ _______ is the location of an abundance of Na+ gated channels
cooperativity
Synapses also display __________ in regards to LTP... Even without a tetanus, if multiple synapses induce weak stimulation onto a single postsynaptic neuron at the same time, every synapse is exhibiting LTP and every synapse is strengthened
associativity
Synapses also display __________ in regards to LTP... If a tetanus is applied to one synapse and the another synapse IS eliciting an AP at that moment, BOTH the first synapse and the second will be strengthened
specificity
Synapses display __________ in regards to LTP... If a tetanus is applied to one synapse and the another synapse is NOT eliciting an AP at this moment, ONLY the first synapse will be strengthened
cajal
Synapses were first described (but not named) by _____, who characterized them as regions in which neurons made contact with each other... We should remember that it was this same scientist's 'neuron doctrine' that correctly reported the nervous system as being made of individual components, neurons
experience
Synaptic Plasticity : - Communication between neurons mediates behavior - Synapses are the point of communication between neurons - ____________ (e.g. prior neural activity) can change how a postsynaptic neuron response to presynaptic activity and alter behavior - Changes can last from ms - min - hours - days - years
depression
Synaptic _________ underlies habituation
periodic bands
Synaptic competition is exhibited in three-eyed frogs... Results : Axon terminals from the third eye become segregated from those of the normal eye into ________ _____ Correlated activity from same eye competing against correlated activity of other eye is key for segregating inputs
Synaptotagmin
Synaptic vesicle calcium receptor that senses a local rise in intracellular calcium and triggers the exocytosis of docked vesicles ; NOT A SNARE ; Calcium binds to this protein to cause it to catalyze fusion
F
T/F : The net driving force on Na+ is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the driving force on K+ at rest for a typical mammalian cell (ignore Cl-)
orientation tuning
Tendency of neurons in striate cortex to respond more to bars of certain orientations and less to others. Response rate falls off with angular difference of bar from preferred orientation ; Testing done by HUBEL and WIESEL
splitters, clumpers
The '# of cell types in the brain is always changing' and depends on who you're talking to... __________ are scientists who like to divide neurons into very very small subtypes, while ________ are scientists who don't believe in these small differences and their calculation for the # of cell types is much smaller
voltage
The 'area graph thing' is the capacitance chart that we have seen in a few lectures... the basis behind this chart is to illustrate Q = CV, or the relationship between capacitance, voltage (membrane potential), and charge... The 'area' of this chart is the ________, or the work per unit charge
optic nerve
The 'blind spot' is where the _____ _____ is being formed
longer
The EPP is [ shorter / longer ] than the EPC due to capacitance
biosynthetic machinery
The ER, golgi apparatus, and ribosomes are what make up the ____________ _________
circuit
The Goldman-Hodgkin Katz equation is actually pretty difficult to compute because we don't normally experimentally measure the permeabilities of ions... Instead, we have a _______ approach for measuring the resting membrane potential, Vm
aligned
The Gramicidin A Channel is a particular ion channel in which 2 moving channels have to be _______ and open in order for current to flow through
ligand gated
The NT in the neuromuscular junction is acetylcholine, which binds to a nicotinic ______ _____ receptor, opens the channel to allow cations to flow through (predominantly Na+)
depolarizing
The Na+/K+ pump is so critical, that if there are mutations and/or deficits in its function, that can greatly affect an individual's behavior and brain... We looked at a study in which children exhibited Hypomagnesemia, which is observed to be excess excretion of magnesium... As a result, the Na+/K+ was pumping way too much sodium into the cell, effectively [ depolarizing / hyperpolarizing ] the cell to dangerous levels. The cell's resting potential was too positive, and was therefore too close to the threshold for action potential, and so reoccurring seizures were induced
electrical
The Nernst Potential IS the membrane's __________ potential WHEN the ion is at ITS equilibrium (no net current for that ion across the membrane, no change in time, no external energy needed)
Vm, Ex
The Nernst Potential IS the membrane's electrical potential that provides the electrical driving force to exactly oppose diffusion of an ion due to its concentration gradient... No net current for that ion across the membrane when __ (membrane potential) = __ (Nernst Potential_
concentration gradient
The Nernst Potential is fixed by the _____________ ________ of the ion across the membrane
slowly
The Nernst potential changes very [ slowly / quickly ] as the concentration gradient changes
battery
The Nernst potential for an ion will be represented as a _______ in the equivalent circuit diagrams (the potential to do work)
two point discrimination
The ___ _____ _____________ test observes the ability to discern that two nearby points touching the skin are truly two distinct points, not one... In class we used a caliper to test the size of receptive fields in various regions of the body
sum
The ___ of the currents through each path is equal to the total current that flows from the source
patch clamp
The ____ _____ technique is a method that enables an investigator to hold constant the membrane potential of a patch of membrane while current through a small number of membrane channels is measured
basal
The ____ aspect of neurons house the dendrites, and looks similar to the top portion of epithelial cells
rising phase
The _____ ____ of an action potential is the period of depolarization that travels past 0mV and generally reaches potentials of +40mV
patch clamp
The _____ _____ technique is an electrophysiology technique in which an electrode sucks a little bit of a membrane up with a few channels, and seals those channels from the rest of the membrane... The technicians can hold the voltage steady, allowing you to read and inject current
visual cortex
The ______ ______ integrates info from a series of ganglion cells... this produces an ELONGATED receptive field in the V1 that prefers orientated bars of light over circles
apical
The ______ aspect of neurons are where axons arise, and looks similar to the bottom of epithelial cells
sodium-potassium pump
The ______-_________ pump is a special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell against their concentration gradients
brainstem nuclei
The _______ ______ circuit deals with more ancient structures and functions like breathing
goldman hodgkin katz
The _______ _______ ____ equation calculates the resting membrane potential that results from the contribution of all ions that can cross the membrane (looks a lot like the Nernst potential => 1 permeable ion)
axoaxonic
The location of the synapse matters... the closer the synapse is to the axon hillock, the stronger the signal contribution due to decreased decay... Neuromodulator synapses are generally __________
outside-out
The _______-___ patch clamp is similar to the inside-out patch in that it allows for single channel recording. This type of patch has the advantage of allowing the fluid on the extracellular side of the patch to be readily changed. The main purpose of this type of patch is studying receptor activated ion channels.
olfactory bulb
The ________ ____ is composed of 100s of organizational structures called glomeruli that are the spherical accumulations of neuropils (spheres make bigger sphere)
chemical
The ________ driving force refers to the difference in energy, due to a concentration gradient, that causes a molecule to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
specific
The ________ membrane resistance Rm (ohms * cm²) is the 'sheet' resistance of a unit (1 cm²) AREA of membrane
forebrain neuronal
The _________ _______ circuit is comprised mostly of glutamate and GABA as the neurotransmitters
electrical
The _________ driving force refers to the difference in energy, due to a separation of charge, that acts to move ions from high energy to low energy
threshold
The _________ of an action potential is the level of stimulation (aka depolarization) required to trigger a neural impulse
olfactory
The _________ system is what detects airborne molecules called odorants, oe what we perceive as smell ; best understood system
gustatory
The _________ system is what detects ingested tastants (water or fat soluble)
retronasal
The __________ pathway defines the odor compounds traveling 'backwards' from the THROAT to the NOSE
orthonasal
The __________ pathway defines the odor compounds traveling through the "external nares," or nostrils, to the olfactory bulb ; NOSE to THROAT
trigeminal
The __________ system detects irritating/noxious chemicals that come into contact with skin (generally irritants that produce adverse reactions) ; very little known about this system
ipsilateral
The ___________ eye is the eye on the same side of the body as the LGN
axon hillock
The action potential threshold is NOT constant across the cell... It is lower in the ____ ______ which is why this is the common site of signal transmission... The threshold is LOWERED due to a higher density of voltage gated channels
amplitude
The action potential, instead of passively decaying, regains the same ___________ at every point along the axon
3
The amplitude of the action potential is approximately 80-100mV from V(rest), and lasts just 1 to _ ms in vetebrates
small
The axons responsible for tranducing changes in pain, temperature, and itch are [ small / large ], in order to provide high thresholds for AP to ensure that these senses are not overstimulated
large
The axons responsible for tranducing changes in proprioception are [ small / large ], in order to provide extremely fast transduction of signals
invertebrates
The balance of ion concentrations inside/outside of cells can actually be much different... ____________ have very big neurons, and so while the gradients may share directionality, the concentration differences are much higher.
