PSYC 273 Unit 2

reaching

- 2 hands: 3-4 months - 1 hand: 7 months

finnila et al

- 4-5 and 6-7 year olds asked to recall classroom visitor from one week earlier -low and high pressure questions were asked and more inaccurate info was given when asked high pressure questions

other species effect

- Become experts in own species faces - Lose ability to discriminate other species faces -not static

SES IQ

- Racial differences in IQ - Associated with low-SES

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children

- most popular right now -culture fair -measures verbal reasoning, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed

Piaget's stages

- provide a general theory of development - stages are invariant- no child can skip stages, progressive - stages are universal- can be applied globally

smell in newborns

-affected by mothers diet when pregnant- amniotic fluid is influenced by moms diet -attracted to scent of human milk -can locate mother based on scent -experiment was done to test this... mothers given herb while pregnant, babies were more likely to enjoy the scent of the herb when born than those who were not exposed to it prenatally

Piaget's Legacy

-broad, keen & still influential

DeLoache study

-full size room and scale model room: hide object in scale room and see if they can find it in full room... --2.5 year olds fail --3 year olds pass

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

-highly interactive 1) analytical- apply strategy , acquire task -relevant info, self regulation 2)creative- solve novel problems, automate processing 3) practical- adapt, modality, select environment that is best fit for our characteristics

weaknesses of core knowledge

-inborn knowledge is highly debated- research isn't done on newborns and a lot of environmental impact can happen in the first few months -say nature and nurture work together but not how -little attention to input of others

motor skills as dynamic systems

-increasingly complex systems of action achieved at different ages and in different ways -in the past they used to believe that brain maturation leads to motor development -now it is understood to have many aspects, every infant is different

vision in newborns

-least developed sense at birth -structures of eyes & brain not fully formed -poor visual acuity

perceptual narrowing speech

-lose ability to discriminate non-native sounds -Janet Werker- played sounds "ba" "da" and "da*" and conditioned the baby to look at toy so baby associates the toy with the correct sound -results: 6-8month old english babies could distinguish all the sounds but by 9-12 months english babies could not distinguish between the two "das"

Bojczyk and Corbetta (2004)

-micro genetic approach -gave infant small task of retrieving an object from a box, one group had transparent box and other had opaque box -infants exposed to the transparent box retrieved the object earlier (because they could see the object) -object permanence

preferential technique

-present 2 stimuli at once -measure preference of one or the other

Piaget's weaknesses

-sensorimotor stage- new evidence suggests evidence of earlier developing object permanence -new research on deferred imitation shows that facial imitation occurs at 6 weeks, 6-9 months copy actions with objects, 12-18 months imitate skillfully -preoperational stage - benefits of play are greater than he predicted - sustained attention, memory, language and literacy, creativity, regulation of emotion , perspective taking -egocentrism over exaggerated - 2 year olds show awareness of uniques views, preschoolers adjust language based on who they are speaking to, ex) use simpler words when speaking to someone younger -animistic thinking overestimated- occasionally attributed to animals, rarely inanimate objects -concrete operational - struggle using operations with abstract -continuum of acquisition- master concrete operational tasks gradually -culture and schooling affect performance on tasks -formal operations- school age children show beginnings -adolescence more competent -may not be universal - cultural considerations

reaching impact on other aspects of development

-stabilizes when kid learns to sit independently - contributes to visual development - enhances the understanding of environment -motivates self-locomotion

individual test

-standford- Binet

White and Held (1966)

-used institutionalized orphan children to study effects of environment on reaching because these kids had little human interaction -control- nothing added -moderate- mobile added -massive stim- mobile and bumpers added -best results in the moderate group, environment promoted reaching -massive stimulation might've been too much for the infants

zone of proximal development

-where learning occurs -tasks too difficult to do alone, but possible with help

Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years thought becomes more logical, flexible and organized master: -conservation- decentration, reversibility -hierarchical classification -seriation -spatial reasoning

