Psych 101: Thinking and Problem Solving

Heuristics

-a rule of thumb, shortcut, or a general problem solving strategy that we apply to certain situations -fast but not always accurate -useful for quick thinking

Algorithm

-a systematic, step-by-step problem solving strategy that is guaranteed to produce a solution -slow but typically accurate -useful with math problems

Confirmation bias

-a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence -attention, memory, and interpretation

Belief preserverance

-clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Prototypes

-concepts provide a kind of mental shorthand, economizing cognitive effects -often we form concepts by developing prototypes -prototypes can help us make better and faster decisions in new situations -we can make judgments about a prototypical example more quickly and easily than non-prototypical members of a category

Framing effects

-different ways of presenting the same information evoke different responses

Representativeness heuristic

-is what you're thinking about similar to a category? -"do more truck drivers or professors listen to mpr?"

Trial and error

-just start doing things and learning from mistakes -no active thinking -slow method -common to animals

Concepts

-mental categories in which we place objects, activities, abstractions, and events that have essential features in common -concepts are represented and communicated via image or word

Overconfidence error

-our tendency to be more confident than correct -we overestimate the accuracy of our estimates, predictions, and knowledge

Kasslyn et al

-participants were asked to memorize a map -when asked to mentally scan from location to location, more distant locations on the map took longer to mentally scan

Anderson, Lepper, and Ross (1980)

-participants were lead to believe either: -risk takers make better fire fighters -cautious people make better fire fighers -later, they were told this was fasle -follow-ups showed they still believed what they were told in experiments

Mental images

-picture-like representations of objects or events that are not physically present -we can use mental images in a way that's similar to how we scan visual images

Insight

-problem solving that occurs without conscious awareness -Aha moment -Incubation effect -Silveira (1971) Experimental Conditions

Silveira (1971) Experimental Conditions

-studied the incubation effect by having people work on a chain problem -no break = 55% -30 min break = 64% -4 hour break = 85%

Cognition

-the mental activities associated with with acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge, often directed toward a goal, purpose, or conclusion -cognitive psychologists study how we use mental images, create concepts, solve problems, and make decisions

Problem-solving strategies

-trial and error -insight -algorithms -heuristics

Functional fixedness

a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their functions

Schemas

a knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information (how murders act, what cold is like)

Scripts

a schema for events; a mental representation of a familiar sequence of activities

Availability heuristic

information that comes easily to mind will have a stronger influence on our judgments -"is this dangerous?"

Incubation effect

insight often occurs after taking a break from problems

Knowledge structure

large number of related concepts and propositions

Propositions

link conceptions together

Stereotypes

schemas that apply to a social group

Mental set

the tendency for people to persist in using problem solving patterns that have worked for them in the past