concentrations
The batteries of our circuit model is a representation of the cell's ion _____________
outside
The battery that we draw in out circuits represents the sign of Ex that we calculate for each ion... If we calculate the ENa of sodium to be +20mV, that means we have a positive membrane potential inside of the cell... We represent this by drawing the negative terminal of the battery closer to the [ inside / outside ] of the cell
inside
The battery that we draw in out circuits represents the sign of Ex that we calculate for each ion... If we calculate the Ek of potassium to be -58mV, that means we have a negative membrane potential inside of the cell... We represent this by drawing the negative terminal of the battery closer to the [ inside / outside ] of the cell
positive
The bottom figure is a potassium current graph... the 'peak' represents [ positive / negative ] outward current, which leads to the hyperpolarization of the cell (potassium rushing out)
negative
The bottom figure is a sodium current graph... the 'trough' represents [ positive / negative ] inward current, which leads to the depolarization of the cell (sodium rushing in)
is
The brain [ is / is not ] plastic after the critical period... However, it can be incredibly difficult to change experiences learned during the critical period
plasticity
The brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
calcium chelator
The calcium buffer used to inhibit calcium is called a _______ ________, or a compound that rapidly target and inhibit the function of calcium... calcium still enters the cell, but it is inactivated
area, distance
The capacitance, C, derives from the physical properties of the capacitor : C is proportional (and I will consider it to be equal until told otherwise) to ____ / ________
lipid bilayer
The capacitor of our circuit model is a representation of the cell's _____ _______
axodendritic
The location of the synapse matters... the closer the synapse is to the axon hillock, the stronger the signal contribution due to decreased decay... glutamatergic synapses are generally __________
membrane potential
The charging of a capacitor over time results in an exponential rise in ________ __________ over time
primitive
The chemosensory systems are thought to be amongst the more _________ systems in evolutionary history, as even single celled organisms must be able to detect chemicals in their environment
conductance
The chord conductance equation is what we call a weighted average, or an average resulting from the multiplication of each component by a factor reflecting its importance... In our equation, we weight each ion's potential based on its ___________
end plate
The complex postsynaptic specialization at the site of nerve contact on skeletal muscle fibers ; On a muscle, the receptor-ion complex that is activated by the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from the terminal of a motor neuron
larger
The conductance of Na+ is ~ 500nS. The conductance of K+ is ~ 10µS. Because the conductance of K+ is so much [ larger / smaller ] than that of Na+, the overall resting membrane potential will be very close to the Nernst potential of K+ (i.e. K+ will have a bigger contribution towards setting the resting membrane potential)
axon hillock
The conical region of a neuron's axon where it joins the cell body; typically the region where nerve signals is generated.
interneuron, motor
The crayfish escape behaviors were observed when a scientist would abruptly tap the crayfish with a rod... where the scientist tapped the crayfish would affect the mechanism that the crayfish utilized to escape, exhibiting fast transmission from lateral giant ___________ to giant _____ fiber
synapse
The dendritic spine and the axonal bouton form the _______
early, later
The difference between effectors and later effectors is that effectors are often _____ in the signal cascade and later effectors are often _____ in the signal cascade
constant
The difference between fast transport and slow transport is that fast transport is ________ (express train) while it seems that slow transport makes a lot of stops (reason is still unknown)
sodium
The early phase current component of the response to a depolarization of the cell was a negative inward current, which H/H theorized to be caused by ______ ions
unit charge
The electric charge of the universe as a whole is ≈ 0, meaning the universe is 'charge neutral'. However, if you start to peel away electrons from particular atoms, you are left with both charged ions and free electrons. These free electrons are what we refer to as ____ ______s, or the amount of electric charge (q) transported by a constant electric current of one ampere in one second. ... In electrostatics we use the term to measure the CHARGE OF AN ELECTRON
voltage, V
The electrical potential difference of a system is referred to as the _______ ( _ ) ... This is the amount of energy in an electrostatic attraction, or work that can be done, per unit charge (where Q in Coulombs)
depolarize
The entry of a positive ion, like calcium, into the cell causes the cell to [ depolarize / hyperpolarize ]
nernst potential
The equation, I = g(Vm-Ex) , is used to calculate the current of an ion when multiple ions are present... when there is only one ion present, then the reversal potential, Ex, can be replaced by the ion's _____ ________
refractory period
The falling phase actually drives the membrane potential passed the resting membrane potential into a period that we call the _________ ______, where the membrane potential is more hyperpolarized (more negative)
higher
The faster the electrons move through a system, the [ higher / lower ] the 'current' value will be
edges
The figure depicted shows the center-surround ganglion cells ability to detect _____
depolarization, hyperpolarization
The figure on top is called a voltage graph... a 'peak' like the one displayed represents ____________, while a 'trough' would represent _____________
shape
The first observation regarding mini end plate potentials, aka mEPPs, is that they are spontaneous and small, but they exhibit a similar _____ as EPP
conductance, G
The flipside (literally) of resistance is how easily a current can move through material... That quantity is called ___________ ( _ )
ionotropic
The forebrain neuronal circuit primarily utilizes [ ionotropic / metabotropic ] receptors
modulate
The function of the brainstem nuclei NTs is to _________ the functions of the forebrain neuronal circuit
decrease
The further your signal travels, the more the potential will [ decrease / increase ]
unitary
The highest peak mEPP is similar to the ________ EPP
longer
The longer the length constant, λ, means that the voltage can stay higher for a [ shorter / longer ] distance along the axon
timing
There are 4 main attributes of sensory stimuli that human neural activity can capture... - Modality - Location - Intensity - _________
resting membrane potential
The initial, constant voltage exhibited before the action potential begins is the _______ ________ ________, and this value is generally -75mV to -65mV
+1, +2, -1
The ion valance (z) that you see as a variable in the Nernst potential equation is the valance charge of the ion in question... Ex : K+ => __ , Ca+ => __ , Cl- => __
conductance
The ion with the largest __________ will have the resting membrane potential closest to its Nernst Potential (it will have the biggest contribution)
sum
The large EPP that we see in the postsynaptic muscle fiber is the ___ of all the quantal releases exhibited by mEPP's
potassium
The late phase current component of the response to a depolarization of the cell was a positive outward current, which H/H theorized to be caused by _________ ions
thalamus
The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is in the ________
right
The left visual field goes to the [ left / right ] brain
membrane
The lipid bilayer of a ________ helps to separate charges where we have different ions on either side... This separation of charges and ions causes two different types of potential gradients
capacitive current
The little downward 'blip' you see in the figure is the _________ _______, or the redistribution of charge across the membrane... ΔQ = C (ΔV/Δt) In this instance, you had to add more negative current (from capacitor) in order to hyperpolarize the cell
noise
The little ripples in the current that do not represent open channels is the _____ in the measurement
capacitive
The little spike at the end of the bottom figure is the __________ current... membrane charge, Q, is different when it's depolarized compared to hyperpolarized and Q = CV When V is hyperpolarized, you have to change the amount of charge is on the membrane, and the capacitive current allows you to do that
capacitive current
The little upward 'blip' you see in the right figure is the _________ _______, or the redistribution of charge across the membrane... ΔQ = C (ΔV/Δt) In this instance, you had to add more positive current (from capacitor) in order to depolarize the cell
frontal lobe
The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior
receptors
The location of active ________ underlies the perceived location of stimuli
stronger
The location of the synapse matters... the closer the synapse is to the axon hillock, the [ weaker / stronger ] the signal contribution due to decreased decay
axosomatic
The location of the synapse matters... the closer the synapse is to the axon hillock, the stronger the signal contribution due to decreased decay... GABAergic synapses are generally __________
synapse
The most basic definition that we can use to characterise a _______ is that it is the point of communication between neurons
motor, muscle
The most popular preparation of a model synapse was the neuromuscular junction, where in a _____ neuron synapses onto a ______ fiber
electrophysiology
The most popular way to map visual receptive fields is with _________________, or placing an electrode in the brain or eye, and if the electrode is close to a neuron, it can read the AP or activity of the neuron
neurons, glia
The nervous system contains 2 main classes of cells; _______ and ____
nicotinic
The neuromuscular junction exhibits ________ receptors that bind with acetylcholine neurotransmitters
acetylcholine
The neurotransmitter released by the neuromuscular junction is _____________
camera
The opening and closing of connexon channels is very similar to the way a _____ shutter functions...
