Physiology Lab final
9
A solution with H+ concentration of a 10-9 molar has a pH of
vasopressin (ADH); posterior pituitary
As a result of stimulation, the osmoreceptors stimulate the secretion of ___________________________ from the ______________ gland.
blood doping would allow the athlete to carry more oxygen in their rbc, so more oxygen wold be readily be avaliable to the organs and they wouldn't become fatigued as quickly from not having enough oxygen in the blood. The health disadvantages is that you are making your blood thicker, which puts more work on the heart which could lead to cardiovascular problems. This practice is difficult to detect because dopers use their own cells and foreign material is not detected.
Athletes sometimes use blood doping to enhance performance. they bank red blood cells prior to an athletic event and then return the banked red blood cells to thier blood just before competition. this is considered cheating and is banned by most athletic organizations. how could blood doping provide an advantage to the athlete? what could be its health disadvantage? why do you think this practice could be difficult to detect?
troponin; tropomyosin
Ca 2+ binds to regulatory protein known as ____ which in turn is bound to an inhibitory protein called ____
sarcoplasmic reticulum
Ca 2+ is stored in which intracellular organelle?
It cant be used to prove fatherhood but it CAN be used to disprove fatherhood. Ie. if the mother is type A, the baby is type AB and the "father" is type O. It could not be his child because he would only have O antigens. the mother would only have A or O antigens. The child would have to get B antigens from a different father.
Can blood types be used in paternity cases to prove or disprove possible fatherhood?
The specific gravity increased after drinking salted water. ADH release is regulated by osmoreceptors. These receptors are stimulated by an increase in osmotic pressure of the blood (usually during dehydration). Since we added 500 mL of water, ADH was not released, so the water was not reabsorbed into the renal tubules. The plasma osmolarity is decreased with the addition of water. More water is released in the urine, lowering the specific gravity.
Describe hor the specific gravity of urine changed after drinking water, and explain the physiological mechanisms responsible for this change.
ADH is regulated by osmoregulators in the hypothalamus. They are stimulated by an increase in osmotic pressure in the blood usually during dehydration. ADH is released which causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water. The retention of water decreased the osmotic pressure of the blood back to normal levels (maintaining homeostasis). Also a small amount of highly concentrated urine is excreted. Where Na+ goes, water wants to follow.
Describe how ADH secretion and action in the kidneys help to maintain homeostasis of blood volume and concentration.
Breathing rate increases. This is because you are expelling more CO2 and your body needs more O2. In order to keep up with CO2 expiration and the need more O2 on inspiration, the breathing rate must increase.
Describe how your breathing rate changed following 10 seconds of hyperventilation. Explain the physiological mechanisms responsible for the changed breathing pattern.
causes of anemia; low iron, low red blood cell, sickle cell, carbon monoxide posioning. you dont get enough oxygen and you die 😵😨☠️
Describe some of the causes of anemia. Why is anemia dangerous?
the first adaptation is the plicae circulares which are the large folds. then you have microscopic folds that form finger like projections which are the villi. Finally you have the microvilli that form the brush border on the epithelial cells. In total its the size of a tennis court so there is alot of surface area which is good for absorption.
Describe the structural adaptations of the small intestine that help increase the surface area and the rate at which digestion products can be absorbed
Laminar flow is quiet flow, all parts of the fluid move in the same direction, parallel to the axis of the vessel. -turbulent flow is when some parts of the fluid move in radial and circumferential directions, churning/ mixing the blood. this causes vibrations in the blood that can be heard as sound. -the blood flow in the brachial artery before the cuff is inflated is laminar, this is because the cuff is not exerting pressure on the artery, so the blood flows in one direction and it is smooth and silent.
Describe what is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow. before you inflate the cuff, which term more closely describes the blood flow in the brachial artery? explain
Hemolytic disease is produced when the mother is Rh negative and the father and the baby are Rh positive. The fetus' Rh antigens enter the mother's circulation after the placenta tears at birth. The red blood cells express an antigen foreign to the mother and her immune system will be stimulated to produce antibodies capable of destroying the red blood cells of the Rh-positive fetus. Therefore, the mother's immune system will fight off the red blood cells of the second child and the child could die and the mother could die during childbirth. The disease can be prevented by administrating exogenous Rh antibodies Rho D immune globulin to the mother 72 hours after delivery.
Explain how hemolytic disease of the newborn is produced. How may the disease be prevented?
In hypoventilation carbonic acid levels increase so there will be more free H+, which would lower pH, making it more acidic. In hyperventilation carbonic acid levels will decrease, meaning there is less H+, which will increase the pH, making it more basic.
Explain how hyperventilation and hypoventilation affect blood pH.
it is the high protein diet which is known to increase the bun measurement.
Given that the person's bun creatinine ratio was normal what is most likely explanation for her bun measurement?
the ratio of the volume of packed red blood cells to the total blood volume
Hematocrit
They are produced during turbulent flow. the blood is going in different directions causing the blood vessels to vibrate, which produces a sound in the stethoscope. you hear the first sound when a loud clear tapping occurs usually 120 mmHg of cuff pressure. The cuff is its tightest on the arm. the last sound is a muffled sound around 81 mmHg. in the first sound the cuff pressure is equal to the systolic pressure. when the cuff pressure equals the diastolic pressure the artery is no longer compressed, laminar flow is restored and the sound is no longer detected
How are the Korotkoff sounds produced? when do you hear the first Korotkoff sound? when do you hear the last korotkoff sound? explain why this is true of the first and last sounds
PCO2 measures the CO2 concentration in the arterial blood plasma. CO2 reacts with water to produce bicarbonate which dissociates to H+ and carbonic acid. The higher the H+ concentration, the more acidic the blood is. So the concentrations of arterial PCO2 and plasma bicarbonate determine the pH of the blood. The measurements indicate respiratory acidosis.
How do arterial PCO2, plasma bicarbonate concentration, and blood pH relate to each other? What diagnosis do the patient's measurements indicate?
twitch is a rapid contraction followed by relaxation of the muscles. from a single stimulus. Tetany is a sustained muscle contraction. whereas a normal muscle contraction is a smooth contraction and relaxation when a stimulus is applied. a pinched nerve is either damaged or injured the nerve. this nerve gives off a sensation that the muscle sees stimuli and responds with a twitch. damaged neurons sets off an action potential
How do twitch and tetany differ from a normal muscle contraction? how could a pinched nerve cause a muscle to twitch?
they would be raised. the cardiac rate would be increased. systolic pressure rises more, so the flow is better and resistance goes down. if systolic pressure rises, so does diastolic and mean arterial pressure.