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. -generate mental info of an absent stimulus -first around 6-12 months -lags behind recognition -associated with language development

violation-of-expectation method

A visual preference research method that assesses infants' ability to distinguish between an expected and an unexpected event. -if the infant looks longer at the impossible event they assume it understands the event as unusual - argues that infants develop object permanence earlier than Piaget believed

scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance -withdrawn as they learn until they succeed on their own

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

Ages 2 to 7 Gains in mental representation: make-believe play symbol-real-world relations Limitations in thinking: egocentrism lack of conservation lack of hierarchical classification

theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence -innate and shaped throughout development -neurological support: brain damage patients -not an exhaustive list 1) naturalistic- observe and interact w nature 2) intrapersonal- understanding yourself 3) musical 4) body-kinesthetic- athletes 5)linguistic 6) logical-math 7) visual-spatial 8) interpersonal-interpreting others actions, therapist

schemes

In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. -built through adaptation and interaction with environment

eposodic memory

Memory of personal experiences (most common impairment) -scripts- repeated events usually in casual order - brushing teeth -autobiographical - one time events- requires self-image and ability to integrate event into time-organized life-story

Esther Thelen's Dynamic Systems Theory

Movement is always the product of: - The CNS, biomedical, and energetic properties of the baby - The environment support and specific demands of the task

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Pioneer in the study of developmental psychology who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development that led to a better understanding of children's thought processes. -research is based off of observations from his kids

animistic thinking

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions

make-beleive play

Zone of proximal development where children advance themselves -learn based on ideas -learn to think before acting -both Piaget and Vygotsky believed in this

environment influences reaching

a child's environment can encourage them to reach or try to move earlier

gist memory

a generalized, rather than specific, memory of common occurrences -frees up attention -useful for reasoning

operant/instrumental conditioning

a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future - positive reinforcement- present desirable stimulus -negative reinforcement- remove unpleasant stimulus -positive punishment- present unpleasant stimulus (spanking) -negative punishment- remove desirable stimulus (take away toy)

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test -utilized from early infancy -adult-like by preschool

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score. -if oyu have multiple questions about some skill, people should score the same on all those questions

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned ex) classroom test

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events ex) lil Albert

pattern perception

ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes -by 2 months prefer patterned to plain stimuli -with age show preference for more complex -based on developing contrast sensitivity

spatial reasoning

able to use directions-mental rotations -cognitive maps- mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces

gross motor development

actions associated with moving around the environment ex) crawling, rolling, walking

propositional thought

adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of propositions without referring to real-world circumstances -propositions= verbal statements ex) chip in hand is green or it is not green- always true chip in hand is green and not green- always false

information-processing approach

approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information -development is continuous and gradual -born w mechanism that will help us process the environment -as you develop you increase your ability to process- increase speed and executive function BENEFITS: breaks cognition into precise component, specific about age and skill CONS: does not clarify impact of nature and nurture

core-knowledge theories

approaches that view children as having some innate knowledge in domains of special evolutionary importance and domain-specific learning mechanisms for rapidly and effortlessly acquiring additional information in those domains

adaptation

assimilation- use current schemes to interpret external world *during equilibrium accommodation- create new schemes or adjust old ones to better fit the environment *during disequilibrium -organization- process of rearranging and linking schemes

Rovee-Collier and Bahatt experiment

babies learned to associate kicking of their feet with the movements of the mobile/bell that they would hear. implicit memory: "cued recall" the older they are, the longer period of memory span that they would have to remind themselves of how the mobile works 2 mo. 2 days 3 mo. 7 days 6 mo. 14 days 18 mo. 90 days

taste in newborns

begins to develop in wound, preference for human milk, innate and learned -babies prefer sweet taste- could be based off of survival, bitter and sour tastes are usually associated with toxins so if baby doesn't prefer that taste they are more likely to avoid it

statistical learning

certain sounds (making words) are more likely to occur together and babies are sensitive to those probabilities

make-believe play

children act out everyday and imaginary activities -practice and strengthen new schemes -with age it becomes more from real life, becomes self-centered, more sociodramatic - engaging with others