transduction
The peripheral nervous system has to convert the energy (light, sound waves, etc) coming to you, or tranduce it into an electrical signal that your nervous system can understand... ____________ is the technical term that we use to describe the conversion of stimulus energy into nervous system electrical activity
outside
The potassium Nernst potential is a negative value, and this is reflected in the fact that the battery has the positive end of the terminal facing [ inside / outside ] the cell
signal amplification
The primary advantage of metabotropic receptors over ionotropic receptors is the concept of _____ ________, or the increase of the signal generated from the probe molecule hybridized to the target nucleic acid sequence
active recall
The primary difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declaritive) memory is that for explicit memory you need to exhibit ______ ______ (conscious awareness) of facts and events
molecular signaling
The process by which a cell receives, processes, and transmits information ; How cells communicate to carry out a function ; more than just electrical signal propagation
tetanus
The prolonged contraction of a muscle caused by rapidly repeated stimuli ; "Rapid re-stimultion"
zero
The reason we drop the current over the capacitor out of our equivalent circuit is because, at steady-state, the change in voltage over time (dV/dt) is zero. Therefore, the current across a capacitor at rest is ____
propagate
The reason why the concept of capacitance is importance is best understood by imagining a case wherein capacitance was not a factor. On an axon in a neuron, whenever the voltage changes (voltage gated ion channels open and you start to depolarize towards an action potential), if you had no capacitance then instantaneously everywhere on that neuron all would have the same voltage at the same instance in time. So what capacitance allows us to do is to model the ____________ of a electric signals (action potential) in time, as each subsection of the axon must be charged up to send the signal across
B
The receptive field of a peripheral neuron... A) ...cannot overlap with the receptive field of another neuron B) ...the area on the receptor surface whose stimulation produces a response in the neuron C) ...does not affect the spatial discrimination of the stimuli D) ...has the same size for all peripheral neurons E) ...All of the above
light adaptation
The recovery of the eye's sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to darkness
endocytosis
The recycling of synaptic vesicle membrane components occurs within minutes, a rate more than 10-times faster than membrane recycling in non-neuronal cells. To accomplish these speeds, abundant, neuron-specific components of the clathrin-coated-vesicle machinery are used for ___________
receptive field
The region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron; The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system... Response can be excitatory or inhibitory
ion channels
The resistors of our circuit model is a representation of the cell's _____ _______
cytoplasmic, extracellular
The resting membrane potential tells you how to orient your battery terminals in the equivalent (total) circuit representation of a membrane... If there is a negative resting potential (which is generally the case), then you place the negative (shorter) terminal closer to the [ extracellular / cytoplasmic ] side, and the positive (longer) terminal closer to the [ extracellular / cytoplasmic ] side
CNS
The retina is the photosensitive tissue that sits at the back of the eye and contains all of the visual circuitry that allows you to see... It is part of the ___, but not technically part of the brain or spinal cord
left
The right visual field goes to the [ left / right ] brain
retinal
The rod pigment is composed of two proteins... - Rhodopsin - _______
rhodopsin
The rod pigment is composed of two proteins... - _____ - Retinal
series
The same current flows through each part of a [ series / parallel ] circuit
curare
The second observation regarding mini end plate potentials, aka mEPPs, is that they can be blocked by Ach (acetylcholine) receptor blocker, ______
capacitance
The shape of a negative current graph doesn't (or shouldn't) exactly match the shape of the depolarizing membrane potential, and this is due to ____________ making the cell charge with current first
inside
The sodium Nernst potential is a positive value, and this is reflected in the fact that the battery has the positive end of the terminal facing [ inside / outside ] the cell
separation of charges
The sodium potassium pump is like a battery in that it sets up the ___________ __ ______
independent
The specific membrane resistance is our way of characterizing the geometric [ dependent / independent ] aspects of the membrane
magnitude
The strength of a synapse can be measured in 2 predominant ways... 1) By measuring the peak __________ of the EPSP evoked by the presynaptic action potential
neurotransmitter
The strength of a synapse can be measured in 2 predominant ways... 2) By measuring how much _____________ is released from the presynaptic terminal
short, medium, long
There are 3 types of cones, classified by their wavelength sensitivity : ____, ______, ____
passive stretch
The stretch reflex or myotatic reflex refers to the contraction of a muscle in response to its _______ _______.... When a muscle is stretched, the stretch reflex regulates the length of the muscle automatically by increasing its contractility as long as the stretch is within the physiological limits
slow axonal
The synthesis of small molecule NT requires enzymes, which are brought into the presynaptic cell via ____ ______ transport
topography
The systematic spatial organization that maps specific attributes of your stimulus ; information from different tactile receptor classes remains segregated in the thalamo-cortical projection
vestibular system
The three fluid-filled semicircular canals and adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in each inner ear ; The sensory system that responds to gravity and keeps people informed of their body's location in space ; Important for linear acceleration (forward or side-to-side) and rotations in all 3 dimensions
decay
The time course of responses is slowed by leakiness of membrane further from injection site... this shows us that if neurons ONLY had passive responses, then the signal would _____ across distances, which is not an effective system
refractory period
The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated
sum
The total resistance of a SERIES circuit is equal to the ___ of the individual resistances...
small molecules, large molecules
The two broad classes of NTs are _____ _________ and _____ ________
peripheral
The two-point discrimination test is limited by the __________ receptive field size... If you have really really small receptive fields (like in the tips of your fingers), you are able to discriminate two points that are close together... However when you have larger receptive fields (like in the forearm), these two points may feel like just one
population code
The two-point discrimination test is limited by the peripheral receptive field size... If you place two caliper points on overlapping receptive fields, then the entire __________ ____ of those points will fire
ohms*cm^2
The unit of specific membrane resistance is ________
attraction
The universe is overall charge neutral... Like charges repel, opposite charges attract... Displacing positive from negative charges requires working against the electrical force of their [ repulsion / attraction ] ... separation of charges
outward
The value you compute with the I(cl) = g(cl) * (Vm - Ecl) equation will either be positive or negative. A positive value produces a positive current flow that goes from inside to outside. A negative value produces a positive current flow that goes from outside to inside. Because the chloride charge carriers are ANIONS, when asked about the physical flow of chloride (Icl = -x) , they will travel [ inward / outward ]
optic nerve
The vertical pathway that we study in the visual system consists of a photoreceptor (rod/cone), bipolar cells, and ganglion cells before traveling to the _____ _____
are
The vesicles of small molecule NT [ are / are not ] recycled
current
The voltage clamp is a technique in which an experimenter dials in a potential to apply across the membrane... An injection electrode will then pass _______ through the membrane in order the maintain the membrane at that specific potential
membrane potential
The voltage gated channels DO NOT care if a channel of a different ion is blocked... they only care about the ________ _________, and will open/close regardless
sustentacular
There are 2 classes of olfactory support cells : - _____________ cells - Basal cell Both secret metabolites and enzymes that help break down dangerous chemicals
trigeminal
There are 3 categories of chemosensory systems... - Olfactory system - Gustatory system - _________ system
gustatory
There are 3 categories of chemosensory systems... - Olfactory system - __________ system - Trigeminal system
olfactory
There are 3 categories of chemosensory systems... - _________ system - Gustatory system - Trigeminal system
orientation
There are a lot of V1 receptive fields in the visual cortex that each have their own ____________ preference for light input... When looking at an image, the primary visual cortex can combine the firings of many V1 neurons to produce the image that you see (see figure)
heterotrimeric, monomeric
There are technically 2 types of G-proteins... ______________ and ________, but we'll only focus on the first
small molecules, peptides