How do you think the arterial blood pressure, the pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure would change during exercise? explain
in an individual that is physically fit, their blood pressure and pulse rate will go up during exercise and then will return to baseline rather quickly after exercise. in an individual that is not physically fit, their blood pressure/pulse rate will go up drastically during exercise and then will stay elevated for a while after exercise because their bodies are not used to exercise
How does the increase in blood pressure and pulse rate after exercise, and the return of these values to baseline following exercise, compare in people who are and who are not physically fit?
causes vasodilation reduces resistance, pressure doesn't build up in the arteries. Diuretics increase urine production, losing blood volume, map decreases cant maintain blood volume cant maintain map
How does the patient's drug affect cardiac output, total peripheral resistance and blood pressure?
The patient's PCO2 is 50 mm Hg when normal is 40 mm Hg. Blood pH is lower that normal because it is more acidic and the plasma bicarbonate is within normal range. From this we can see that respiratory acidosis increased the PCO2. The H2CO3 level increase, which is why the concentration of H+ increases so the pH goes down, making it more acidic.
How might the patient's history of COPD relate to the measured values of an arterial PCO2 of 50 mm Hg; plasma bicarbonate of 24 mEq/L; and a blood pH of 7.3?
acidoses; alkalosis
Hypoventialation produces a condition called respiratory__________________; hyperventilation produces a condition called__________________.
a) parietal cells b) chief cells c) enterochromaffin like cells ECLs
Identify the cells of the gastric mucosa that secrete: a) HCl b) pepsinogen c) histamine
The sites of action include the nephron tubule, more specifically the late distal tubuleand cortical collecting duct. Aldosterone reabsorbs Na+ from the glomerular filtrate into the blood while exchanging K+ secreted from the blood into the renal tubules. When Na+ is reabsorbed water flows passively to the osmotic gradient that was created. So Na+ levels rise in the blood Na+ and volume which fixes the original change, maintaining homeostasis. Secretion of K+ into the nephron tubule equals the amount of K+ taken through the diet. Therefore the blood concentration of K+ remains in the normal range. When there is an increase in K+ aldosterone stimulates an increase in the secretion of K+ into the filtrate, as it reabsorbs Na+ from the filtrate. Also when there is an increase in the blood concentration, there is additional K+ channels that go into the cortical collecting duct.
Identify the sites of action of aldosterone in the renal nephrons, and relate these to the actions of aldosterone on the kidney. Explain how these actions help to maintain the homeostasis of (a) blood sodium concentration and volume and (b) blood potassium concentration.
108.67mmHg 92+ 1/3(50)
If a person has a blood pressure of 142/92 what is the mean arterial pressure
50 mmHg 142-92
If a person has blood pressure of 142/92 what is the pulse pressure
AA; AO
If a person has blood type A, the possible genotypes that the person may have are ___ and _____
AO and OO
If a person who is blood type O marries a person who is blood type A, what are the possible blood types their children could have?
Anemia is when you have a low red blood cell count, low levels of iron so you carry less oxygen. IN carbon monoxide poisioning you have enough red blood cells but the carbon monoxide binds to the hemogobin so oxygen cant bind to it. Both have very low levels of oxygen that can be carried by the hemoglobin so the body isnt getting enough oxygen to function so problems arise from there.
In what way are carbon monoxide poisoning and anemia different? in what way are they similar?
It is helpful because sodium bicarbonate is able to dissociate to bicarbonate ions. This negative charge reacts with the free H+. Removal of the H+ ions increases the pH. The blood is considered to be at normal pH so breathing returns to normal. Too much bicarbonate would make the blood basic, causing respiratory alkalosis instead.
Intravenous infusions of sodium bicarbonate are often given to acidotic patients to correct the acidoses and relieve the strain of rapid breathing. Explain why bicarbonate is helpful in this situation. What would happen if too much bicarbonate were given? Explain.
estrogen
Name the steroids: eighteen-carbon sex steroid
Jaundice is caused by high blood levels of free bilirubin which is usually caused by an excessively high rate of red blood cell destruction. In premature babies it can be caused by inadequate amounts of liver enzymes needed to conjugate bilirubin so it can be excreted in the bile. Jaundice is treated by exposure to blue light. the blue light converts free bilirubin in cutaneous vessels into a more water-soluble form that can be excreted in the bile andorine.
Newborn babies, particularly premature ones, often have a rapid rate of red blood cell destruction and have jaundice. What is the relationship between these two conditions? How is this jaundice treated, and how does this treatment work?
reticuloendothelial; spleen, liver, bone marrow
Old red blood cells are destroyed by the _____ system, which includes these three organs.
Increase
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain are stimulated by an _______________ in plasma osmotic pressure.
In hyperventilation the amount of CO2 decreases. The paper bag is good because it holds the CO2 we previously exhaled, so we can breathe that in. When more CO2 is added the blood pH is lowered. When the blood pH rises during hyperventilation, the chemoreceptor drive to breathe is inhibited. The bag slows one's breathing so that the chemoreceptors drive to breathe are no longer inhibited. An increase in blood CO2 stimulates breathing.
People who hyperventilate may get dizzy (due to cerebral vasoconstriction), causing anxiety and further hyperventilation. Such people are sometimes urged to breath into a paper bag. What good would this do? Explain the physiological mechanisms involved.
The spectrophotometry results would be similar in both conditions becasue you are measuring the hemoglobin concentrations of hemolyzed blood. When finding this measurement all the hemoglobin will be converted to methemoglobin. in both cases there will be low concentrations of methemoglobin . in anemia the low concentration is from a low red blood cell concentration. in the carbon monoxide poisoning it is because the carbon monoxide does not dissociate from the hemoglobin, keeping methemoglobin levels low. CO2 binds well to rbc
Results of blood test performed in this exercise would be different for anemia and for carbon monoxide poisoning. Yet in one respect these two conditions are similar. Explain what is true about this statement.
the safety depends on the amount of donor plasma. type O has red blood cells with no agglutination occurring. But it will contain antibodies against A antigens of the recipient red blood cells. there will be some agglutination. But in an emergency, this is not of a concern because in a transfusion the patient simply needs more red blood cells. in these cases, it is usually just the packed cells that are given to the patient. The goal is to bring blood volume back to normal and replace the oxygen-carrying capacity of RBC.
Suppose a person who has type A blood recieves large amounts of whole blood (antibodies, cells+ medium) from a person who has the universal blood type. will that be safe?
168
Suppose a person's blood pressure is 168/112 What is the systolic pressure?
112
Suppose a person's blood pressure is 168/112 what is the diastolic pressure?
color; so they absorb different amounts of light at each wavelength
The different forms of hemoglobin can be distinguished visually becasue they have different
carbonic anhydrase
The enzyme in the red blood cells that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid is_______________________.
buffer
The free bicarbonate in the plasma serves as the major ______________ of the blood.
renin
The hormone ADH specifically stimulates the kidneys to secrete_____________________.
Aldosterone
The hormone that stimulates the reabsorption of Na+ from the nephron tubules, and also stimulates the secretion of K+ into the tubules, is ___________________.
diastolic
The last korotkoff sound occurs when the cuff pressure equals the _____ pressure.
specific gravity
The measurement that is 1.000 for pure water and that increases in proportion to the general solute concentration of a solution is ____________________.