Learning in Infancy

classical conditioning operant (instrumental) conditioning habituation imitation

IQ score stability absolute scores

compare scores over repeated testings -fluctuate 10-20 points

IQ score stability correlational stability

compares scores relative to age-mates, from one test to the next -better correlattions when older, when testts are closer togetther

imitation

copying the behavior of another person -infants are born with the ability to imitate facial expressions and finger gestures -cross-cultural -extends to some apes -simple imitation is harder to induce in older babies -mirror neurons might be associated with this -capacity improves with age

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

creating a hypothesis and deducing its implications -test through isolation and combination of variables ex) pendulum problem - what influences the speed of the swing- child would have to test each variable separately to find answer

Charles Spearman

creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, concept- abstract reasoning capacity -"S"= specific intelligence - unique to a task

environmental cumulative Deficit hypothesis

decline in IQ of children living in poverty, early cognitive deficits lead to more deficits

perceptual narrowing

decreased ability to discriminate between categories not present in one's environment

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

memory strategies

deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering -rehearsal- repetition -organization-grouping things -elaboration- create relationship between unrelated info

touch in newborns

developed at birth, most sensitive around mouth palms, soles of feet and genitals -vital to emotional development--- skin-to skin -sense of pain is mature -infants learn through touch -oral exploration

intelligence

difficult to define -change with age -most people agree on verbal ability, practical problem solving, and social competence

visual cliff studies

famous experiment devised to study depth perception in infants. Gibson and Walk (1960) designed an apparatus called the visual cliff which is a board laid across glass with a patterned material directly beneath the glass and several feet below it on the other. -babies who just learned to crawl didn't fear the cliff -after about a month of crawling babies are seen to fear the cliff

hearing in newborns

fetus can hear sounds around 6 months in utero, recognize mother's voice -well developed sense of hearing at birth -prefer: complex to pure tones, human speech, positive affect speech, native language -can discriminate based on patterns

milestones

formal project review points used to assess progress and performance -have lots of variability but they are interrelated ex) have to be able to hold head up before you can push yourself up with arms holding head up, lifts self by hands, rolls from side to back, rolls from back to side, sits alone, crawling, pulling up to stand, walking

percieving faces

from birth infants prefer faces and face-like stimuli, direct gaze and open eyes, mom's face, attractive faces -2-4 months can distinguish features of different faces, prefer faces of same gender as primary caregiver

nature vs nurture IQ

genetics and environment play a big role

risk factors related to IQ

household unemployment, multiple siblings, no father, mother no high school degree, african american ... lots more also butt main thing is that there is more risk if there is multiple risk factors building on each other which is usually the case

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities -leads to new schemes -6 substages: 1) reflexive schemes- reflexes are building blocks 2) primary Circular reactions -behaviors motivated by basic needs, early motor control 3) secondary circular reactions - repeat interesting effects on the environment 4) coordination of secondary circular reactions- complex actions, goal-oriented behavior, master object permanence 5) tertiary circular reactions -explore objects through novel actions, master A-not-B task 6) mental representations- internal depictions, deferred imitation, make believe play

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

infants and children actively try to organize and make sense of their world- interact with world and learn -reinforcers not necessary

IQ

intelligence quotient -mean is always 100 - can be a predictor of academic achievement, occupational attainment, psychological adjustment- not related to anxiety and depression- not a perfect prediction

Raymond Cattell

intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence -fluid: basic info, ability to detect relationships among stimuli, analytical speed, working memory -crystallized: acquired knowledge, experience, good judgement, mastery of social customs- cultural value

Simcock and Hayne (2002)

magic shrinking machine -brough cool machine to kids home and showed them how to use it -next day came back and asked kids if they can expalin how the machine worked- 3 year olds had difficulty recalling info verbally while older kids could do it -when showed the machine again all kids could use it correctly