There are three predominant families of NTs... _____ ________, ________, and 'unconventional'
off-center
There are two categories of bipolar cells... - On-center bipolar cells - __________ bipolar cells Both give graded, hyperpolarized responses
rapidly adapting
There are two classic categories to define the temporal aspect of receptor activation... The second is _______ ________ that exhibits a rapid burst response to the onset of a stimulus (and then again to the change in pressure when the stimulus goes away) ; sensation disappears quickly even if the stimulus is maintained ; ONLY SIGNALS CHANGES IN PRESSURE
amplify
There are two main advantages to a chemical synapse... The first is that in an electrical synapse, the signal will diminish over distances. However, chemical synapses allow you to _________ signals
diversity
There are two main advantages to a chemical synapse... The second is there is much more _________ in chemical synapses, so you have a greater amount of different responses
on-center
There are two main classes of ganglion cells - _________ ganglion cells - Off-center ganglion cells
ionotropic, metabotropic
There are two primary families of receptors... __________ and _________
primary afferents
There exists an ascending pathway of somatosensory information from mechanoreceptors... Firstly, mechanosensory receptor neurons, aka _______ _________, transduce information from stimuli in upper (lateral) / lower (medial) body in the dorsal column... Then, at the caudal medulla, 1st order afferent neurons synapse onto 2nd order afferent neurons, exhibiting crossing over or decussation... The upper body is now medial and the lower body is now lateral Information is then transmitted to the thalamus (ventral posterior lateral nucleus) (CNS) Thalamus sends information to somatosensory cortex for interpretation (parietal)
lateral, medial
There exists an ascending pathway of somatosensory information from mechanoreceptors... Firstly, mechanosensory receptor neurons, aka primary afferents, transduce information from stimuli in upper (_______) / lower (______) body in the dorsal column... Then, at the caudal medulla, 1st order afferent neurons synapse onto 2nd order afferent neurons, exhibiting crossing over or decussation... The upper body is now medial and the lower body is now lateral Information is then transmitted to the thalamus (ventral posterior lateral nucleus) (CNS) Thalamus sends information to somatosensory cortex for interpretation (parietal)
caudal medulla
There exists an ascending pathway of somatosensory information from mechanoreceptors... Firstly, mechanosensory receptor neurons, aka primary afferents, transduce information from stimuli in upper (lateral) / lower (medial) body in the dorsal column... Then, at the ______ _______, 1st order afferent neurons synapse onto 2nd order afferent neurons, exhibiting crossing over or decussation... The upper body is now medial and the lower body is now lateral Information is then transmitted to the thalamus (ventral posterior lateral nucleus) (CNS) Thalamus sends information to somatosensory cortex for interpretation (parietal)
decussation
There exists an ascending pathway of somatosensory information from mechanoreceptors... Firstly, mechanosensory receptor neurons, aka primary afferents, transduce information from stimuli in upper (lateral) / lower (medial) body in the dorsal column... Then, at the caudal medulla, 1st order afferent neurons synapse onto 2nd order afferent neurons, exhibiting crossing over or ___________... The upper body is now medial and the lower body is now lateral Information is then transmitted to the thalamus (ventral posterior lateral nucleus) (CNS) Thalamus sends information to somatosensory cortex for interpretation (parietal)
medial, lateral
There exists an ascending pathway of somatosensory information from mechanoreceptors... Firstly, mechanosensory receptor neurons, aka primary afferents, transduce information from stimuli in upper (lateral) / lower (medial) body in the dorsal column... Then, at the caudal medulla, 1st order afferent neurons synapse onto 2nd order afferent neurons, exhibiting crossing over or decussation... The upper body is now ______ and the lower body is now _______ Information is then transmitted to the thalamus (ventral posterior lateral nucleus) (CNS) Thalamus sends information to somatosensory cortex for interpretation (parietal)
thalamus
There exists an ascending pathway of somatosensory information from mechanoreceptors... Firstly, mechanosensory receptor neurons, aka primary afferents, transduce information from stimuli in upper (lateral) / lower (medial) body in the dorsal column... Then, at the caudal medulla, 1st order afferent neurons synapse onto 2nd order afferent neurons, exhibiting crossing over or decussation... The upper body is now medial and the lower body is now lateral Information is then transmitted to the ________ (ventral posterior lateral nucleus) (CNS) Thalamus sends information to somatosensory cortex for interpretation (parietal)
somatosensory cortex
There exists an ascending pathway of somatosensory information from mechanoreceptors... Firstly, mechanosensory receptor neurons, aka primary afferents, transduce information from stimuli in upper (lateral) / lower (medial) body in the dorsal column... Then, at the caudal medulla, 1st order afferent neurons synapse onto 2nd order afferent neurons, exhibiting crossing over or decussation... The upper body is now medial and the lower body is now lateral Information is then transmitted to the thalamus (ventral posterior lateral nucleus) (CNS) Thalamus sends information to _____________ ______ for interpretation (parietal)
exponential
There is ________ loss of memory unless information is reinforced
is not
Think of an example of a cell membrane in which you have equal concentrations of K+ and Cl- on either side of a membrane that is only permeable to K+... At the INSTANT you increase the concentration of K+ to 10 times its original value, there [ is / is not ] an electrical potential difference across the membrane
outside, negative
Think of an example of a cell membrane in which you have equal concentrations of K+ and Cl- on either side of a membrane that is only permeable to K+... Just after you increase the concentration of K+ to 10 times its original value inside the cell, the concentration gradient for K+ moves ions [ inside / outside ] the cell, causing a net [ negative / positive ] charge inside the cell
K+, K+
Think of an example of a cell membrane in which you have equal concentrations of K+ and Cl- on either side of a membrane that is only permeable to K+... Just after you increase the concentration of K+ to 10 times its original value, [ K+ / Cl- / both / neither ] is not at equilibrium, and there is a net [ K+ / Cl- / both / none ] ion current
1
This current graph represents the current flowing through just _ channel(s)... If there were more, then we would most likely see an additive affect on the current recorded
nernst potential
This equation represents the _______ ________ (at a physiological temperature)
nernst potential
This figure displays the influence of postsynaptic membrane potential on the EPC amplitude... Also, it lets us know what ion channels are involved in Erev... If only K+ was involved, then the reversal potential would be equal to the _____ _______ of K+
exponential
This figure displays the steady-state voltage decline... a current is injected and spreads down the axon, leaks out through the membrane... as you look at the steady-voltage, you see that there is an ____________ decline
length constant
This figure displays the steady-state voltage decline... a current is injected and spreads down the axon, leaks out through the membrane... as you look at the steady-voltage, you see that there is an exponential decline... The point at which it drops to 37% (when its e^-1) is called the _______ _______, λ
synaptic rearrangements
This figure models ________ _______________... if one eye is deprived for too long, the axonal arborization from the other will compensate and grow larger, and the axons from the deprived eye will retract
binocular
This figure represents the _________ visual field
increase
This graph is similar to the one displayed in lecture as a formative assessment showing the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance... If the voltage in the system remains constant, but the resistance increases, then the resulting current will [ increase / decrease ]
depolarized
This is a conductance chart... It shows that as the membrane gets more [ depolarized / hyperpolarized ], the conductance for Na+ and K+, through voltage gated channels, increases... Keep in mind that potassium channels are DELAYED
sodium
This is another experiment that indicates that the height of the peak is determined by ______ ions
steady state
This is the equation that we use to calculate the membrane potential at a non equilibrium _______ _____ using a weighted average of the ion conductances
critical period
Time during which a given behavior is especially susceptible to specific environmental/experiential influences in order to develop normally These influences are REQUIRED for normal development of the behavior
membrane potential
To be able to use a patch clamp, we actually have to pass current through the membrane in order to hold it at a particular ________ _________
stimulus
To begin an action potential, a presynaptic ________ is required to depolarize the cell... An example of a presynaptic stimulus would be a current injection into the neuron that locally starts to cause depolarization of that neuron. When we pass positive current through our leak channels, we get depolarization
EPP, mEPP