Rh negative; Rh positive
The person most in danger of having a child who develops erythroblastosis fetalis is a woman who has the blood type _____ when her husband has the blood type ______.
AB-
The rarest blood type is blood type is
sphygmomanometer
The scientific name of the device used to take a blood pressure reading is the
angiotensin II
The substance that stimulates vasoconstriction and also stimulates the secretion of the hormone, aldosterone, is______________________.
epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis
The three components of the mucosa layer of the digestive tract are the ____, the _____ and the _____
O
The universal blood donor blood type is
rapid contraction followed by relaxation
Twitch
The blood pressure measurements were different at the different positions. gravity can have a difference because the blood flows down the arteries so there is less blood in the upper body. Systolic pressure generally stays the same. It is the diastolic pressure that is affected the most by body position. Also, the arm position can raise or lower the diastolic pressure.
Were the blood pressure measurements different when they were taken in the standard sitting position, reclining and standing up? Explain what might have caused any differences observed
The red blood cells may agglutinate or clump together. agglutinated cells can block small blood vessels which could prevent blood flowing to tissues.
What are the dangers of giving a person a transfusion when the blood types don't match?
O2 carrying capacity is blocked by carbon monoxide--> poisoning--> tissues --> you die. the carboxyhemoglobin would be abnormally increased. it is dangerous because the carbon monoxide binds to the hemoglobin so it cant carry oxygen. if you don't have enough oxygen the body cant function, so eventually you sufficate and die.
What blood measurement would be abnormally increased in a person with carbon monoxide poisoning? what are the dangers of carbon monoxide poisoning?
Endurance training increases the cardiac output by producing a stronger contraction of the ventricles. Also, there is an increase in blood volume. This improves the performance because having a higher aerobic capacity allows more oxygen to be delivered to their muscles. also, they have a higher percentage of lactate threshold, so it takes more lactic acid to cause muscle fatigue.
What cardiovascular adaptations are associated with endurance training? how do these changes help to improve performance?
hypertension
What condition does the person with 168/112 have?
the patient has moderate hypokalemia it is normally caused by taking diuretics drugs. she can treat this with eating K+ rich foods and possibly decreasing the amount of diuretic. secrete more K+ than usually so take in more K+
What condition does this patient's plasma K+ measurement indicate? what could she do to treat that condition?
it measures oxyhemoglobin saturation noninvasively. the normal measurement is 97%. this measurement would be different at high altitude because the lower the atmospheric pressure the less oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells.
What does a pulse oximeter measure? what is normal measurement of percent oxyhemoglobin at sea level and why would this measurement be different at high altitude?
the patient has stage 2 hypertension. high risk of heart disease and stroke
What i the medical significance of a blood pressure of 140/110
Erythroblastosis fetalis is when the baby's blood type is different from that of the mother. the mother has an Rh that is negative and the baby has an Rh factor that is positive becasue the father has an Rh factor that is positive. and this is the dominant one. since the blood types are different it is likely that some of the Rh antigens from the placenta will enter the mother's circulatory system. the antigens are foreign to the mother so her immune system will produce a response that will destroy red blood cells of subsequent Rh positive fetus. this way to prevent this from Rho D immune globulin to the mother 72 hours after delievery. these antibodies prevent the rh positive red blood cells that entered the maternal circulation from stimulating an immune response in the mother.
What is erythroblastosis fetalis, and why did this baby get it? what can be done to prevent this from recurring in the mother's subsequent pregnancies?
Myocardial ischemia is inadequate blood flow to the heart. Exercise can show an abnormal ECG pattern in normally healthy people at rest. so it shows there is a problem. Exercise can change blood pressure and if its irregular than it shows myocardial ischemia. When exercising, it increases ones cardiac output, so there is a stronger contraction of the ventricles, which ejects more blood so there must be an increase in blood volume. if you have a lot of blood that can flow then you won't get myocardial ischemia. other measurements could be diet and how much resting is done during the day. too low cardiac tissue dies. need some lifestyle changes boo.
What is myocardial ischemia? How might exercise provoke this condition? How might a regular exercise program in a healthy person help reduce the chances of developing myocardial ischemia? what other measures should be taken to minimize the risk of developing myocardial ischemia?
Peresent A,B; Absent: Rh
What is the antigen present and absent when a person is type AB negative
Allylic genotype; two alleles for a given gene. The mother is OO, the father would have to be AO for the baby to be OO. the baby inherited type O+ becasue the mother was Rh - and the father was Rh+ in the case of Rh factor, the positive is always dominant so that is how the baby was positive. the father donates an A 50% and O 50% of the time.
What is the meaning of the blood types given for the parents and baby? How did the baby inherit type O positive blood?
40 mm Hg
What is the normal measurement of arterial carbon dioxide levels?
170/190 x 100= 89% he is exhibiting abnormalities in his ECG which tells us he most likely has myocardial ischemia, which means there is not enough blood flowing to the heart.
What percentage of his maximum cardiac rate did he achieve before the ECG abnormality appeared? What is a likely explanation for this?
systolic
When blood pressure measurements are taken, the first sound of Korotkoff occurs when the cuff pressure equals the ____ pressure
the stomach normally doesnt digest itself because if it did peptic ulcer would form when the mucosa of the stomach or duodenum is digested by strongly acidic gastric juice. this is prevented by the adherent layer of mucus which contains alkaline bicarbonate which neutralizes the strong acidic gastric juice. gastric juice normally doesn't digest the duodenum because it has an adherent layer of mucus on the epithelium that secrete bicarbonate to neutralize the ph. bicarbonate is also secreted by Brunner's glands in the submucosa to neutralize the ph.
Why doesnt the stomach normally digest itself? why doesn't gastric juice normally digest the duodenum?
anemia
a general term for an abnormally low red blood cell count or hemoglobin concentration
absorbance spectrum
a graph of the absorbance of light as a function of the wavelength of light is called an
methemoglobin
a hemoglobin molecule containing oxidized iron (Fe3+) is called
25% thier child will have hemophilia, this child would be a female. the second child has a 25% chance of being hemophilia. this is because for each child the genes have 4 ways of combining and its a new probabiity each time
a man with normal blood clotting marries a woman who is a carrier for hemophilia a sex-linked trait. what is the probability that their first child will have hemophilia? if this child is hemophilic what is its sex? what is the probability that this couple's next child will have hemophili
carboxyhemoglobin
a molecule formed from the combination of hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is
para-aminohippuric acid PAH
a molecule in the plasma that is filtered and completely secreted
urea
a molecule in the plasma that is filtered and partially reabsorbed
inulin
a molecule in the plasma that is filtered, but neither reabsorbed nor secreted
protein
a molecule in the plasma that is not filtered to a significant degree
gallstones are formed from excessive concentration of cholesterol in the bile. gallstones block the bile duct, so a build up of bile leads to a build up of bile pigment bilirubin which produces the yellow color in jaundice. if the bile is blocked then it cant digest/ absorb fat and therefore there is no uptake in fat soluble vitamins. one of these being vitamin K which is required for normal blood clotting.