Binet measuring intelligence

mental age score -wanted to ID students for special ed -adapted to standford-Binet Intelligence scale

infant test

not greatly predictive, just snapshots ex) Bayley Scales, Fagan test

Perceptual Development

perception: organizing and interpreting sensory info about environment -subjective -how you use the info sensation: processing of basic info through sense organs -the info we recieve -objective

domains of core knowledge

physical, numerical, linguistic, psychological, biological -not an exhaustive list

prereaching

poorly coordinated swipes

aptitude test

predicts sucess ex) ACT SAT

vision

rapid maturation of eyes and brain 2 months: focus, scanning 2-4 months: color vision 4 months: tracking 6-7 months: depth perception

culture variation in motor development

rates and patterns of development are affected by -early movement opportunities -environmental stimulation -child-rearing practices ex) Indian tribe that discourages early child walking bc they have open fires in their environment -kenyan tribe puts infants in shallow holes in ground to promote siting -US puts babies to sleep on back, slower head up and lifting head with arms

Piaget's Formal Operational Stage

reasoning logically about abstract concepts 11+ years master: -hypothetical-deductive reasoning (pendulum problem) -propositional thought

Dishabituation

recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation

fine motor development

smaller movements, such as reaching and grasping

private speech

speech by children that is spoken and directed to themselves -Piaget believed it is because kids are egocentric -Vygotsky believed it was used for self-guidance and a foundation of all higher cognitive processes, as tasks become easier it becomes inner speech

sociocultural theory strengths and weaknesses

strengths: explains cultural diversity in cognition, emphasizes role of teaching weaknesses: does not explain impact of biology, vague in explanation of change

eyewitness testimony

testimony by eyewitnesses to a crime about what they saw during commission of the crime -hard to do w kids becuase you have to be careful how you ask questions -easy to start false memories -training for kids and professionals is useful

inhibition

the ability to control internal and external distracting stimuli -predicts social maturity -card sorting tast: first tast was to sort by rabbit and boat, next task was to sort by color, kid has to forget the previous rule to succeed in the next one -- 3 year old fail this

contrast sensitivity

the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern

sustained attention

the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time -voluntary information-processing occurs -required for goal-directed behavior -decelerated heart rate in infancy- more likely to process and remember information during this time -infants are more likely to encode info, demonstrate recognition, and are more resistant to distractors -increases sharply 2-3.5 year olds because frontal lobe develops, advanced play happens and parents are more likely to scaffold

Seriation

the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight at around age 7 -transitive inference: ability to seriate mentally

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions positive correlation: self- esteem, empathy, prosocial behavior, cooperation, leadership skills negative correlation: dependency, depression, aggressive behavior

visual acuity

the ability to see fine detail, sharpness

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture and language -not in competition with Piaget -rapid language growth leads to change in thinking

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived -A-not-B error

ulnar grasp

the clumsy grasp of the young infant, in which the fingers close against the palm -influenced by object

intermodal perception

the combining of information from two or more sensory systems ex) seeing woman speak- look at woman who's lips match sound -babies respond more to synchronized stimuli

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus- most relevant to current goal -increases in childhood -distractors decrease performance

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

hierarchical classification

the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences ex) group of 4 blue flowers and bunch of red flowers -when asked if more red flowers or more flowers kid will fail and say that there are more red flowers bc they fail to consider the red and blue flowers together

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects -centration- focus on one aspect and neglect others -irreversibility- inability to mentally reverse series of steps

suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections -repeated questions can reinforce desired answers and increase inaccurate reporting

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races -not static

symbolic representation

the use of one object to stand for another -maps -mastered around 3 years -adult teaching can help

pincer grasp

the well-coordinated grasp that emerges at the end of the first year, involving thumb and index finger opposition *each kid learns differently, its not programmed in our DNA

planning

thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal -begins in infancy- short term and immediate -improves with age -can be influences by culture

verbatim memory

word-for-word