To calculate the total number of vesicles released, divide the amplitude of the ___ by the amplitude of the highest ____
cool
To clear up any confusion... 'Current flow' is the flow of positive ion flow'... Negative current flows inward... Positive current flows outward... There's no question here, select 'cool' to move on
outward
To find the DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW for specific ions at rest, use this equation... I(current)1 = G1 ( Vm - E1 ) For example, calculate the direction of ion flow at a membrane potential of -67.1mV for K+ given... Gk = 10nS Ek = -75mV Remember... Ik = Gk ( Vm - Ek ) Is ion flow [ inward / outward ]
horseradish peroxidase
To prove the existence of vesicle recycling, scientists injected ____________ ___________ into the synapse... This forms a compound that is visible with electron micrography... it moved from the outside of the cell to the inside, proving that recycling was taking place
precursors, enzymes
To synthesize small molecule neurotransmitters locally in the presynaptic terminal, you need _________ that are brought in from the cleft, and you need ________ that can act on these to turn them into NT
sufficiency
To test for calcium ___________, scientists removed the presynaptic AP and injected calcium directly into the presynaptic cell which was enough to cause a postsynaptic depolarization
necessary
To test if calcium was ___________, scientists used cadmium to block Ca2+ function and saw that the presynaptic AP was fine, but the postsynaptic AP was hindered
no
To test their early phase theory, H/H eliminated sodium from the extracellular solution of the cell, and witnessed [ normal / no ] early inward current
positive
To test their early phase theory, H/H eliminated sodium from the extracellular solution of the cell. We can look to the equation... I(ion) = g(ion) * ( Vm - Ex ) ... and see if we made the Nernst potential, Ex, essentially 0, then current would be [ positive / negative ] during depolarization... therefore no initial negative current
repolarize
To test whether 1 quanta = 1 fusion of synaptic vesicles, scientists injected 4-AP (a K+ channel blocker) in the cell... this made the action potential difficult to ___________ the cell... The more 4-AP you inject, the more quanta can be released, and a trend can be displayed
retrograde
Trafficking in dendrites and axons occurs in two directions... __________ is the 'backward' direction
anterograde
Trafficking in dendrites and axons occurs in two directions... __________ is the 'forward' direction
eye
Transmits light energy to electrical energy ; focuses images onto the retina
surround
Two categories of subfields in a visual receptor... - Center - ________
center
Two categories of subfields in a visual receptor... - ______ - Surround
ionic
Two types of chemical synapses (repeated-ish) : _____ , neurotransmitter binding opens ion channels... can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing
metabotropic
Two types of chemical synapses (repeated-ish) : ____________ , neurotransmitter binding causes G-protein mediated signal transduction event, which ultimately opens ion channels... can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing
NMDA
Type of receptor site for Glutamate that is difficult to stimulate, and often requires AMPA to first hypo-polarize cell, permeable to Na+, K+, and Ca2+
fast anterograde
Types of Axonal Transport : ____ __________ : carries vesicles, ~400mm/day, motor protein => kinesins , uses ATP
fast retrograde
Types of Axonal Transport : ____ __________ : recycles endosomes, membrane and transports backward signals, ~200mm/day (half of other way) ; Motor Protein => Dyneins ; uses ATP
slow anterograde
Types of Axonal Transport : ____ ___________ uses kinesin to take cytoskeleton molecules (really slow) and soluble proteins/enzymes from soma to nerve ending
neuromodulators
Types of Intercellular Molecular Signaling : Paracrine signaling is usually conducted by ___________
neurotransmitters
Types of Intercellular Molecular Signaling : Synaptic signaling is usually conducted by ___________
synaptic
Types of Intercellular Molecular Signaling : ________ : Communication from one cell to another via a synaptic junction... SHORT DISTANCE... 'Next door neighbor'
paracrine
Types of Intercellular Molecular Signaling : ________ : Release of signals to a group of NEARBY cells ; MEDIUM DISTANCE ; 'All the houses on your street'
implicit
Types of Memory... ________ (nondeclarative) : Acquired and used unconsciously, and can affect thoughts and behaviours ; singing a familiar song, typing on your computer keyboard, and brushing your teeth. Riding a bike is another example. Even after going years without riding one, most people are able to hop on a bike and ride it effortlessly
agonists
Types of Muscles : Muscle ________ move the joint in the intended direction
flexors
Types of Muscles : _______ close at the joint (make arm angle smaller)
extensors
Types of Muscles : __________ open at the joint (make arm angle larger)
calcium
Types of Second Messengers... _______ : - Increased cytoplasmic calcium levels allow binding to calcium binding proteins ( a later effector ) like Calmodulin
cell-associated
Types of Signaling Molecules... ____-________ : - Not secreted, but bound to precursor cell's membrane - Bind to external receptors on target cell - Long-lived - Ex: cell adhesion (REQUIRE CELL TO CELL CONTACT) molecules
cell-permeable
Types of Signaling Molecules... ____-________ : - Secreted - Bind to internal receptors - Long-lived / Travel far - Hard to contain... Hard to break down - Ex: testosterone among other hormones (steroids) (last one in figure)
phosphatases
Types of later effectors... ____________ are enzymes that REMOVE a phosphate group (dephosphorylate) proteins
lower
Unit patches of membrane are resistors in parallel (adds reciprocally) => Rm should yield total resistance when dividing by total area (more area means [ lower / higher ] resistance) ... R(in) = Rm / 4πa²
outside, inside
Using the pictured cell, analyze the concentration gradients of the following ions. There exists a higher concentration of Na+ ions [ inside / outside ] the cell, while there exists a higher concentration of A- ions [ inside / outside ] the cell
gain of function
Usually frogs do not have competition between eyes (each is MONOCULAR) Synaptic competition is exhibited in three-eyed frogs... - Translated developing retina from donor embryo to host tadpole... - Third eye differentiated normally, forming neuronal connections with the optic tectum - Example of a ' ____ __ ________ ' experiment Adult frog has three functional eyes
competition
Usually frogs do not have competition between eyes (each is MONOCULAR) and each eye projects visual information to a separate LGN and separate V1 cortex so no ocular dominance columns are observed Introducing a third eye introduces ________ to the frog's visual system
stimulus
Usually, when voltage gated channels allow Na+ to flow in and depolarize the cell, K+ voltage channels allow potassium to flow out, hyperpolarizing it and establishing balance... However, when a ________ causes the current of Na+ to overwhelm the current of K+, thats when an action potential is triggered
columnar organization
V1 neurons exhibit ________ ____________... so if you were to place an electrode TRANSVERSE into the cortex, there would be subtle changes in the neurons' measurable receptive field, and they would all exhibit distinguishable orientation preferences
columnar organization
V1 neurons exhibit ________ ____________... so if you were to place an electrode VERTICALLY into the cortex, the center of the neurons' measurable receptive fields would overlap, and they would all exhibit generally the same orientation preference
ocular dominance columns
VERTICAL columns of neurons in V1, consisting of neurons that receive signals from the left eye only or the right eye only
ocular dominance columns
Vertical columns of neurons in V1, all of which respond to stimuli from the same eye ; Cortical columns consisting of neurons that receive signals from the left eye only or the right eye only
sum
Voltage applied to a series circuit is equal to the ___ of the individual voltage drops
sensor
Voltage gated channels, somewhere within their protein structure, has a voltage ______, a portion of the membrane that is sensitive to the voltage that is applied across a membrane. When the membrane becomes more negative, for example, this structure detects the hyperpolarization and can potentially Open or Close the gate
proprioception
We began the somatosensory lecture with a video of Ian Waterman, a man who lost his _____________ (these are video notes)... - Had no control over where his body was w/o vision - Motor system intact - Does not know where his body parts that lie outside his visual field are in space - Visual system is auto-feedback system
force
We can exhibit capacitance using a _____ vs distance graph, with the area under the graph being how much energy is stored in the capacitor
potential
We can experimentally determine the capacitance of a capacitor by using a test charge... Essentially, we move a positively charged rod from the negative side of the capacitor to the positive side. This requires energy to go against both the attraction of the positive rod to the negative side and the repulsion of the positive rod to the negative side. The amount of force exerted over the distance between plates is the _________ stored in the capacitor
siemens, S
We can measure the conductance value of a material within a system in the SI Unit, ______ ( _ )
coulomb, C
We can measure the electrical charge within a system in the SI Unit, _______ ( _ )
volt, V
We can measure the electrical potential, voltage, within a system in the SI Unit, _____ ( _ )