a person with gall stones may have jaundice and an abnormally long clotting time. explain the possible relationship between gallstones, jaundice and blood clotting
a molecule that can donate a free H+ to a solution and lower its pH
acid
carbonic acid levels will rise above normal, pH decreases
acidoses
thin and thick
actin and myosin comprise the ____ and ____ filaments respectively
measures the maximum rate of oxygen consumption by the body.
aerobic capacity
carbonic acid levels will decrease, pH increases
alkalosis
the build up of bile pigment bilirubin produces the yellow discoloration this can be caused by gallstones blocking the bile duct. gallstones are formed by an excessive concentration of cholesterol in the bile. steatorrhea relates to this reason because if the bile is blocked then it cant digest and absorb fat so you have fat leaving the body in the feces
an excess of what molecule produced the yellowish discoloration and what is a likely reason for this to occur? how does teh steatorrhea relate to this reason?
fiber, fibril, sarcomere, filament
arrange these structures in decreasing order of size; sacromere, fibril, filaments fiber
decreases (falls)
as a person gets older, the maximum cardiac rate
higher stroke volume and Also, higher levels of inhibitory activity by the vagus nerve
athlete's bradycardia is caused by
a molecule that can accept a free H+ and raises the pH
base
liver hepatocytes; gall bladder
bile is produced by the ____ and stored in the ____
hepatic portal vein
blood is transported from the intestine to the liver in a large vessel known as the
.1g/1L x 1 mol/40 g = .0025 M x 1000microM/1M 2.5x2 =5mEq/L
calcium is normally present at a concentration of about .1g/L calculate the meq/L of Ca2+ in the plasma the atomic weight is 40
13x100/52 =25%
calculate the mean corpuscular hemoglobin conentration MCHC given the following hematocrit= 52 hemoglobin conentration= 13g/dl
52x10/4.6= 113.04 micrometers cubed
calculate the mean corpuscular volume MCV: hematocrit: 52 rbc= 4.6million
(12x..32)/.24= 16d/dl
caluculate the hemoglobin concentration in an unknown blood sample if the unknown had an absorbance of .32 and a standard concentration of 12g/dl had an absorbance of .24
autosome
chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes are called ---- chromosomes
HCl allows pepsin to digest proteins but it inhibits the digestion of starch by salivary amylase. this is because HCL makes the environment more acidic which pepsin functions better in more acidic conditions. salivary amylase works when the ph is around 7 neutral so when HCl is there it inhibits the function of salivary amylase.
compare the effects on protein digestion by pepsin and on starch digestion by salivary amylase. explain the physiological significance of these effects.
the skeletal muscle fibers are starting to experience fatigue. the muscle contractions are not as strong and smooth. they are demonstrating their fatigue by shaking. with the frog, the muscle began to shake towards the end of tetany when fatigue started to kick in. the muscle shook until it stopped responding to the stimulus. with the stimulation of our muscles shaking occurred to a lot of stimulation at a high frequency. eventually, the muscle could not keep up with the stimulation, declining in contraction as the muscles became more fatigued. at some point, the frequency of the stimulation becomes too quick that the ca2+ cant be pumped back in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and released quick enough to form the cross bridges eventually the muscle cant contract anymore. all muscles are either fast glycolytic fast oxidative or slow oxidative, slow oxidative generates tension and doesn't fatigue as quickly as you move up in the muscles their fatigue quickly but can generate a lot of once.
continuing with the situation suppose your hand starts to shake. desrive the changes in state of your skeletal muscle fibers as your hand goes from being held steady to shaking. relate these changes to the recordings obtaineed in the exrcise
Yes, if the person's plasma volume is larger than normal. This measurement would suggest that the packed cell volume is too low even if the red blood count is normal. This could be caused by drinking too much water, therefore the blood is diluted.
could a person have a low hematocrit yet have a normal red blood cell count? explain what might cause this condition.
testosterone from testes
create an outline or flow chart of the categories and subcategories of steroid hormones: androgenic hormones
estradiol secreted in the ovaries
create an outline or flow chart of the categories and subcategories of steroid hormones: estrongenic
glucocorticoids from zona fasciculata and zona reticularis in adrenal cortex mineralocorticoids from zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex
create an outline or flow chart of the categories and subcategories of steroid hormones: corticosteroid hormones
progesterone secreted by corpus luteum in ovaries
create an outline or flow chart of the categories and subcategories of steroid hormones: progestational
androgens; the adrenal cortex
dehydroepiandrosterone is what kind of hormone? which gland secretes it
its possible to increase the strength of the contraction by stimulating the muscle with electricity repeatively with little or no breaks between the stimulation. in our bodis the summations lead to an increase in recruitment for different motor units. if more units are added more tension can occur.
describe how you could increase the strength of the contraction with isolated muscle and explain how this is accomplished in vivo
with the frog muscle, we increased the frequency of the stimulation until tetanus was reached. the muscle was shaking/twitch quickly until it finally stopped twitching. this is muscle fatique because the muscle could no longer respond to the stimulus. the muscle began to relax during the constant contraction and there was decresase in contraction strenghth. the muscle contraction got weaker which shoed fatigue. Ultimate reduced ability to release Ca2+ from SR. no cross bridges formed
describe how you demonstrated muscle fatigue in the laboratory and describe the changes within the muscle that may help to explain how fatigue is produced
we produced summated contractions by a series of rapid and consecutive electrical stimulations. as the number of shocks incresased with speed we produced stronger contractions in vivo becasue fibers of teh different motor units came together to summate. -tetanus was produced from a continuous shock as we increased the frequency. the motor units eventually fired in a smooth sustained contraction. a complete tetanus in vivo is when the spinal cord motor neurons are activated by stimulus and activate a muscle at different times
describe how you produced summated contractions with the isolated muscle and how you produced a tetanus contraction. explain how summation of twitches is accomplished in vivo and how a sustatined completed tetanus contraction is produced
pancreatic juice contains water, bicarbonate and digestive enzymes such as trypsin, lipase, and amylase. all of these work to digest proteins, fat, and carbohydrates. -makes enzymes--> breaks macromolecules--> building blocks. adjust ph of acid in stomach., enzymes tether to epithelial cells, activate precursor enzymes.