current
We can think of the EPSC as like a _______ injection into a nervous circuit... The EPSP peak will decay in time (τ) and space (λ)
increased
We can use Ohm's law to see the relationship between current (I elec), resistance (γ), and voltage (Em) across a membrane... I(elec) = γ x Vm Increased electrical driving force, or Em voltage, leads to [ increased / decreased ] current
velcro
We can visualize the vesicle docking process (Vesicle-SNARES interacting with Target-SNARES) as a ______ interaction
peripheral, central
We generally divide the nervous system into two main classes... The ________ neural circuits consist of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord, while the _______ neural circuits consist of the brain and spinal cord
ion channels, capacitor
We have two sources of current through the membrane... The first is the current through the ___ _________, aka through leak conductances The second is the charging of the membrane itself at the ________
fast, synchronous
We know that electrical synapses are known for FAST transmission, however they are not the predominant channel found in the nervous system... A common example of when electrical synapses are used is for ____ transmissions like reflexes, and ___________ actions like a heartbeat
2, 3
We observe a six-layer organization of the cortex... the thalamus actually projects to layer 4 (input layer) of this cortex, which then transmits the information to other layers of the cortex, generally _ and _
4
We observe a six-layer organization of the cortex... the thalamus actually projects to layer _ (input layer) of this cortex, which then transmits the information to other layers of the cortex
electrodes
We use __________, one of which we stick into the extracellular fluid as our reference, and the other we insert into the cell itself, connected to a voltage meter to measure the voltage/potential within cells
resting membrane potential
We use the Goldman-Hodgkin Katz equation to calculate V(rest), or the _______ ________ _________, which we assume to NOT be changing
1, 2
We used log10 in our calculations, as it is much easier to calculate the Nernst potential difference when concentration ratios are increased by factors such as 10 to 100... The log10 of 10 is _ and the log10 of 100 is _
malleable
We want new dendritic spines to be ________ so that they can exhibit change and grow into thicker, more mature spines
structural
We'll get into it a bit later, but long term mechanisms of synaptic plasticity (potentiation, depression) often involve ________ changes
graded
Weak and moderate pressure stimuli causes ______ depolarizations that do not reach the AP threshold, while strong pressure stimuli cause enough ion channel stretching that cause action potentials to fire
type
What characteristics of motor units affect the amount of force produced ? 1) ____ - slow, fast fatigue resistant, fast fatigable 2) Firing rate of the motor neuron - temporal summation
temporal
What characteristics of motor units affect the amount of force produced ? 1) type - slow, fast fatigue resistant, fast fatigable 2) Firing rate of the motor neuron - ________ summation
synaptic plasticity
What is the neural basis for the three categories of memory depicted within the figure... The working hypothesis is _________ _________
alpha motor neurons
What is the neural circuitry that underlies a muscle reflex? 1) Group 1A afferents detect stretch in muscle spindle 2) Group 1A afferents synapse directly on _____ _____ _______ in the ventral horn of the spinal cord as well as inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal horn - Passive stretch caused by increased weight 3) Alpha motor neurons that innervate the agonist flexor muscle are activated, while alpha motor neurons that innervate the antagonist extensor muscle are inhibited
activated, inhibited
What is the neural circuitry that underlies a muscle reflex? 1) Group 1A afferents detect stretch in muscle spindle 2) Group 1A afferents synapse directly on alpha motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord as well as inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal horn - Passive stretch caused by increased weight 3) Alpha motor neurons that innervate the agonist flexor muscle are [ activated / inhibited ], while alpha motor neurons that innervate the antagonist extensor muscle are [ activated / inhibited ]
1A
What is the neural circuitry that underlies a muscle reflex? 1) Group __ afferents detect stretch in muscle spindle 2) Group 1A afferents synapse directly on alpha motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord as well as inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal horn - Passive stretch caused by increased weight 3) Alpha motor neurons that innervate the agonist flexor muscle are activated, while alpha motor neurons that innervate the antagonist extensor muscle are inhibited
muscle fibers
What is the neural circuitry that underlies a muscle reflex? Alpha motor neurons innervate extrafusal ______ ______ to initiate muscle contractions
1A
What is the neural circuitry that underlies a muscle reflex? Group __ afferents respond to muscle stretch
muscle spindles
What is the neural circuitry that underlies a muscle reflex? ______ ________ monitor skeletal muscle length and trigger stretch reflexes
lower
What makes distinction between slow motor units and fast-fatigable motor units ? Fast-fatigable motor units have large diameter motor neurons... larger surface area... larger conductance... smaller resistance... so [ lower / higher ] EPSPs given the same current by ohms law V = IxR
higher
What makes distinction between slow motor units and fast-fatigable motor units ? Slow motor units have small diameter motor neurons... smaller surface area... smaller conductance... larger resistance... so [ lower / higher ] EPSPs given the same current by ohms law V = IxR
slow
What makes distinction between slow motor units and fast-fatigable motor units ? [ Fast-fatigable / slow ] motor units are engaged faster as they reach threshold faster with a larger EPSP
polarized
What makes neurons (mostly) unique... Neurons are _________. Structurally => Begin with dendrites, cell body, axon, terminals, then to other dendrites... And functionally => Neurons flow in one direction
excitable
What makes neurons (mostly) unique... Neurons are electrically and chemically _________
secretory
What makes neurons (mostly) unique... Neurons cell bodies contain proteins that endow it with specialized _________ properties => neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, neurohormones
All
What part of the neuron houses mitochondria and smooth ER?
axon
What part of the neuron houses synaptic vesicles, precursor membrane, endocytic proteins
dendrites
What part of the neuron houses the ER, golgi, ribosomes (biosynthetic machinery) and also lysosomes
synaptogenesis
What proteins are CREB involved in synthesizing for our LTP stabilization... - AMPA receptors - Growth factors ( BDNF ) This leads to the formation of new dendritic spines in a process called ____________ - This further increases the synaptic strength between two neurons
BDNF
What proteins are CREB involved in synthesizing for our LTP stabilization... - AMPA receptors - growth factors ( ____ ) ; this growth factor is incredibly important for the growth of synapses
-40mV
What we notice about photoreceptor response to light : - Response is long - Graded response, although more intense light gives greater hyperpolarization - Resting membrane potential is _____
phosphoralate
When Ca2+ comes into the cell, calcium dependent kinases are activated (by presence of calcium) and they __________ the synapsin, which frees the vesicles
GTP
When [ GDP / GTP ] is bound to the α-subunit, you have an ACTIVE g-protein, and the α-subunit dissociates from the β/γ complex
GDP
When [ GDP / GTP ] is bound to the α-subunit, you have an INACTIVE g-protein, and the GPCR stays as one complex
resistance, R
When a current has to go through a material, that material can block how easily the electrons and charges can move through that material... That property of the material is referred to as __________ ( _ ) ... Difficulty of moving current between two points
time constant
When a voltage potential is first spreading away from the site of the current injection, two passive properties of an axon affect the rate of propagation.... ____ ________ : The rate of propagation of a voltage difference along a passive axon is inversely proportional to the r(a)*c(m) time constant due to axial resistance and membrane capacitance
conductance, γ
When an ion flows through an ion channel, there is some resistance (generally caused by selectivity filter that can impede flow of ion) that we represent using ___________ ( _ ), or 1/r
inside, outside
When calculating membrane voltage, we use the convention... Vm = _______ voltage - ________ voltage
force
When completing any activity, slow motor units are activated first... As you increase your activity (increase the _____ required for an activity), you begin to start recruiting more large diameter motor neurons
ion channel, axon
When current flows down a neuritic cable, it can either - Flow through an ___ _______ - Flow down the ____
heat
When current travels across a resistor, the potential will drop as work is being done through ____
slow
When distinguishing between slow and fast-fatigable motor units, think of the tortoise and the hare... Activities that do not require much energy, but sustained responses, use _________ motor units
fast-fatigable
When distinguishing between slow and fast-fatigable motor units, think of the tortoise and the hare... Activities that require short bursts of high energy use _________ motor units ?