describe the composition of pancreatic juice, and explain its functions
the genes for colorblindness are carried on the x chromosome and they are recessive. males inherit one x chromosome from their mothers only. where females inherit 2 x chromosomes. this is a sex-linked trait and the gene for color blindness is recessive so as long as a woman doesn't get two recessive genes then she won't be color blind. males only have one x so if the mother has the recessive gene the son will be colorblind
describe the inheritance of color blindness and explain why color blindness is much more common in men than women
sickle cell disease is an autosomal disease which means genes are not located on sex chromosomes. if both genes are identical then its homozygous which is the recessive trait. the genotype would be SS. heterozygous means that the genes are not identical. one is dominant A and one is recesive S the genotype would be AS. this type is a carrier and they dont show symptoms so the phenotype is that of a normal individual without sickle cell
describe the inheritance of sickle cell disease. include the terms genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant and recessive in your description
they are fixed to the cell membranes of the microvilli. they work with the pancreatic juice enzymes to catalyze hydrolysis reactions fo food molecules
describe the location of the digestive enzymes produced by the small intestine, and explain how these cooperate with pancreatic juice enzymes
The liver is comprised of hepatocytes which form hepatic plates that are on or two cells thick that are separated by large capillary spaces (sinusoids) The way the liver is set up the bile never interacts with blood. The blood drains from capillaries of the intestine through the hepatic portal vein, this is what helps modify the chemical composition of the blood. This is done because the lack of a basement membrane allows more intimate contact between hepatocytes and contents of the blood. the bile never interacts with the blood because it never enters the sinusoids, it goes through the bile duct. because they have their own pathways they never interact. .
describe the microscopic anatomy of the liver, and explain how this structure a0 allows the liver to modify the chemical composition of the blood and b) keeps blood separate from bile
During muscle contraction the Z bands are brought closer together, the A bands remain the same length and the I ahd H bands become narrower and eventually disappear. the thick filaments dont move and the thin filaments over lap each other.
draw a sarcomere and label the parts of the bands. how does the structure change during muscle contraction.
increase in CO2--> CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3--> H+ + HCO3- increases both H+ and HCO3-
draw equations to show how carbon dioxide affects the blood concentration of H+ and the blood concentrations of HCO3-
salt increases the osmotic pressure of the blood, which causes ADH to be released, which promotes water reabsorption retention and excretion of a small amount of highly concentrated urine. this improves hydration because the water remains in the body, which helps conteract the amount lost as sweat. sweat= water loss Na+ leaves gland water follows.
endurance athletes such as marathon runners often ingest salt along with water and or sports drinks containing salt. explain the physiological mechanisms by which this would improve hydration.
a) increased protein catabolism means more proteins are broken down into their components and these are carried in the blood and the liver converts it urea, excess urea will be present in the plasma b) less blood is available to the kidneys which causes them to reabsorb more fluid be absorbing Na+ so urea concentration in the plasma will increase. c) an increase in plasma urea b/c the kidney is not filtering the blood, and urea can't be filtered out so there will be an increase in concentration.
explain the mechanism by which each of the following conditions might produce an increase in the plasma concentration of urea; a) increased protein catabolism b) decreased blood pressure as in circulatory shock c)kidney failure
it is the plasma cleared of urea per minute. it is measured by the concentration of urea x volume of urine excreted/ concentration of urea in plasma. uxv/p= clearance
explain what is meant by the renal plasma clearance and describe how it is measured
sex-linked
genes inherited on the x chromosomes code for _____ traits
the individual is a heavy smoker which means they have more carbon monoxide poisoning and lung damage. this means that the carbon monoxide will be bonded to the hemoglobin more simply because there is a higher concentration of carbon monoxide. because of this less hemoglobin will be able to bind to oxygen. less oxygen bound means he will have a lower percent oxyhemoglobin.
given that most healthy people at the altitude measure a percent oxyhemoglobin saturation of at least 93% what could account for this person's lower measurement
bilirubin; jaundice
heme derived from hemoglobin, minus the iron, is converted into a different pigment, known as _______; an accumulation of this pigment can cause a yellowing known as ________
botox helps treat a person with strabismus because it relaxes the muscle in the extrinsic eye which helps correct the deviation of the eye. botox injections produce smoother skin becasue it relaxes teh facial muscles, if your muscles cant contract then wrinkles can't form they can also cause a droopy forehead and eyelid because the botox can diffuse to other muscles in the face relaxing them. this is what gives an individual a droopy look
how could botox help to treat a person with strabismus? how could botox injections produce smoother skin but also cause a droopy forehead and eyelid?
a person's aerobic capacity and lactate threshold usually decrease with age. aerobic capacity decreases because as we age our max aerobic capacity decreases about 1% every year after the age 25. this can be because of a decline in max heart rate and lung function. Also, lactate threshold decreases because as we get older we aren't as active and we aren't using the threshold as much so we lose it. so our threshold decreases. these changes can be minimized with exercise especially endurance training. there are weaker contractions of the ventricles, less blood volume when you age and are not active.
how does a person's aerobic capacity and lactate threshold change with age? what causes these changes? how might these changes be minimized?
the somatic motor nerve releases acetylocholine which binds to receptors on the plasma membrane on the muscle fiber, this binding stimulates action potentials that lead to contraction. botox blocks the sequence at the nerve endings and prevents the release of acetylocholine this reduces teh acmount of ACh in the synaptic cleft and the muscles cant be stimulated
how does a somatic motor nerve stimulate a skeletal muscle fiber to contract? list the sequence of events, and indicate where botox would block that sequence
hyperventilation is a forced breathing and there is a reduced amount of co2 in the blood. a decrease in co2 means that there is a decrease in H+ ions that form from the dissociation of carbonic acid. the ph becomes mores basic because there is less H+ in solution. this change in ph is what would cause action potentials to fire leading to muscle tetany. calcium deficiency would cause tetany because there is a decreased concentration of calcium. this would cause the cell to become permeable to Na+ the increased Na+ causes action potentials. Hyperventilation is most likely cause because the alkalosis affects the motor nerves that go to the muscles.
how does hyperventilation or a calcium deficiency cause muscle tetany? which is the more likely cause?
Fat is digested in the small intestines and absorbed by epithelial cells. it is then synthesized to triglycerides and enters the blood. fat is mainly digested by bile. Takes longer to break down! - glucose is digested by salivary amylase in the mouth. it is converted into a disaccharide and is absorbed in the digestive epithelium. -Amino acids are digested by pepsin in the stomach and further broken down in the small intestines and absorbed by digestive epithelium. They are both absorbed in the epithelium where as fats are absorbed in the blood after being broken down by bile
how does the digestion and absorption of fat differ from the digestion and absorption of glucose and amino acids?
pulse pressure is calculated by the difference in systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. the greater the difference the high the pulse rate. mean arterial pressure is calculated by adding the diastolic pressure with 1/3 of the pusle pressure. this is signigicant becasue the smaller the number, the less blood is delivered to your body as a whole. the larger the number, the more blood is delivered to your body as a whole.
how is the pulse pressure calculated and how does its value relate to the pulse? describe how the mean arterial pressure is calculated and explain its significance.