capacitance
When injecting current using microelectrode stimulants, we can see that the response is not instantaneous... there's a curve to the graph. This is due to ___________
closed
When ligand gated channels are [ open / closed ], there is no current flowing through (remember that it's a little counterintuitive the way open and closed relate to channels vs how they relate to circuits
less
When ocular dominance columns grow or shrink, this affects the category of V1 neurons that are responsive... As ocular dominance columns grow, there are less neurons that receive inputs from both eyes, and so there are [ less / more ] neurons that fall under the 2-6 categories
bisynaptic reflex
When one interneuron is involved in reflex, there are two synapses in the arc. One between afferent neuron terminal & proximal end of interneuron. Another between interneuron terminal and proximal end of efferent neuron; Hence, __________ ______
lower
When positive charges hit a resistor in a circuit, the charges drop in potential and lose energy because as they go from one end of the resistor to the other, they lose energy as heat... So a point on a wire directly after a resistor will have a [ lower / higher ] potential than a point preceding it
circuits
When regarding the 'levels of organization within neuroscience', we can construct a list that increases in complexity as it descends according to size... Nervous System, Systems, Maps, _______, Neurons, Synapses, Molecules... Know this order not just because they hinted at its presence on an exam, but also because it allows you to contextualize each level we analyze
outward
When tetraethylammonium (TEA) is applied to a K+ voltage gated channel, the late [ inward / outward ] current is hindered
reversal
When there is NO NET current (jumps or dips) exhibited by a membrane potential vs time graph, we know that this membrane potential is the ________ potential
no current
When you affect the membrane voltage of a NMJ synapse to be 0mV, or the reversal potential, the resulting inward (negative) current will be [ lesser / greater / no current ] than normal to compensate
greater
When you affect the membrane voltage of a NMJ synapse to be LOWER than the resting membrane potential, the resulting inward (negative) current will be [ lesser / greater / no current ] to compensate
positive
When you affect the membrane voltage of a NMJ synapse to be greater than the reversal potential, the resulting current will be [ negative / positive / no current ] to compensate
current, I
When you have an electric potential at every point in a system you can do work. The system does work by acting on the electric charges. When those electric charges move, that movement of the electric charge is what we refer to as _______ ( _ ) ....
stretched
When your skin senses mechanical pressure applied on the surface, ion channels are _______ in order to become open (activated)
separation of charges
Where does an electrical potential difference across the membrane come from (cells do not have a physical external battery attached to them) ? Net _______ __ _____
dendrites
Where in the neuron is protein synthesis?
series
Where will we see series resistors in neurobiology? As ions flow through material (axons...), the total resistance they experience is the sum of all the resistors in ______ (between nodes of ranvier)
stochastic
Whether an ion channel is open or closed is __________, or randomly determined; having a random probability distribution or pattern that may be analyzed statistically but may not be predicted precisely... ion channels open randomly
B
Which would transmit action potentials faster ? A) 1 µm diameter unmyelinated axon B) 6 µm diameter myelinated axon (Hint... Larger diameter axons have lower axial resistance, and therefore can transmit signals at greater speeds)
procedural
While Henry Molaison could no longer form new explicit memories due to a lack of a hippocampus, he could remember his old memories, and could form new _________ memories that he didn't remember learning
small
While Na+/K+ pumps could be represented on our circuit models as current generators (NOT resistance), however, the actual current through the pump is [ large / small ] as the cycle takes time so the rate is slow... therefore, the pump's contribution to setting membrane potential is essentially 0, and we don't include it in our membrane potential calculations
electrical, chemical
While [ chemical / electrical ] driving forces acting upon an ion can be diminished or amplified by the introduction of other ions, the [ chemical / electrical ] driving force of that ion is specific and is not affected by other ions
add reciprocally, add
While capacitances (C) in series _______________, capacitances in parallel __________________
add reciprocally, add
While conductances (G) in series _______________, conductances in parallel __________________
axons
While dendrites can use the passive method illustrated here, _____ cannot
meissner corpuscles
While merkel disk receptors have the highest spatial resolution, _________ __________ have the lowest threshold for firing, and thus are extremely sensitive to touch
add, add reciprocally
While resistances (R) in series ____________, resistances in parallel ______________
action potential
While the conductance vs potential membrane charts shows a similar curvature for Na+/K+, this conductance over time graph shows the nature of their increase... these conductance values facilitates the shape of the _____ ________
post synaptic potential
While there are separate terms we use to describe potentials in NMJ synapses vs CNS synapses, many of them have equivalents that easily translate... For example the NMJ has EPPs, or end plate potentials, while CNS synapses have PSPs, or ____ ________ _________
current
While there is NO work done in an ideal wire (no 'potential' lost across the wire), resistors impede _______ flow and generate heat energy, leading to a loss of energy (potential drop)
cones
Why are there so many different types of cones ? Long cones alone cannot distinguish all wavelengths by itself... Color 'perception' is based on the relative light intensity absorbed by different cones Comparison of the activity in different types of _____ needs to be made
ion channels
Why do we have a changing conductance over time in an action potential? Because specific timings of the opening/closing of ___ ________ makes ions more/less permeable or conductive
cascade
Why signaling cascades are important... If we know what normal looks like, we can identify what abnormal looks like, which means we can figure out causes for these diseases within the _______, and target these abnormalities
muscle fiber
With enough stimulation from a presynaptic action potential, the muscle will depolarize to threshold, and the end plate potential will result in an action potential that fires in the ______ _____... this results in a muscle contraction/twitch
plasticity
With somatosensation, we saw that even in adult brains there is still the ability for plasticity... Adult monkeys were trained to use specific digits (2 and 3) to complete certain tasks. As a result, the topographical map of digits 2 and 3 grew larger than the others... Additionally, when the monkeys lost a digit, the other regions of the map would grow to compensate
increasing
With the production of additional AMPA receptors, you are [ increasing / decreasing ] the surface area of the dendritic spine
battery
Within a circuit, it is the ________ that creates the potential difference (separation of + and - charges)
α, γ, β
Within heterotrimeric g-proteins, the _ and _ subunits are the lipid anchors, while the _ subunit binds with gamma
neuropeptides
Within the 'large molecule' classification of NTs, there is a further classifications... This is _____________ that act on different timescales and are synthesized differently... Examples are oxytocin and vasopressin
concentration
Within the nernst potential, the log10([X]out/[X]in) represents the _____________ ratio
decay
Without an action potential, signals would just passively ____ along an axon with a certain length constant
longer
You can also plug in the equations for your geometry independent factors, getting this expression... λ = √(aRm / 2R(a)) The larger the axon radius, a, then the [ shorter / longer ] the length constant
s²
You can derive the geometry-DEPENDENT "membrane resistance", r(m), from geometry-INDEPENDENT "specific membrane resistance", Rm using the equation : r(m) = Rm / 2πa But what if the cross section geometry was changed? What if the cross section was now a square, or a triangle, etc... How would that change what you divide your Rm value by? For a square, the new denominator would be __, where s = side length
total resistance
You can find the _____ __________ resistance in a PARALLEL circuit with the following formula...
ion channels
You can produce drastically increased levels of calcium in the cell by... 1) Activating ___ _______ to bring calcium into the cell
cones
[ Cones / Rods ] are active most often in bright light levels
rods
[ Cones / Rods ] are active most often in low light levels
GEF
[ GEF / GAP ] is a regulatory protein that converts GDP to GTP, activating the g-protein
GAP
[ GEF / GAP ] is a regulatory protein that converts GTP to GDP, deactivating the g-protein
on-center
[ On-center / Off-center ] bipolar cells exhibit a mGluR6 METABOTROPIC receptor that hyperpolarize when glutamate binds to it
off-center
[ On-center / Off-center ] bipolar cells exhibit an AMPA kainate IONOTROPIC receptor that depolarize when glutamate binds to it
off-center
[ On-center / Off-center ] ganglion cells are negative in the center with a positive surround
on-center
[ On-center / Off-center ] ganglion cells are positive in the center with a negative surround
true
[ True / False ] Frequent stimulus of a single axon with strengthen its synapse WITHOUT changing the synaptic strength of another axon that is not active (not eliciting an action potential)
intracellular
[ intracellular / intercellular ] signaling : A chain of reactions transmits signals from the cell surface to a variety of intracellular targets WITHIN the cell
intercellular
[ intracellular / intercellular ] signaling : communication between cells
small
[ small / large ] molecule neurotransmitters are typically synthesized locally in the presynaptic terminal
g-protein coupled
_-______ ________ receptors (aka Metabotropic aka GPCR)... plasma membrane receptors that are associated with G proteins act as "on/off switches
V4
__ lesions cause cerebral achromatopsia
MT
__ neurons respond to motion in a particular direction ; exhibit direction specificity... Just like receptive fields respond to a particular orientation of a bar, these neurons responds to a particular direction that the bar moves
ion channels
___ ________ : - Can be open or closed (permeable when open) - Have a selectivity filter for specific ions to move across - Act much like resistors in our circuit models - This model is called a 'ribbon representation'
ion channels
___ ________ allow whatever they are selective for to diffuse and drift (chemical/electrical current) through the channel driven by their electrochemical potential