inulin
identify the substances from the description of the renal plasma clearance the clearance is: equal to the GFR for
PAH Para-aminohippuric acid
identify the substances from the description of the renal plasma clearance the clearance is: equal to the total plasma flow rate to the kidneys for
urea
identify the substances from the description of the renal plasma clearance the clearance is: greater than zero but less than the GFR for
creatinine
identify the substances from the description of the renal plasma clearance the clearance is: only slightly greater than the GFR for
a) the child has a 50 % chance of having the trait b) the child has a 50% chance of having the disease
if a man with sickle cell disease marries a woman with sickle cell trait what is the probability that their children will have a sickle cell trait and sickle cell disease
lower
if a person has athlete's bradycardia, the resting heart rate is _____ than the average
homozygous
if a person has two identical genes for a trait, the person is said to be _____ for that trait
heterozygous
if a person inherits a different gene from one parent than the other for a trait, the person is said to be ____ for that trait
120mEQ/L
if it required 7 drops of silver nitrate in procedure step 4d to turn the urine sample color from yellow to amber, what is the chloride concentration, expressed in mEq/L units of the urine?
prospector: decrease urine vol, increases specific gravity, decreases Na+Cl- partygoer: increases urine volume, decreases specific gravity, increases Na+ Cl- the prospector is dehydrated and will have more ADH secreted so more water will be reabsorbed so their urine volume will decrease. the prospector will have more concentrated urine so his specific gravity will increase. also na+ cl- will be reabsrobed more so there will be less excreted in the urine. the partygoer is hydrated with alcohol which inhibits adh, so water can not be reabsorbed so his urine volume will increase. since more urine is leaving the body it will be diluted so the specific gravity should be decreased. finally some adh is inhibited na+ cl- cant be reabsorbed so there will be an increase in the na+ /cl- content in the urine.
imagine a dehydrated desert prospector and a champagne-quaffing partygoer, each of whom drinks a liter of water at time zero and voids urine over a period of 3 hours. using their urine samples, compare the probable differences in volume and composition. use relative terms like increased or decreased
tubes 1, 2, 4 all tested positive for starch after incubation. The tube that contained the most reducing sugars was tube 3. in order to reduce starch to maltose, starch, saliva and acid are needed. all the other environments did not have the acid and the starch remained in the tube, also saliva is important for digestion of starch.
in procedure a, which tubes contained the most starch following incubation? which tubes contained the most reducing sugars? what conclusion can you draw from these results?
the most digested would be tube 2, protein + pepsin + HCl at 37 degrees C. the ph optimum of pepsin is acidic so less than 2
in procedure b, which tube showed the most digestion of egg albumin? what can you conclude about the ph optimum of pepsin?
the most rapid fall should have been tube 3 fat + bile salts + pancreatin. the bile salts break down/ digest fat. the fall in ph is because of the liberation of free fatty acids. as fat is broken down over time, more and more free fatty acids are liberated from the solution
in procedure c, which test tube displayed the most rapid fall fo ph? explain the reason for this including an explanation of how the digestion of fat can cause a fall in the ph of the solution, and the function of bile salts
deoxyhemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin
in the lungs normal hemoglobin without oxygen or _______ binds to oxygen to become ______
the blood levels of lactic acid rising during acid
lactate threshold
the leakage of the plasma protein will take the water out of the blood and into the interstial fluid which explains the edema. also the blood will be low in plasma protein. the biopsy will show no ulcerations because the fluid is not instide the intestines. instead its between cells so the problem is not in the intestines so it would not show a problem in the biopsy. The child has Crohn's diease.
leackage of plasma proteins into the intestinal lumen is a protein losing enteropathy. how might this relate to the child's edema, intestinal biopsy observations and blood test results?
Na+ stay in tubule--> out urine decreased secretion of K+ the inhibition of Na+ reabsorption means that more na+ is excreted in the urine. I predict that cl- will follow na+ so more will be excreted in the urine. K+ secreted in exchange for Na+ reabsorption so K+ concentration will decrease in urinary excretion. this is because if they exchange does not occur then K+ cant be filtered, so it would remain in the system circulation
many diuretic drugs used linically inhibit na+ reabsorption in the nephron loop. predict the effect of these drugs on the urinary excretion of cl- and K+ and explain your answer.
villi
microscopic fingerlike projections of mucosa in the small intestine are called
progesterone and corticosteroids
name the steroids: twenty one carbon sex steroid
testosterone
name the steroids; nineteen carbon sex steroid
corpus luteum and the adrenal glands, placenta
name two different endocrine glands that secrete progesterone:
sinusoids
once blood has reached the liver, it travels through large capillaries called
4, oxygen
one hemoglobin molecule contains ______ heme groups; each heme group normally combines with one molecule of _________.
High altitude polycythemia is due to an increase in erythropoeitin secretion by the kidney. The hematocrit value will increase in reb blood cell production. this is beneficial because it alllows a higher oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. the adverse effects would be thicker blood which could lead to higher blood pressure and possible strokes and clotting. If the blood is thicker it wont flow as smoothly through the blood vessesls. need more oxygen at higher altitude.
people who live at high altitudes often have a high red blood cell count, a condition called polycythemia. Explain the cause of the polycythemia and its possible benefit. Do you think it could have any adverse affects? explain.
if the enzyme was blocked then acetylcholine is free to be released causing action potentials which cause contrctions therefore constant contractions would occur- spastic paralysis -if the receptors are blocked then acetylcholine cant bind no action potentials are produced and no contractions can be produced- flaccid paralysis
predict the effects on muscles of a drug that blocks the action of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine. compare that to the effects n muscles ofa drug that blocks acetylcholine reseptors
the starch in the bread gets broken down to maltose and glucose as it goes down the digestive tract. the starch is broken down by the saliva and gets turned into monsaccarides.
reviewing your data from procedure A, what do you think happens to the digestion of a bite of bread after you swallow it?
frozen foods keep longer because the digestive enzymes don't work at cold temperatures. where as foods at room temperature are susceptible to anything that can decompose food, because they work best at room temp
reviewing your data from procedure b, explain why frozen food keeps longer than food kept at room temperature
successive graded potentials that result in an action potential
summation
a 5 alpha reductase inhibitor is used to treat an enlarged prostate gland. this drug would reduce the size of the prostate gland. if the 5 alpha reductse inhibitor is primarily used to reduce the size of muscles, then in this case it would reduce the size of the prostate gland
suppose a man took a drug that acted as a 5 alpha reductase inhibitor. what effects might this drug have on the prostate?
the percent oxyhemoglobin decreases during exercise because the tissues are requiring more oxygen to function. so more oxygen is being taken up. less oxygen is being carried back through the veins. there is a decrease in oxyhemoglobin in veins because muscle tissues taken O2 out of the blood. the arterial percentage hemoglobin saturation would remain fairly constant.