time constant
___ ________ is a way of measuring how long it takes to reach your peak...
non-selective cation channels
___-_________ ______ ________ are macromolecular pores in the cell membrane that form an aqueous pathway. These enable cations such as Na+, K+ or Ca++ to flow rapidly, as determined by their electrochemical driving force, at roughly equal rates (>107 cations per channel pore and per second)
long term potentiation
____ ____ __________ is a process involving persistent strengthening of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons
rods, cones
____ and _____ : - Primary sensory neurons of the visual system - Sensory transduction in the outer segments - GLUTAMATERGIC
cats
____ are commonly used for visual electrophysiology tests, as they have excellent cortical columns ; Generally with visual receptive field tests, the stimuli is a small spot of light moving around a projector
glia
____ are the SUPPORT CELLS of the nervous system... aka 'nerve glue' ; play essential supporting roles including protection against toxic substances, structural support, myelination, and potentially a new form of long-range communication
work
____ is done when a force derived from an energy source is applied to an object to move that object over a distance... Ex: Picking up a mug increases the gravitational energy exerted on an object, which in turn increases its potential when lifted
AMPA
____ receptors : - Require glutamate ONLY - Faster EPSC (but shorter) - Allow Na+, K+ only
voltage
______ (and potential drop) is the same across each component of the parallel circuit
voltage gated channels
_______ _____ ________ are specialized proteins in the plasma membrane that provide a passageway through which charged ions can cross when opened in response to changes in membrane potential
working memory
_______ ______ is a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory (In the order of seconds to minutes) (Remembering a google activation code or phone number)
quantal release
_______ _______ : Each postsynaptic vesicle contains a large amount of neurotransmitter (ex. ACh ~~ 10,000 molecules), and the release of one vesicle of neurotransmitter is termed 1 quantum. The neurotransmitter affects the postsynaptic membrane potential and the change in potential caused by one quantum is called a miniature end plate potential (mEPP)
lateral inhibition
_______ __________ accounts for antagonistic surround... Essentially, the 'surround' of every center-surround relationship is actually has its own center with its own response... The center and the surround are connected by horizontal cells that invert the response... So if BOTH the center and the surround are lit, the center has a depolarizing ON-center ganglion cell ready to fire APs, the surround will also depolarize, but the horizontal cells invert this into a hyperpolarization, which suppresses the firing of the action potentials
neurons
_______ are the SIGNALING units of the nervous system ; transmit information using both electrical and chemical signals
retinal
_______ is a VITAMIN A derivative
specific
_______ membrane capacitance Cm (µfarads/cm²) is the "sheet" capacitance of a unit AREA of membrane, pretty sure this is 1cm² as well
spatial
_______ summation is when two events happen near each other
electric charge, Q
________ ______ ( _ ) is basic property of matter carried by some elementary particles that governs how the particles are affected by an electric or magnetic field. This property can be positive or negative, occurs in discrete natural units and is neither created nor destroyed
molecular signaling
________ __________ general scheme... Signal => Receptor => Target Molecules => Response
cerebral achromatopsia
________ ______________ is a type of color-blindness caused by damage to the cerebral cortex of the brain, rather than abnormalities in the cells of the eye's retina Normal scenes of vision are replaced by 'dirty shades; of gray
temporal
________ summation is when two events happen really close in time
pretectum
_________ : Reflex control of pupil and lens - Bilateral => If you shine light in one eye, both pupils dilate...
long-term memory
_________ ________ is the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system... Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences (In the order of days to years)
crossover inhibition
_________ _________ from the amacrine cells allow brief hyperpolarization from ON-center bipolar cells to depolarize OFF-center bipolar cells ; the little blip after t2 on the bipolar figures
rhodopsin
_________ is the rod's opsin, a 7-transmembrane domain protein with homology to metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors ; LIKE A GPCR
ionotropic
_________ receptor : direct effect on ion flow, effects fast and brief • Ions flow through the receptor • Most fast receptors are of this type - All one mechanism... receptor and channel
equilibrium
__________ is a state in which there is no net current flow of an ion across the membrane... arises from a balance between currents that are driven by diffusion, from high concentration to low concentration, and the current due to an electrical driving force that arises from the separation of +/- charges that drives + charges away from the positive terminal (or excess positive charge)
metabotropic
__________ receptors : - Indirect effect (signaling cascade) - Potential for lots of signal amplification - Longer activation periods - G-proteins On/Off switch
ionotropic
__________ receptors are coupled to ion channels and affect the neuron by causing those channels to open
metabotropic
__________ receptors operate much more slowly with respect to their counterparts... generally on a timescale of 100s of milliseconds to minutes or longer (Timescale is time from binding of NT to postsynaptic response)
ionotropic
__________ receptors operate very quickly, generally on a timescale of a few milliseconds with regards to postsynaptic response
Enzyme-linked receptors
__________-_______ receptor : transmembrane proteins that bind a hormone signal and directly catalyze a reaction inside the cell
divergence
___________ : A single glomerulus actually projects to multiple neurons in the pyriform cortex
convergence
___________ : A single pyriform cortex neuron receives information from multiple glomeruli in the olfactory bulb
integration of signals
___________ __ ________ refers to the phenomenon that two or more pathways downstream of a common receptor or effector converge on the same signaling node
inactivation gates
___________ _____ are part of a voltage-gated Na+ channel that closes when the membrane potential reaches +30 mV ; Inactivation occurs in response to the voltage inside the membrane becoming more positive (DEPOLARIZED), but more slowly than activation
myelination
___________ increases axon insulation and decreases capacitance, increasing axon speeds
hippocampus
___________ is necessary for explicit memory formation
postsynaptic
___________ neuron refers to the component of a synapse specialized for transmitter reception; downstream at a synapse.
excitotoxicity
______________ , or a phenomenon that describes the toxic actions of excitatory neurotransmitters, primarily glutamate, where the exacerbated or prolonged activation of glutamate receptors starts a cascade of neurotoxicity that ultimately leads to the loss of neuronal function and cell death... This is avoided by GLIAL CELLS re-uptaking glutamate by EAATs and reverting it to glutamine
photoreceptors
______________ are visual receptors on the back of the retina... They have pigments that absorb photons, and a current system that induces responses
nonequilibrium
______________ steady state : - Sum of net currents = 0 - Membrane potential steady - No change in concentrations - External energy input needed
tetraethylammonium
__________________ (TEA) is a simple quaternary ammonium compound. It is primarily used experimentally to block POTASSIUM (K+) channels... The TEA molecule is thought to physically enter the pore and block the channel
spaced
________h training : training sessions are relatively short and are spread out over time
graded depolarization
a depolarization which has not reached threshold.
lateral geniculate nucleus
a group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex
dorsal root ganglion
a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons
functional localization
different parts of the brain support different functions ; kinda the same idea of labelled line theory, but not exactly... newer research shows that figures like this are too binary, and in fact there is a lot of communication between multiple regions of the brain
henry molaison
had severe epilepsy - received treatment to remove portions of temporal lobe; resulted in retrograde (age 15 to surgery; lasted 11 years) and anterograde memory loss
tetanus
high frequency stimulation, generally 50 to 100 pulses per second (50 to 100 Hz)
luminance
intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given direction ; measure of intensity ; intensity of a hue
desensitization/adaptation
receptor activation triggers a feedback circuit that shuts off the receptor or removes it from the cell surface ; a cell's or organism's adaptation to a long-term stimulus through a reduced response to the stimulus; universal process by which sensory mechanisms cease to respond after prolonged exposure to the specific stimulus they detect
central sulcus
separates frontal and parietal lobes
contrast
the DIFFERENCE in luminance or color that makes an object (or its representation an image or display) distinguishable ; can separate object from background ; eye naturally looks for this in edges
labeled lines
the concept that each nerve input to the brain reports only a particular type of information ; the brain recognizes distinct senses because action potentials travel along separate nerve tracts
Ohm's Law
the current in a circuit equals the voltage difference divided by the resistance... V = IR ... will use on the majority of circuit examples
convergence
the phenomenon of neural connections in which many cells send signals to a single cell
divergence
the phenomenon of neural connections in which one cell sends signals to many other cells
diffusion
the process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration ; generally does not require energy
central dogma
theory that states that, in cells, information only flows from DNA to RNA to proteins ; Once information has gone from DNA into the protein, it cannot get out of the protein and go back into the genetic code... not exactly true
synesthesia
when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another