suppose a person's percent oxyhemoglobin saturation in the venous blood was 75% at rest but decreased to 35% during moderate exercise. explain why the venous percent oxyhemoglobin saturation decreased during the exercise and predict how the arterial percent oxyhemoglobin saturation might change during exercise. explain
RPC= (125 mg/dL x 3.5 ml/min)/ .80 mg/dL = 546.88 ml/min, filtered and secreted but not reabsorbed
suppose a substance has the following values for the determination of renal plasma clearance: V = 3.5 ml/min; P=.80 mg/dL U=125 mg/dL calculate the renal plasma clearance of this substance, and state how the substance is handled in terms of filtration, reabsorption and or secretion by the kidneys
the renal plasma clearance of A would be less than glomerular filtration rate measurement the renal plasma clearance of B would be greater than the glomerular filtration rate measurement. B is filtered, whats left is pumped out of the blood later.
suppose substance A is reabsorbed about 30% whereas substance b is secreted about 30%. explain how their renal plasma clearance values relate to each other and to the glomerular filtration rate
Rf= distance of spot/ distance of solvent front rfa= 6 cm/ 14cm = .43 rfb= 12 cm/14 cm= .86
suppose that on a thin layer chromatography plate the solvent front migrates a distance of 14 cm and two steroid spots move a distance of 6 cm and 12 cm calculate the rf
the cause of male pattern baldness would be from hormones specifically DHT. this is responsible for the enlargement of the prostate gland and is as treated with 5 alpha-reductase inhibitor to reduce its size and regulate the hormone.
suppose the 5 alpha reductase inhibitor drug in the previous question caused hair growth in a man with male pattern baldness. what could you conclude about the cause of male pattern baldness?
this is because the contraction is smooth and sustained which is tetanus. in this situation the muscle remains in tetanus and ther is a gradual decrease in contraction strength because of muscle fatigue. muscle fatigue happens becasue there is a build up of K+ which depolarizes the membrane potentials and interferes with the ability of the muscle fiber to produce action potentials. muscle fatigue can also be caused by a depletion of muscle glycogen and the reduced ability of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release CA2+ which leads to failure of excitation- contraction coupling.
suppose you hold a 10-pound weight steadily in your right hand with your elbow slightly bent, so that you maintain a contraction of your biceps brachii muscle. after some time, you experience pain and it becomes increasingly difficult to keep the weight at the same level explain why
no grinding up the pancrease will release hormones from the islets of langerhans but also will release many powerful digestive enzymes into the homogenate.
suppose you were to grind up and homogenate a pancreas. do you think it would be possible to isolate insulin from this homogenate?
Takes time to convert substrate to product. If the experiment goes long enough you get all product and no substrate.
suppose, in performing procedure A, the test for starch and for reducing sugars both came out positive after a 1- hour incubation, but after the tubes incubated for 2 hours, the test for starch came out negative. how could you explain these results.
tetany; hypocalcemia and alkalosis
sustained muscular spasm is ___. the two most common causes of this are _____ and _____
sustained muscle contraction
tetanus
cardiac output & peripheral resistance
the arterial blood pressure is directly proportional to two factors: the _____ and the ____
testosterone, testes
the chief androgenic hormone is ____ secreted by the _____
estradiol, ovary
the chief estrogenic hormone is ____ secreted by the ____
Estrogen is nonpolar and water is is polar, the estrogen would not dissolve in the water so the rf values would be lower. In the lab we used a nonpolar solvent, anything polar wouldnt travel as far. Estradiol is nonpolar and thats why it traveled farther in the lab.
the concentration of estriol and estetrol increases in the blood of pregnant women as the pregnancy progresses. how would the migration and rf values of these two hormones compare with the migration and rf value of estradiol in this chromatography exercise?
action potentials
the electrical events conducted along the cell plasma membrane that stimulate contraction are called
pepsin; less than 2
the enzyme in gastric juice that partially digests proteins is _____; this enzyme has a pH optimum of ____
microvilli
the foldings of the plasma membrane of intestinal epithelial cells that produce the brush border are called
brunner's glands
the glands in the duodenum that secrete an alkaline mucus
erythropoietin; kidneys
the hormone _______ stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells; this hormone is secreted by the ______
cortisol; hydrocortisone; zona fasciculata and zona reticulans ; adrenal cortex
the major glucocoriticoid in human s is _____. another name for this hormone is ________. it is secreted by the _________ of the ________
aldosterone; zona glomerulosa; adrenal cortex
the major mineralocorticoid is _____. it is secreted by the ______ of the _____
acini; islets of Langerhans
the microscopic exocrine units of the pancreas are called ____, the endocrine structures are known as the ______
oxyhemoglobin
the molecule formed by the binding of oxygen to deoxyhemoglobin;
Rh positive
the most common Rh type is s
inadequate amounts of iron (iron deficiency)
the most common cause of anemia is
acetylcholine
the neurotransmitter chemical that stimulates contraction of skeletal muscles
chylomicrons
the particles consisting of a combination of triglycerides and protein, secreted by intestinal epithelial cells into the central lacteals of the villi are called
the percent oxyhemoglobin saturation tells us how much oxygen is being delivered. if not enough oxygen is being delivered then they can add more oxygen to prevent the patient's body from shutting down from a lack of oxygen. The brain cant switch to run anaerobic respiration so without oxygen it can cause the individual to go into a coma, so measuring the percent saturation can save someones life.
the percent oxyhemoglobin saturation is measured in babies under treatment for respiratory distress syndrome RDS and in patients under general anesthesia. What information would these measurements provide under these conditions? explain
phenotype
the physical manifestation of a genotype is called a
their higher maximum cardiac outputs and their higher rates of oxygen delivery to the muscles (anaerobic threshold)
the primary cause of the higher aerobic capacity of endurance trained athletes is
vibrations due to turbulent flow of blood in the artery heard as a sound in the stethoscope.
the sounds of Korotkoff are produced by
carboxyhemoglobin
the type of hemoglobin bound to carbon monoxide
methemoglobin
the type of hemoglobin where the heme iron is in the oxidized Fe2+ state
when ACh binds to the receptor it opens ligand gated channels where sodium ions diffuse in, which depolarizes the cell. this forms an action potential. these action potentials are conducted along the transverse tubules which then open the voltage gated CA2+ channels in the sacroplasmic reticulum and CA2+ diffues out into sacroplasm. the CA2+ is free to bind to troponin which then leads to a contraction of the muscles
trace the course of events starting from the moment ACh binds to its receptors in the sarcolemma and ending when Ca 2+ enters the sarcoplasm
once the Ca2+ is in the sarcoplasm it binds to troponin. this binding moves teh troponin-tropomyosin complex which exposes teh binding site on actin so myosin can bind. the myosin cross bridges bind and a power stroke is performed. the filaments slide and a contraction occurs
trace the course of events starting from the moment Ca2+ enters the sarcoplasm and ending when the cross-bridges have completed one power stroke
the strength of the contraction would increase in the heart because CA2+ couples teh excitation of contraction. so more CA2+ in the blood would increase the excitation of the contraction = stronger contraction
using your knowledge of the regulation of muscle cntraction, predict what might happen to the beating of a heart if the blood concentration of Ca2+ were abnormally increased.
anabolic steroids are synthetic androgens that promote protein synthesis in muscles and other organs. some athletes take them to promote muscle growth. some side effects include gynecomastia which is female like breast tissue in men. this happens because androgen is turned into estrogen in the liver and adipose tissue. estrogen stimulates the growth of female like parts. other side effects include atrophy of testes because high levels of exogenous androgens inhibit secretion of FSH and LH from the pituitary. Other side effects include acne, aggressive behavior, male pattern baldness, closure of growth plates and Increase in LDL cholesterol and decrease in HDL
what are the anabolic steroids and why do some athletes and bodybuilders illegally take them? describe the side effects and explain the mechanisms of how they can stimulate growth of female like breast tissue in me and cause atrophy of testes
They have an iron deficiency, iron supplements would help them out. mcv 82.05mmcubed mchc= 31.25% in normal range normocytic normochromic anemia.
what are the patient's MCV and MCHC and what do they suggest? what do you think is the most likely cause of the patient's symptoms and how might this be treated?
The BUN measurement increases because of kidney disease, kidney stones, congestive heart failure, gastrointestinal bleeding, shock excessive dietary protein intake. The same things increasse the plasma creatin measurement. The creatine is more indicative because its concentration in the blood reflects the GFR. the measurement of GFR directly assess the health of the kidneys.
what can raise the BUN measurement? What can raise the plasma creatinine masurement? Which of these measurements is most indicative of the ability of the kidneys to filter the blood?
it is caused by deoxygenation of the hemoglobin which causes the S hemoglobin to polymerize into long fibers, this reduces the flexibility which hinders its ability to pass through the narrow vessels which reduce blood flow. the drug stimulates the production of gamma hemoglobin this produces red blood cells with fetal hemoglobin with fewer blood cells containing the s hemoglobin.
what causes sickle cell anemia? how does treatment with hydroxyurea help this condtion?
Her blood measurements are below normal ranges. jaundice is yellow staining of tissues produced by high blood concentrations of either free or conjugated bilirubin. In adults high blood levels of conjugated bilirubin may occur when bile excretion is blocked by gallstones. But her mcv and mchc are within normal ranges. her chronic fatigue could be becasue of a decreased oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin
what do the patient's blood measurements indicate? How might these relate to her chronic fatigue? What is jaundice and how might it be produced?
gynecomastia is the abnormal growth of female like mammary tissue. a user developes this because the liver and adipose tissue change the androgens into estrogens. estogen then can affect growth differentiation and function of the mammary gland. ultimately it stimulates breast growth.
what is gynecomastia? by what mechanisms could a user of anabolic steroids develop gynecomastia?
the sickle cell trait is that of a heterozygous gene one for the gene sickle cell and the dominant trait for no sickle cell. both parents had to be carriers and the child ended up with the homozygous conditions so he got the disease. Colorblindness is a sex linked disease so its carried on the x chromosome. the dad gives the y and the mother gives the x so he could have only inherited the trait from his mother.
what is sickle cell train and why did the physician state that the boy inherited his sickle cell disease from both of his parents? why did the physician state that the boy inherited his color blindness from his mother?
ACE inhibits the action of angiotension converting enzyme. Which converts angiotensi I--> angiotensin II. The ACe inhibitor would cause an increase of Na+ in the urine because the angiotensin II cant cause aldosterone to be secreted, which is what is responsible for Na+ reabsorption. This action would cause the plasma Na+ to decrease because its not bein reabsorbe. the plasma volume will decrease and blood pressure will decrease. good to reduce blood pressure.
what is the action of ACE, and what effect would an ACE inhibitor have on urine Na+? What effect would it have on plasma Na+ plasma volume and blood pressure? explain
Present A Absent B, Rh
what is the antigen present and absent when a person is type A negative
present: Rh, absent A,B
what is the antigen present and absent when a person is type O positive
emulsifies lipids
what is the function of bile salts?
the lamina propria is a thin layer of loose connective tissue that lies beneath the epithelium in the mucosa layer of the digestive tract. if there is an allergic reaction than inflammation occurs. if the intestinal microbiota fail at preventing inflammation then inflammatory bowel disease can occur , including crohn's disease and ulcerative. -lymphatic drainage/ lymph nodes to monitor stuff. normal food activates --> allergic response, effects vasculature, pores get bigger, protein leaks out of blood to intestine so much protein water builds and lower blood volume.
what is the lamina propria and where is it located? given that a high number of eosinophilsin the lamina propria suggest an allergic reaction, how might that lead to intestinal problems?
Zantac is an H2-Histamine receptor blocker and it treats gastroesophageal reflux disease GERD Prilosec is a proton pump inhibitor and it treats gastric/peptic ulcers Yes, Surgery may be needed if the medication proves ineffective.
what is the mechanism of action of Zantac and Prilosec and what do these treat? does this relate to the reason that the patient may need surgery?
97%
what is the normal percent oxyhemoglobin saturation of arterial blood?
this person is a professional athlete so his maximum cardiac rate is pretty high and thus requires a higher stroke volume. more blood is flowing through the heart so that the heart doesn't have to beat as much to get enough blood in and out. That is why his heart rate is lower.
what is the probable reason for the value of the resting cardiac rate in this person?
it is important in assessing the health of the kidneys! can be measured by measuring the renal plasma clearance of exogenously administered inulin. or by creatinine this concentration in the blood reflects teh GFR.
what is the significance of the glomerular filtration rate GFR measurement? describe the two ways that this measurement may be obtained.
Ca2+
what substance couples electrical excitation to muscle contration
lipids
which food group- carbohydrates, lipids or proteins- is not digested significantly until it reaches the small intestine?
the nerve had the lower threshold of stimulation of muscle contraction. this is because the nerve directly stimulates the sarcoplsmic reticulm and Ca2+ is released. the nerve is made up of axons that intervate the muscle fibers. since alot of fibers are intervated so less voltage is required. the muscles require a higher voltage to have the same response
which had the lower threshold for stimulation of muscle contraction- stimulation of the muscle directly or stimulation of the nerve that innervates the muscle? propose an explanation for theses results
the most soluble to the solvent is estradiol. because it travels the furthest -the least soluble is cortisone because it doesn't travel ver far. like dissolves like and that is how estradiol travels the furthest. testosterone/ deoxycorticosterone has highest rf values
which of the steroid hormones used in this exercises were most soluble in the solvent? which was least soluble? explain.
androgen and estrogen. if there are high levels of exogenous androgens then it would inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH from pituitary. this increase in hormones is why the prostate becomes enlarged
which two natural hormones do anabolic steroids mimic? what physiological mechanisms could be responsible for an enlarged protate and shrunken testes in men who use anabolic steroids?
amylase
starch is partially digested into maltose by the action of
